PY10.

9
Describe and discuss the physiological basis
of memory, learning
and speech.

Dr R Goswami
Deptt. Of Physiology
DMCH
 Learning is the name given to the process by which new
information is acquired by the nervous system and is
observable through changes in behavior.

 Memory refers to the encoding, storage, and retrieval of

learned information.
 Learning

Learning

Incidental learning Reflex learning

Non- Associativ
associative
learning e learning

Habituat Sensitiza Classical Operant

tion conditioning conditioning
ion
 INCIDENTAL LEARNING : the behavioural change is not
immediately apparent. The individuals acquire information about the
world, while attending incidentally to sensory inputs and thereby
develop the potential to behave differently.

 REFLEX LEARNING : the learning is associated with an

immediate behavioural changes.
 NON-ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING : the subject learns about the
properties of a single stimulus. It results when an animal or person is
repeatedly exposed to a single type of stimulus.

 ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING : the subject learns about the

relationship between two stimuli or between a stimulus and a
behaviour.
HABITUATION :
Refers to a decrease in response to a benign (neutral type) stimulus
when the stimulus is presented repeatedly. When the stimulus is
applied for the first time, it is novel and
evokes reaction.
However, due to habituation lesser
and lesser response is evoked on
repeated stimulation. Eventually,
the subject totally ignores the stimulus and thus gets habituated to it.
Cellular basis of habituation :
I
n
a
c
t
i
v
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

c
a
l
c
i
u
m

i
n
f
l
u
x

i
n

a
x
o
n

D
e
c
r
e
a
s
e
d

r
e
s
p
o
n
s
e
SENSITIZATION :

 Sensitization is opposite to habituation.

 In it repeated application of a distinctly pleasant or
unpleasant (strong) stimulus produces greater and greater
response.
For example, an animal responds
more vigorously to a mild tactile
stimulus, after it has received
a painful pinch.
Cellular basis of sensitization :
Due to presynaptic facilitation by an interneuron
---- facilitatory
neuron, which
releases serotonin.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING :
Also called Pavlovian conditioning
Pavlov’s experiment
A conditioned reflex is reflex response to stimulus that
previously elicited little or no response, acquired by
repeatedly pairing the stimulus with another stimulus
that normally does produce the response.

Reinforcement :
A process of following a CS with the basic US is must for
retaining a conditioned reflex otherwise it will extinct.
Physiological basis of conditioned reflexes :
 Formation of a new functional connection in the nervous
system.
 For example, in Pavlov’s classical experiments, salivation
in response to ringing of a bell indicates that a functional
connection has developed between the auditory pathways
and the autonomic centres controlling salivation.
 Site of formation of functional connections can be
intracortical as well as subcortical.
OPERANT CONDITIONING :
It involves associating a specific behaviour
with a reinforcement event. Operant conditioning

Reward conditioning : Reward conditioning

Aversive
conditioning

In it a naturally occurring response

is strengthened by positive
reinforcement (reward).
Aversive conditioning :
In it a naturally occurring (innate) response is weakened by a negative
reinforcement (punishment).
 Classification of Memory
A) On the basis of how information is stored :
B) On the basis of permanency of storage :

I. Short term :- last for seconds to hours

II. Intermediate :- last for days to week

III. Long term :- last for years or life time

1) Declarative/Explicit memory :
 The storage (and retrieval) of material that is available to
consciousness and can be expressed by language

(hence, “declarative”).
Declarative memory
 Examples : the ability to remember a

telephone number, a song, or the images

of some past event.

Semantic
 Depends on hippocampus and parts of the

medial temporal lobes of the brain for

Episodic
its retention
a) Semantic memory :
 Also called factual memory
 form of long-term explicit memory that embraces knowledge of
objects, facts and concepts as well as words and their meaning.
 Semantic memory is stored in a distributed fashion in different
association cortices.
Eg. The word ‘alarm clock’
 visual memory
 auditory memory
 somatosensory memory
b) Episodic memory :
 Also known as autobiographical memory
 refers to memory of events and personal experiences.
 Episodic memory is stored in association areas of prefrontal

cortex.
 These prefrontal areas work with

other areas of the neocortex to

allow recollection of when and
where a past event occurred.
2) Non-declarative/Implicit memory :
 Refers to the information about how to perform something.

