Process involved in memory

Encoding

3 distinct process of memory are:

Storage

Retrieval
1. Encoding: is the process of receiving sensory input and transforming it into a form of code which can be stored.
May be visual or semantic)

2. Storage: is a process of actually putting coded information into memory.

3. Retrieval: the process of gaining access to stored coded information when it is needed.

Theories of Memory

1. Information Processing Theory: (Atkinson-Shiffrin 1968)

 Memory starts with a sensory input form the environment which is held for a very brief time several
seconds at most in a sensory register.
 Information passed on to the short term memory ( STM) where it is held for perhaps 20-30 sec.
 Some of the information rehearsed, linked up with other information already stored in memory. Information
that is rehearsed may then be passed along to long term memory (LTM). Items of information in long term
memory;are organized into categories; where they reside for days, months, year or for life.

2. Theories of level processing (Craik and Tulving 1975)

 Incoming information can be worked on at different levels of analysis.
 The first level is simply perception; which gives us our immediate awareness of environment.
 Deeper level, the structural features of the input are analysed
 Finally at the deepest level of processing the meaning of the input is analysed.

TECHNIQUES USED FOR THE STUDY OF MEMORY

 Human With disease - Psychological tests, Neuroimaging (PET & MRI)

Limitation - Behaviour reflects what the uninjured area can accomplish after the lesion
Lesions are not always localize
 Normal human - Neuroimaging (PET & MRI)
Limitation - Indirect measure of neuronal activity

TYPES OF MEMORY

Short term Long term memory

Memory
(working memory)

Declarative Nondeclarative
(Explicit) (Implicit)

Episodic Semantic Skills Priming Basic Non-

and habits Associative Associative
Learning Learning
Short Term Memory: is concerned with short term retention, operating over periods of seconds.
It is used to hold information on line in the services of such basic cognitive activities as comprehending; reasoning and
problem solving.
 Evolution of concept of short term memory and working memory
 Tripartite system of memory (Baddley and Hitch)
- Central executive: frontal lobes
- Visuospatial sketch pad: Neocortex
- Phonological loop: perisylivian region

Working memory
 Working memory refers to an on-line memory configuration that enables storage information on-line, which has
application in ongoing information processing.

 Working memory theoretically involves the simultaneous storage and processing of information; central
executive component allocates limited resources during complex, novel, or dual tasks and deploys additional
cognitive resources to aid in maintenance of material in some short-term store or computational workspace.

 Frontal lobes are considered the seat of this facility.

 Working memory theory: (Baddley and Hitch 1974): Both STM and on-line access to previously stored
information depended on the operation of a common system comprising of –
 Central executive
 2 slave systems of the phonological loop and visuo-spatial scratch pad.
Central executive: this is the command and control center that oversees the activities of the 2 subordinate loops, permits
interaction with LTM and is able to allocate resources to working memory tasks.
Thus it can be conceptualized as a director of conscious attention.

Phonological loop: component of memory based upon sounds rather than appearance or meaning.
Visuo-spatial scratch pad: this is the component of memory based upon visual cues.

Phonological loop Visuo-spatial scratch pad

Central
Executive

LTM

Long term Memory: Declarative & Non declarative memory

Specific visual processing areas in the dorsal and ventral streams, together with areas in prefrontal cortex, register the
immediate experience of perceptual processing. The results of perceptual processing are first available as immediate
memory. Immediate memory refers to the amount of information that can be held in mind (like a telephone number) so
that it is available for immediate use. Immediate memory can be extended in time by rehearsing or otherwise manipulating
the information, in which case what is stored is said to be in working memory.
Regions of visual cortex in forward portions of the dorsal and ventral streams serve as the ultimate repositories of visual
memories. Inferotemporal cortex, for example, lies at the end of the ventral stream, and inferotemporal lesions lead to
selective impairments in both visual object perception and visual memory.
 Another important medial temporal lobe structure is the amygdala. The amygdala is involved in the regulation of much of
emotional behavior. In particular, the storage of emotional events engages the amygdala. Modulatory effects of
projections from the amygdala to the neocortex are responsible for producing enhanced memory for emotional or
arousing events compared to neutral events.
Declarative memory/ explicit memory: Refers to collection of every day experiences.It can be divided into

 Episodic Memory: system is responsible for the explicit recollection of incidents that occurred at a particular
time and place in one’s personal past. Autobiographical memory is one type of episodic memory.

 Semantic Memory: refers to general knowledge of facts and concepts that is not linked to any particular fine and
place.
Neuroanatomical localization: Medial temporal lobe, diencephalon, neocortex

Non Declarative memory/ Implicit memory: refers to nonconscious effect of past experiences on subsequent behaviour).

TYPES

Procedural Priming Conditioning Non-associative

learning
. Sensori motor .Perceptual . Classical . Sensitization
. Perceptual .Conceptual . Instrumental . Habituation
. Cognitive

Procedural memory: refer to acquisition of skills and habits i.e. knowing how rather than knowing that .

