TCP/ IP Model

Advantages of OSI Model

• It is a generic model and acts as a guidance tool to
develop any network model.
• It is a layered model. Changes are one layer do not affect
other layers, provided that the interfaces between the
layers do not change drastically.
• It distinctly separates services, interfaces, and protocols.
Hence, it is flexible in nature. Protocols in each layer can
be replaced very conveniently depending upon the
nature of the network.
• It supports both connection-oriented services and
connectionless services.
 Disadvantages
• It is purely a theoretical model that does not consider the
availability of appropriate technology. This restricts its practical
implementation.
• The launching timing of this model was inappropriate. When OSI
appeared, the TCP/IP protocols were already implemented. So, the
companies were initially reluctant to use it.
• The OSI model is very complex.
• Though there are many layers, some of the layers like the session
layer and presentation layer have very little functionality when
practically deployed.
• There is a duplication of services in various layers. Services like
addressing, flow control and error control are offered by multiple
layers.
Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP
model
TCP/IP layer functionalities
TCP/IP suite
Difference b/n OSI and TCP/IP model
 IP address
• An Internet Protocol (IP) address is a unique identifier that
assists in the recognition of different devices present over the
network.
• Through IP addressing, we can send and receive data packets
across the internet without trouble-free.
• An IP address is a 32-bit numerical address separated by
periods (.)
• represented in dotted decimal notation.
• It is a unique number provided to every device connected to
the internet network, such as Android phone, laptop, Mac, etc.
• An IP address is represented in an integer number separated
by a dot (.), for example, 192.167.12.46.
 Types of IP Address
• An IP address is categorized into two different
types based on the number of IP address it
contains. These are:
• IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4)
• IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6)
• What is IPv4?
• IPv4 is version 4 of IP. It is a current version and the most commonly
used IP address.
• It is a 32-bit address written in four numbers separated by a dot (.), i.e.,
periods.
• This address is unique for each device. For example, 66.94.29.13
• IPv4 produces 4 billion addresses.

• What is IPv6?
• IPv6 is the next generation of IP addresses.
• The main difference between IPv4 and IPv6 is the address size of IP
addresses. The IPv4 is a 32-bit address, whereas IPv6 is a 128-bit
hexadecimal address.
 IP Address Format
• Originally IP addresses were divided into five
different categories called classes.
• These divided IP classes are class A, class B, class C,
class D, and class E.
• Each address class defines a different number of bits
for its network prefix (network address) and host
number (host address)
• The starting address bits decide from which class an
address belongs.
 Address Format IPv4
• The address format of IPv4 is represented
into 4-octets (32-bit).
 Class A
• Class A address uses only first higher order octet (byte)
to identify the network prefix, and remaining three
octets (bytes) are used to define the individual host
addresses.
• The class A address ranges between 0.0.0.0 to
127.255.255.255.
• The first bit of the first octet is always set to 0 (zero), and
next 7 bits determine network address, and the
remaining 24 bits determine host address.
• So the first octet ranges from 0 to 127 (00000000 to
01111111).
 Class B
• Class B addresses use the initial two octets (two bytes)
to identify the network prefix, and the remaining two
octets (two bytes) define host addresses.
• The class B addresses are range between 128.0.0.0 to
191.255.255.255.
• The first two bits of the first higher octet is always set to
10 (one and zero bit), and next 14 bits determines the
network address and remaining 16 bits determines the
host address.
• So the first octet ranges from 128 to 191 (10000000 to
10111111).
 Class C
• Class C addresses use the first three octets (three
bytes) to identify the network prefix, and the remaining
last octet (one byte) defines the host address.
• The class C address ranges between 192.0.0.0 to
223.255.255.255.
• The first three bit of the first octet is always set to 110,
and next 21 bits specify network address and
remaining 8 bits specify the host address.
• Its first octet ranges from 192 to 223 (11000000 to
11011111).
 Class D
• Class D IP address is reserved for multicast addresses.
• Its first four bits of the first octet are always set to
1110, and the remaining bits determine the host
address in any IP address.
• The class D address ranges between 224.0.0.0 to
239.255.255.255.
• In multicasting, data is not assigned to any particular
host machine, so it is not require to find the host
address from the IP address, and also, there is no
subnet mask present in class D.
 Class E
• Class E IP address is reserved for experimental
purposes and future use.
• It does not contain any subnet mask in it.
• The first higher octet bits are always set to
1111, and next remaining bits specify the host
address.
• Class E address ranges between 240.0.0.0 to
255.255.255.255.
Classes of IP addressing
 Protocol and Standards
• A protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communications.
• A protocol defines:
– What is communicated,
– How it is communicated, and
– When it is communicated.
 The key elements of a protocol
• The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.
• Syntax:
– Syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in which they are
presented.
– For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of data to be the address of the
sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be
the message itself.
• Semantics:
– Semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits.
– How is a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that
interpretation?
– For example, does an address identify the route to be taken or the final destination of the
message.
• Timing:
– Timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how fast they can be sent.
– For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can process data at only
 Standards
• Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open
and competitive market for equipment manufactures and in
guaranteeing national and international interoperability of
data and telecommunication technology and processes.
• They provide guidelines to manufactures, vendors, government
agencies and other service providers to make sure that
interoperability and inter connection in today's market place.
• Two categories
– De facto (established by the manufactures to define the
functionality of new product or technology).
– De Jure (These standards are legislated by officially recognized
bodies).
 Standards Creation Committees
• International Organization for Standardization (ISO):
The ISO is active in developing cooperation in the realms(world) of scientific,
technological, and economic activity.
• International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standards
Sector (ITU-T):
This committee was devoted to the research and establishment of standards for
telecommunications in general and for phone and data systems in particular.
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
It is dedicated to the development of trade and communication standards.
ANSI defines and publishes standards for Codes. Alphabets. Signaling
schemes. Communications protocols
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
It aims to advance theory, creativity, and product quality in the fields of electrical
engineering, electronics, and radio as well as in all related branches of
engineering.
• Electronic Industries Association (EIA).:
EIA has made significant contributions by defining physical connection interfaces
and electronic signaling specifications for data communication.