 It does not depend directly on conscious processes nor does recall

require a conscious search of memory.
 This type of memory builds up slowly through repetition over many
trials and is expressed primarily in performance, not in words.

 Examples of implicit memory : motor skills, habits, behavioural reflexes

and the learning of certain types of procedures and rules which,once

acquired, become unconscious and automatic.

 It is acquired through reflexive learning associative
non-associative
Brain areas involved in implicit memory
 Mechanism of implicit memory
Most forms of implicit memory are acquired through
different forms of reflexive learning i.e. non-associative
(habituation and sensitization), and associative learning
(classical and operant conditioning).
 Short-term storage of implicit memory result from
changes in the effectiveness of synaptic transmission.
 Mechanism of long-term storage of implicit memory

Consolidation (The process by which transient short-term memory is

converted into a stable long-term memory) of long-term implicit
memory involves three processes:
 Gene expression,
 New protein synthesis
 Growth of synaptic connections.
MECHANISM OF EXPLICIT MEMORY
E C
o
n n
s
c o
o l
i
d d
a
i t
n i
o
g n

Explicit memory
(Semantic &
Episodic)

S R
t e
t
o r
r i
a e
g v
a
e l
 Mechanism of short-term explicit memory

ENCODING :-
Refers to the process by which newly learned information is
attended to and processed when first encountered.
For a memory to be well remembered the input must be
encoded throughly and deeply.
 Neural substrate for encoding of explicit memory

Explicit memory is associated with consciousness and is

dependent on HIPPOCAMPUS for its retention
 Consolidation of memory
Consolidation refers to those processes that alter the newly stored
and still labile information so as to make it more stable.
 can be recalled weeks or years later
 5 to 10 minutes for minimal consolidation and 1 hour or more for
strong consolidation.
 can probably be explained by the phenomenon of rehearsal of the
short-term memory
 Rehearsal of the same information again and again in the mind
potentiates the transfer from short-term to long-term memory.
Process of consolidation :
Involves the expression of genes and synthesis of new proteins, giving
rise to structural changes that store memory over time.

The most important of the physical structural changes that occur are the
following:
1) Increase in vesicle release sites for secretion of transmitter substance

2) Increase in number of transmitter vesicles released

3) Increase in number of presynaptic terminals

4) Changes in structures of the dendritic spines that permit

transmission of stronger signals
New memories are codified into different classes of information
during consolidation
Similar types of information are pulled from the memory storage bins
and used to help process the new information.
Thus, during consolidation, the new memories are not stored
randomly in the brain but are stored in direct association with other
memories of the same type.
This is necessary if one is to be able to "search" the memory store at a
later date to find the required information.
Neural substrate for long-term memory : neocortex
 Retrieval of memory
Retrieval refers to those processes that permit the recall and use of stored
information.
Involves bringing different kinds of information together that are stored
separately in different storage sites.
Most effective when it occurs in same
context in which the information was
acquired and in the presence of same
cues (retrieval cues) that were
available during learning.
The memory of a vivid scene can be
evoked not only by a similar scene
but also by a sound or smell
associated with the scene (dejavu
phenomenon, French word meaning
already seen)
 Inter-hemispheric transfer of learning and
memory
Much information is transferred between the two hemispheres through
the corpus callosum
Failure of inter-cortical transfer of learning and memory is seen in
human patients who have had a surgical transection of the corpus
callosum to prevent inter-hemispheric spread of epilepsy.
Patients with a transected corpus callosum lack coordination. For
example, when they are dressing, one hand may button a shirt while
other tries to unbutton it.
From this experiment, it can be concluded that the two hemispheres
can operate quite independently when they are no longer
interconnected.
 Applied aspects
1) Amnesia :
A disorder of memory which has two broad forms:
retrograde and anterograde.
Retrograde amnesia refers to the loss of memories that
were acquired before the amnesia and is usually
temporally graded i.e. the greatest loss of memory for
events immediately preceding the trauma, whereas more
remote memories will be preserved. Occurs in lesions of
temporal lobe.
Anterograde amnesia refers to an inability to form new
memories. Occurs inlesions involving the hippocampus.
2) Savant’s syndrome:

