RADIATION

HAZARDS AND
PROTECTION
By
Dr. Andrew John .S
Under the guidance of Prof,
Dr. Seetha
Special Thanks to Prof and Head, Dr. Saroja R.K
 Radiation is everywhere
Cosmi
c

Inhaled
Radon

Bodies
Plants

Radioactive
Rocks Elements

We live in a sea of radiation

BACKGROUND RADIATION
BACKGROUND RADIATION
The average background
radiation per person is 370
millirems (mrem) per year.
This varies widely depending
on where someone lives, and
their occupation, health and
lifestyle.
Background Radiation
• Most background
radiation is natural.

It is part of nature.

It has always been

here.

People have always

lived with it.
 Radiation comes from space-
sun and cosmic rays

Because this type of radiation is

somewhat shielded by the atmosphere,
the dose is higher at higher altitudes.
Space and airline travel has higher
radiation doses.
 Background Radiation Exposure
at Different Elevations

140
120
mrem / year

100
80
60
40
20
0
-282 Ft 427 Ft 5,280 Ft 10,157 Ft

Every 200 feet increase in altitude increases dose 1 mrem/year

 Radiation comes from the earth

Some rocks, like Uranium are radioactive. So are coal and some building materials such as granite.

The natural radiation from the granite maybe higher than is allowed to certify a nuclear
power plant!
 Radon is a radioactive gas that comes from inside the earth

Usually radon escapes into the air in very small amounts and does not hurt us. However, sometimes radon can get trapped in buildings. Then there is more radiation which is not healthy.
Cells in our body contain radioactive elements, such
as Potassium, which come from the food we eat

Milk
Background
Radiation
• Are low levels of radiation an essential part of
life?
• The body does not distinguish between natural
and man-made.
• Neither natural nor man-made background
radiation have been shown to be harmful.
• The body has developed repair mechanisms to
deal with negative effects of low levels of
radiation.
Normal annual exposure from natural radiation

About 300 mrem/yr

 Radon gas 200
mrem
 Human body
40 mrem
 Rocks, soil 28
mrem
 annual
Normal Cosmic rays
exposure from man-made radiation
27 mrem
About 70 mrem/yr
 Medical procedures 53
mrems
 Consumer products 10
mrems
 One coast to coast airplane flight 2
mrems
 Watching color TV 1
mrem
 Sleeping with another person 1
mrem
MODERN SOURCES OF
RADIATION
• The effect of mobile phone radiation on
human health is the subject of recent interest
and study, as a result of the enormous increase in
mobile phone usage throughout the world (as of
June 2009, there were more than 4.3 billion users
worldwide). Mobile phones use electromagnetic
radiation in the microwave range.
• Other digital wireless systems, such as data
communication networks, produce similar
radiation.
• In 2007, Dr. Lennart Hardell, from Örebro
University in Sweden, reviewed published
epidemiological papers (2 cohort studies and 16
case-control studies) and found that:
• Cell phone users had an increased risk of malignant
gliomas.
• Link between cell phone use and a higher rate of acoustic
neuromas.
• Tumors are more likely to occur on the side of the head
that the cell handset is used.
• One hour of cell phone use per day significantly increases
tumor risk after ten years or more.
MODERN SOURCES OF
RADIATION
• Health hazards of base
stations
• In contrast to mobile handsets,
it is emitted continuously and is
more powerful at close
quarters.
• Several surveys have found a
variety of self-reported
symptoms for people who
live close to base stations.
• Experts consulted by France
considered it was mandatory
that main antenna axis not to
be directly in front of a living
place at a distance shorter
than 100 metres
RADIATION DOSES AND UNITS
EXPOSURE
• Exposure is a dosimetric quantity for
ionizing electromagnetic radiation,
based on the ability of the radiation
to produce ionization in air.
• This quantity is only defined for
electromagnetic radiation producing
interactions in air.
EXPOSURE
• Before interacting with the
patient
(direct beam) or with the
staff (scattered radiation),
X Rays interact with air
• The quantity “exposure”
gives an indication of the
capacity of X Rays to
produce a certain effect in
air
• The effect in tissue will be,
in general, proportional to
this effect in air
EXPOSURE
• Mathematically, the exposure is the absolute
value of the total charge of the ions of one sign
produced in air when all the electrons liberated by
photons per unit mass of air are completely
stopped in air.
EXPOSURE
• The SI unit of exposure is Coulomb per kilogram
[C kg-1]
• The former special unit of exposure was Roentgen
[R]
• 1 R = 2.58 x 10-4 C kg-1
• 1 C kg-1 = 3876 R
EXPOSURE RATE
• Exposure rate (and later, dose rate) is the
exposure produced per unit of time.
• The SI unit of exposure rate is the [C/kg] per
second or (in old units) [R/s].
• In radiation protection it is common to indicate
these rate values “per hour” (e.g. R/h).
PATIENT DOSIMETRY
QUANTITIES
PATIENT DOSIMETRY
QUANTITIES
ABSORBED DOSE
• The absorbed dose (D), is the energy absorbed
per unit mass. This quantity is defined for all
ionizing radiation (not only for electromagnetic
radiation, as in the case of the “exposure”), and
for any material.
• D = dE/dm. The SI unit of D is the Gray [Gy].
• 1 Gy = J/kg.
• The former unit was the “rad”. 1 Gy = 100 rad.
TYPICAL ABSORBED DOSES
Radiographic Examination Dose
• PA chest 0.15mGy
• AP abdomen 5mGy
• Lateral LS Spine 12mGy
• Fluoroscopy skin dose rate 5-
50mGy/min
• CT Scan (within examined region) 10-
30mGy
• Fetal dose (pregnant patient)
• AP pelvis 1.5mGy
• Barium enema 5mGy
• CT Pelvis 10-30mGy
ABSORBED DOSE AND KERMA
• The KERMA (kinetic energy released in a
material)
K = dEtrans/dm
• where dEtrans is the sum of the initial kinetic
energies of all charged ionizing particles
liberated by uncharged ionizing particles in a
material of mass dm
• The SI unit of kerma is the joule per
kilogram (J/kg), termed Gray (Gy).
• In diagnostic radiology, Kerma and D are
equal.
RELATION BETWEEN ABSORBED
DOSE AND EXPOSURE
• It is possible to calculate the absorbed dose in a
material if the exposure is known
• D [Gy]. = f . X [C kg-1]
• f = conversion coefficient depending on medium
• The absorbed energy in a quantity of air exposed
to 1 [C kg-1] of X Rays is 0.869 [Gy]
• f(air) = 0.869
EXAMPLE OF CONVERSION COEFFICIENT