Sensorimotor Skills:

 Anatomical localization : Basal ganglia, cerebellum, motor cortex

 Evidences for Anatomical correlates
 Corkin (1968): Intact Rotatory pursuit skill learning in Amnesia.
 Eslinger and Damesio 1986, Heindel et al 1989: Intact Rotatory pursuit skill learning in Alzhimer’s
 Stebbin et al (1995) – Impaired Rotatory pursuit skill learning in GTS pts.
 Nissen and Bullemer (1987): SRT learning intact in Amnesia
 Ferraro et al (1993), Knopman and Nissen (1987): Intact SRT in AD.
 Willingham and Koroshetz (1993): Impaired SRT in HD
 Contribution of Basal ganglia and Cerebellum
 Neuroimaging evidence of sensorimotor skills

Perceptual skills:

Anatomical localization: Basal ganglia, neocortex

Cognitive skills:

Anatomical Localization: Basal ganglia, neocortex

Priming :
 Refers to a change in the processing of a stimulus due to prior exposure to the same or related stimulus
 May be perceptual or conceptual.
 Anatomical localization – Neocortex

Classical Conditioning: (Basic associative memory). Involves forming association between stimuli or between stimuli and
response.

 Discrete behavioural responses – Cerebellum

 Emotional response – Amyg dala
 Instrumental learning

Non associative learning :

 Refer to change in already existing
responses to stimuli.
 Sensitization and habituation.

SIGNIFICANCE OF ANATOMICAL REGION:

 Memory impairment acc. to the

extent of lesions
 Bilateral lesions of the MTL produce
global amnesia.
 Cued recall causes activation of right
hippocampus
 fMRI study of normal humans
 encoding and retrieval occur in different medial temporal region.
 Diencephalon: Korsakoff Syndrome
 Distinction between Episodic and Semantic memory
 Semantic dementia

The hippocampus is believed to be the site where explicit (procedural)

memory is stored, while implicit (declarative) memory is thought to
reside in the limbic system, the amygdala and the cerebellum.

Synaptic change in Memory:

. Neuronal plasticity
. Long term potentiation
. Long term depression

NEUROPAL PLASTICITY

Neuron can show history dependent behaviour by responding differently as a function of recent input, and this plasticity of
nerve cell and synapse is the basis of memory.

LONG TERM POTENTIATION: LTP is observed when a postsynaptic neuron is persistently depolarized after a high-
frequency burst of presynaptic neural firing. LTP has a number of properties that make it suitable as a physiological
substrate of memory.

The induction of LTP is known to be mediated postsynaptically and to involve activation of the N-methyl-D-aspartate
(NMDA) receptor, which permits the influx of calcium into the postsynaptic cell. LTP is maintained by an increase in the
number of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionate (AMPA; non-NMDA) receptors in the postsynaptic cell and
also possibly by increased transmitter release.

Properties of LTP:
 established quickly and then lasts for a long time
 Associative (depends on the co-occurrence of presynaptic activity and postsynaptic depolarization)
 Occurs only at the potentiated synapse

LTP occurs prominently in the hippocanpus

Long term depression

NEUROTRANSMITTERS AND RECEPTORS

Glutamate - NMDA and AMPA

Norepinephrine - 1 and 2
Acteylcholine – evidence from AD
Dopamine – role in working memory
Other peptides and hormone

NMDA RECEPTOR :

Sleep and Memory: Memory processing during sleep serves an adaptive function. It is now clear that memory
performance can be facilitated when sleep occurs after initial learning, and that sleep-related facilitation can be observed
for many different types of memory.
Memory storage appears to be specifically aided by processing during deep sleep within a few hours after learning,
especially in stages 3 and 4 (slow-wave sleep). Some results indicate that slow-wave sleep facilitates the storage of
declarative memories but not nondeclarative memories. Furthermore, neuronal recordings in animals have revealed a
phenomenon of hippocampal replay, in which activity patterns expressed during the day are later observed during sleep. In
summary, declarative memories acquired during waking can be processed again during sleep, and this processing can
influence the likelihood of subsequent memory retrieval when the individual is awake. The facilitation of declarative
memory is typically manifest as a reduction in the amount of forgetting that occurs, not as an improvement in memory.

Instruments used for Neuropsychological assessment of memory

1. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Revised (WAIS-R)
2. Wechsler Memory Scale- Revised (WMS-R)
3. Halstead Reitan Neuropsychological Battery (HRNB)
4. Rennick Repeatable Battery
5. Stroop Colour Word Interference Test
6. PGI Memory Scale

SCHIZOPHRENIA
 Abnormal coginitive function in 40% patients,
 visual and verbal recall deficits
 Logical and semantic memory impairments
 Impairment of working memory
DEPRESSION
 Deficits in episodic memory and learning.

 Explicit verbal and visual memory deficit.

 Implicit memory appear to be spared

 Impaired mnemonic function is associated with dysfunction of the hippocampus and Temporal lobe in
depression.
  Subjects with melancholic depression were impaired on working memory, as well as task on set shifting.

Amnesias
a) Memory in Alzheimer disease
 Both visual and verbal memory deficits
 Immediate recall and delayed recall performance affected.
 The primary deficit in mild AD patients is considered to be at the encoding (learning) level rather than at
retention or retrieval level.
b) Alcohol dependence
 Selective impairment of right hemisphere more than left. Primary locus of damage to frontal lobes.

 Impairment in visuo-perceptual analysis; location learning, memory and problem solving abilities & digit symbol.
c) Wernicke-Korakoff syndrome
 Profound difficulty in acquiring new verbal and nonverbal information.
 Retrograde amnesia
 Falsification of memory confabulation
 Preservation of immediate memory & learned behaviour such as speech, language, gestures and activates of
daily living
d)