Savants are people who, for a variety of poorly understood

reasons (typically brain damage in the perinatal period), are
severely restricted in most mental activities but extraordinarily
competent and capacious in one particular domain. The grossly
disproportionate skill compared to the rest of their limited
mental life can be striking. Indeed, these individuals— whose
special talent may be in calculation, history, art, language, or
music—are usually diagnosed as severely retarded
3) Dementia:
Dementia is a term that describes a collection of

symptoms that include decreased intellectual functioning

that interferes with normal life functions and is usually
used to describe people who have two or more major life
functions impaired or lost such as memory, language,
perception, judgment or reasoning; they may lose
emotional and behavioral control, develop personality
changes and have problem solving abilities reduced or lost.
4) Alzheimer’s disease :
Most common cause of dementia in the elderly
The earliest sign is typically an impairment of recent memory
function and attention, followed by failure of language skills, visual–
spatial orientation, abstract thinking, and judgment.
Inevitably, alterations of personality accompany these defects.
Provisional diagnosis is based on these typical clinical features
 can only be confirmed by the distinctive cellular pathology evident
on postmortem examination of the brain.
The histopathology consists of three principal features:
(1) collections of intraneuronal cytoskeletal filaments called
neurofibrillary tangles
(2) Extracellular deposits of an abnormal protein called amyloid to
form senile plaques
(3) a diffuse loss of neurons
No effective treatment available
Focus is on treating associated symptoms, such as depression,
agitation, sleep disorders, hallucinations and delusions.
Thank you !!
 Language and Speech
Language refers to that faculty of nervous system which enables the humans
to understand the spoken and printed words, and to express ideas in the form
of speech and writing.
There are two aspects of communications:
 language input (the sensory aspect, involving the ears and eyes)

 language output (the motor aspect, involving vocalization and its control)

The sensory aspect includes the visual, auditory and proprioceptive impulses.

The motor aspect includes the mechanisms concerned with the expression of
spoken (sound) language and written language.
 Development of speech

Development of speech involves co-ordinated activity of 3 important

areas of cerebral cortex, namely
-----Wernicke’s area,
-----Broca’s area
-----motor areas of the categorical (dominant) hemisphere.
Development of speech in a child occurs in two stages:
First stage: In this stage, there occurs association of certain words
with visual, tactile, auditory and other sensations, aroused by objects
in the external world, which is stored in the memory.
Second stage: This stage of development of speech involves
establishment of new neuronal circuits. When a definite meaning has
been attached to certain words, pathway between the auditory area
(area 41) and motor area for the muscles of articulation, which helps
in speech (area 44) is established. And, the child attempts to formulate
and pronounce the words.
 MECHANISM OF SPEECH AND SPEECH CENTRES