f values ([Gy] / Ckg-1])

Photon energy Water Bone Muscle

10 keV 0.91 3.5 0.93

100 keV 0.95 1.5 0.95

MEAN ABSORBED DOSE IN A
TISSUE OR ORGAN

The mean absorbed dose in a tissue or organ (DT) is

the energy deposited in the organ divided by the
mass of that organ.
EXPOSURE AND ABSORBED
DOSE OR KERMA
• Exposure can be linked to air dose or kerma by
suitable conversion coefficients.
• For example, 100 kV X Rays that produce an
exposure of 1 R at a point will also give an air
kerma of about 8.7 mGy (0.87 rad) and a tissue
kerma of about 9.5 mGy (0.95 rad) at that point.
 RATIO OF ABSORBED DOSE IN
SOFT TISSUE TO THAT IN AIR
• Values of absorbed dose to tissue will vary by a few
percent depending on the exact composition of the
medium that is taken to represent soft tissue.
• The following value is usually used for 80 kV and 2.5
mm Al:
Dose in soft tissue = 1.06 Dose in air
Equivalent dose: H
• The equivalent dose H is the absorbed dose
multiplied by a dimensionless radiation weighting
factor, wR which expresses the biological
effectiveness of a given type of radiation
• To avoid confusion with the absorbed dose, the SI
unit of equivalent dose is called the sievert (Sv).
The old unit was the “rem”
• 1 Sv = 100 rem
Radiation weighting factor,
wR
• For most of the radiation used in medicine (X
Rays, , e-) wR is = 1, so the absorbed dose and
the equivalent dose are numerically equal
• The exceptions are:
• alpha particles (wR = 20)
• neutrons (wR = 5 - 20).
Detriment
• Radiation exposure of the different organs and
tissues in the body results in different probabilities
of harm and different severity
• The combination of probability and severity of
harm is called “detriment”.
Tissue weighting factor
• To reflect the combined detriment from stochastic
effects due to the equivalent doses in all the
organs and tissues of the body, the equivalent
dose in each organ and tissue is multiplied by a
tissue weighting factor, wT, and the results are
summed over the whole body to give the effective
dose E
Tissue weighting factors, wT

Organ/Tissue WT Organ/Tissue WT

Bone marrow 0.12 Lung 0.12

Bladder 0.05 Oesophagus 0.05
Bone surface 0.01 Skin 0.01
Breast 0.05 Stomach 0.12
Colon 0.12 Thyroid 0.05
Gonads 0.20 Remainder 0.05
Liver 0.05
EFFECTIVE DOSE (E)
• It is the summed value of the weighted organ
dose.
• Mathematically it is
• E = T wT.HT
• Where
• E: effective dose
• wT: weighting factor for organ or tissue T
• HT: equivalent dose in organ or tissue T
RADIATION ENERGY TRANSFER
DETERMINANTS
LINEAR ENERGY TRANSFER
• The average energy deposited in tissue per unit
path length.
• It is expressed in keV/ μm
LINEAR ENERGY TRANSFER

X-RAYS
LINEAR ENERGY TRANSFER
LOW LET HIGH LET

• GAMMA RAYS • ALPHA PARTICLES

• IONS OF HEAVY
NUCLEI
• X-RAYS
• CHARGED
PARTICLES
• LOW ENERGY
NEUTRONS
RELATIVE BIOLOGIC
EFFECTIVENESS
• Relative capabilities of Radiation with differing
LETS to produce particular Biologic response.
• It is given by the following formula :