Mechanism of speech involves co-ordinated activities of central

speech apparatus and peripheral speech apparatus.
The central speech apparatus consists of cortical and subcortical
centres.
The peripheral speech apparatus includes larynx, pharynx, mouth,
nasal cavities, tongue and lips.
All the structures of peripheral speech apparatus work in co-ordination
with respiratory system under the influence of motor impulses from
the respective motor areas of the cerebral cortex.
Mechanism of speech and the centres concerned with it can
be described separately for:
 Understanding of speech (sensory aspects of
communication)
 Expression of speech (motor aspects of communication)
 A) Understanding of speech (sensory aspects of
communication)
1) Understanding of spoken speech :
a) Hearing of the spoken words requires an intact auditory
pathway from the ears to primary auditory areas.
Primary auditory areas, also called auditory sensory areas,
include the Brodmann’s area 41 and 42 and form the centre
for hearing.
Location. Primary auditory areas are located in the middle
of superior temporal gyrus on the upper margin and on its
deep or insular aspect.
Functions. This area perceives the nerve impulses as sound,
i.e. auditory information, such as loudness, pitch, source
and direction of sound.
b) Recognition and understanding of the spoken words is
carried by auditory association areas (21 and 20) located in the
middle and inferior temporal gyrus, respectively.
These areas receive impulses from the primary area and are
concerned with interpretation and integration of auditory impulses.
c) Interpretation and comprehension of the speech ideas:
It involves the activities of Wernicke’s area.
Wernicke’s area (area 22) is a sensory speech centre located in the
posterior part of the superior temporal gyrus behind the areas 41 and
42 in the categorical hemisphere, i.e. dominant hemisphere.
Functions of this area are:
Interpretation of the meaning of what is heard
Comprehension of the spoken language and the formation of idea
that are to be articulated in speech.
2) Understanding of written speech :

a. Perception of written words requires an intact visual pathway from

eyes to primary visual cortex.

Primary visual cortex (area 17), lies on the medial surface of occipital
lobe in and near the calcarine sulcus occupying parts of lingual gyrus
and cuneus. It also extends to the superolateral surface of the occipital
pole limited by the lunate sulcus.

Afferents to area 17 are fibres of the optic radiations which bring

impulses from parts of both retinae.

Functions: Primary visual cortex is concerned with perception of visual

impulses.
b. Interpretation of written speech:

Visual association areas (area 18 and 19), located in the walls and in
front of lunate sulcus.

These areas are involved in the recognition and identification of the

written words in the light of past experience.

c. Generation of thoughts/ideas in response to written speech:

Dejerine area (area 39), located in the angular gyrus behind the
Wernicke’s area in the dominant hemisphere.

This area is also called visual speech centre .

Along with the Wernicke’s areas (auditory speech centre), forms the so-
called sensory speech centre.
 B) Expression of speech (motor aspects of
communication)
1. Expression in the form of spoken speech :
Involves the activities of motor speech area/Broca’s area/area 44, a
special area of the premotor cortex situated in the inferior frontal
gyrus.
Functions. This area processes the information received from the
sensory speech centres (Wernicke’s area and Dejerine’s area),
projected by arcuate fasciculus, which are then transmitted to motor
cortex for implementation.
Thus, Broca’s area is concerned with the movements of structures
responsible for the production of voice and articulation of speech, i.e.
it causes activation of vocal cords simultaneously with movements of
mouth and tongue during speech.
Lesions of this area cause motor aphasia.
2. Expression in the form of written speech :
Expression in the form of written speech is the function of Exner’s
area (motor writing centre), situated in the middle frontal gyrus in
the categorical (dominant) hemisphere in the premotor cortex.
It processes the information received from the Broca’s area; and then
along with the motor cortex (area 4) initiates the appropriate muscle
movements of the hand and fingers to produce written speech.
Neural pathway in brain involved in the understanding
and expression of written speech.
 Dominant vs Non-dominant hemispheres
In human cerebral cortex, the interpretive functions of Wernicke’s area,
the angular gyrus and the frontal motor speech areas (i.e. the ability to
understand or express oneself by spoken or written speech) are more
highly developed in one hemisphere called the dominant hemisphere.
 How one hemisphere comes to be dominant is not yet understood.

 In approximately 95% of all individuals, the left hemisphere is

dominant regardless of handedness.
 Right hemisphere dominance is seen in only 15% of left handers, in
15% there is no clear lateralization.
 70% of left handers also have left hemisphere dominance.
 Categorical vs Representational hemispheres

Presently it has been found that the two halves of the brain have independent

capabilities of consciousness, memory storage and control of motor activities

and speech.
The corpus callosum and anterior commissure connect the two halves of brain.

By these connections, information stored in one hemisphere is made available

to the other hemisphere and then the activities of two hemispheres are co-
ordinated.
Some specialized higher functions are allowed to each hemisphere.

Therefore, the terms ‘dominant’ and ‘non-dominant’ have been replaced by

categorical and representational hemisphere, respectively.

 Functions allotted to left Functions allotted to right
hemisphere in a hemisphere in a
righthanded person righthanded person
• Right hand control •Left hand control
•Music awareness
• Spoken language
•Three-dimensional awareness
• Written language •Art awareness

• Mathematical skills •Insight

•Imagination
• Scientific skills •Emotion or intonation of spoken
• Reasoning language
 Speech disorders

1) Dysarthria :
 A disorder of speech in which articulation of words is impaired, but
the comprehension of spoken and written speech is not affected.
 May be due to paresis, or inco-ordination of the muscles involved
in the production of speech as seen in the lesions of pyramidal tract,
cranial nerves, cerebellum or basal ganglia.
2) Aphasia :
 Aphasia refers to the inability to understand spoken or written
speech or inability in expressing the spoken or written speech in the
absence of defects of hearing or vision or motor deficit.
 Depending upon the site of lesion, the aphasia may be:
 Sensory aphasia
 Motor aphasia
 Global aphasia.
a) Sensory aphasia :
Site of lesion: Also known as Wernicke’s aphasia, is the result of lesion in the
Wernicke’s area.
Characteristic features of sensory aphasia are:
1. Difficulty in understanding the meaning of speech. The affected individuals are
capable of hearing or identifying written or spoken words, but they do not
comprehend the meaning of the words.
2. Motor speech is intact and the patients talk very fluently (or rather excessively),
that is why, it is also called fluent aphasia. However, the speech does not make much
sense and is often associated with:
Anomia, i.e. inability to find an appropriate word to express a thought.
Neologism, i.e. using or creating new words or new meanings for established words.
Paraphasias, i.e. production of unintended words or phrases during effort to speak.
3. Impairment in reading and writing. Since the patient cannot comprehend the
written words (word blindness) he/ she is unable to read aloud or copy print into
writing.
b) Motor aphasia :
Site of lesion: Also known as Broca’s aphasia, results from lesions
involving the Broca’s motor speech area (area 44) in the frontal lobe.
Characteristic features of Broca’s aphasia are:
1. Comprehension of written or spoken speech is good.
2. Difficulty in speaking. The affected individual is able to formulate
verbal language in his mind but cannot vocalize the response. The
defect is not in the control of musculature needed for speech but
rather in the elaboration of the complex patterns of neural and muscle
activation.
3. Speech is non-fluent, i.e. the patient utters only a few words with
great difficulty. Because of this, motor aphasia is also known as non-
fluent aphasia.
4. Inability to write (agraphia)
c) Global aphasia :
Global aphasia refers to the total inability to use language
communication.
Site of lesion: This condition is produced as a result of loss of both
Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas.
Common cause of aphasia :
Aphasias are mostly produced by thrombosis or embolism of a blood
vessel in the dominant hemisphere.
3) Dyslexia :
Dyslexia , which is a broad term applied to impaired ability to read, is
characterized by difficulties with learning how to spell, and to read
accurately and fluently despite having a normal or even higher than normal
level of intelligence.
Causes :
Decreased blood flow in the angular gyrus in the categorical hemisphere.
a defect in the magnocellular portion of the visual system slows processing
and also leads to phonemic deficit.
specific impairment in the representation, storage, and/or retrieval of speech
sounds.
Treatments for children with dyslexia include modified teaching strategies
that include the involvement of various senses (hearing, vision, and touch) to
improve reading skills.
4) Prosopagnosia :
The inability to recognize faces.
Patients with this abnormality can recognize forms and reproduce them.
They can recognize people by their voices, and many of them show
autonomic responses when they see familiar as opposed to unfamiliar faces.
However, they cannot identify the familiar faces they see.
Cause : damage to the right inferior temporal lobe in right-handed
individuals