DOSE IN Gy FROM 250 KVP X-RAYS

DOSE IN GRAY OF TEST RADIATION

RADIOBIOLOGY

The study of the effects of

ionizing radiation on biologic
tissue.
EARLY EFFECTS OF RADIATION
ON HUMANS
• Tissue damage
• Erythema
• Desquamation
• Hematologic damage
• Cytogenic damage
 LATE EFFECTS
• Leukemia
• Bone cancer
• Breast cancer
• Thyroid cancer
• Local tissue damage
• Lifespan shortening
• Genetic damage
FETAL IRRADIATION
EFFECTS
• Prenatal death
• Neonatal death
• Congenital malformation
• Childhood malignancy
• Diminished growth and development
 Exposure

Ionization

Free Radicles
(Chemical Changes) Direct
Action

Molecular Changes
(DNA,RNA, enzymes)

Sub cellular Damage

Cell Death Cellular Level Cellular Transformation

(Deterministic Effects) (maybe some repair)
Stochastic effect)
 RADIATION EFFECTS IN
HUMAN POPULATIONS
• Radiologists • Leukemia, short life span

• Uranium miners • Lung cancer

• Radium watch dial painters • Bone cancer

• Cyclotron workers • Cataracts

LOW LET RADIATION DAMAGE
TO BIOLOGIC TISSUE
by
INDIRECT ACTION
HIGHT LET RADIATION
DAMAGE TO BIOLOGIC TISSUE
by
DIRECT ACTION
DIRECT & INDIRECT ACTION
INDIRECT ACTION
PRINCIPLES OF RADIATION
PROTECTION
PRINCIPLES OF RADIATION
PROTECTION
• International Commission For Radiological
Protection (ICRP) - 1991
• Justification
• Optimization
• ALARP Principle
• Dose Limitation
• Tolerable risk
REGULATIONS
REGULATIONS
• Ionizing Radiations Regulation 1999
• Dose limits
• Designation of Areas and Control of working practices
• Equipment
• Critical assessment
• Quality control
• Classification of Staff and Dose monitoring
• 18 years and older
• Classified personnel
• Monitoring of Personnel
• Ionizing Radiation (Medical Exposure) Regulations
2000 (IRMER)
• Referrer
• Practitioner
• Operator
• Diagnostic Reference Levels
• Special Attention Areas
OTHER LEGISLATIONS
• Radioactive substance act 1993.
• Authorization of users
• Medicines (Administration of Radioactive
Substances) Regulation 1978.
• Certificate for doctors for administration of radioactive
substances.
• Licensing for certain procedures.
PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF
RADIATION PROTECTION
PROTECTION OF STAFF
• Room Design
• 1-2mm of lead lining.
• Lead doors
• Lead screens
• Radiation Sources
• Primary beam
• Transmitted radiation
• Leakage radiation
 Room shielding

Lead glass viewing window

Lead lined plaster board

INVERSE SQUARE LAW
STANDARDS OF X-RAY
EQUIPMENT
• X-ray tube
• Leakage < 1mGy in 1hr at a distance of 1m from focus
• Filtration of tube no less than the equivalent of 2.5mm of
Al
• Position of focus to be marked on the casing
• Warning signals
• Collimation
• Max beam size restricted to max image size.
• Exposure Switches
• Shielding
• Fluoroscopy dose rates
• Should not exceed 100mGy/min
EXAMINATION OF FEMALE
PATIENTS
• 10 day rule
• 28 day rule
PROTECTION OF PATIENT
• Collimation
• Magnified Fields of view
• Supplementary shielding
• Increased filtration
Typical
Patient
Effective
Doses
PATIENT DOSES
• Patient effective dose classification
• High
• Excess of 2mSv
• Medium
• Between 0.02 and 2mSv
• Low
• Below 0.02 mSv
DOSE ASSESSEMENT
• Dose Area Product
• Entrance Surface Dose
DOSE AREA PRODUCT (I)

• The dose-area product (DAP) quantity is

defined as the dose in air in a plane,
integrated over the area of interest.
• The DAP (cGy·cm2) is constant with distance
since the cross section of the beam is a
quadratic function which cancels the inverse
quadratic dependence on dose
• This is true neglecting absorption and
scattering of radiation in air and even for X
Ray housing near the couch table.
DOSEAREA PRODUCT METER
DOSE-AREA PRODUCT DATA FOR
RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATIONS
• Radiograph Mean DAP (Gy cm2)
• Pelvis AP 2.2
• Lumbar spine LSJ 2.4
• Lumbar spine LAT 2.3
• Lumbar spine AP 1.4
• Chest PA 0.1
• Abdomen AP 2.5
DIAGNOSTIC REFERENCE
LEVELS
• International Commission For Radiological
Protection (ICRP)
• The commission recommends the use of
diagnostic reference levels for patients.
• Defined as doses for typical examinations for
standard sized patients.
• Performance standards against which individual
patient doses can be judged.
ENTRANCE SURFACE DOSE
• The entrance surface dose is defined as the
absorbed dose in the center of the field at the
surface of entry of radiation for a patient
undergoing a radio diagnostic examination,
expressed in air and with backscatter.
• It can be measured directly using thermo
luminescenscent dosimeters.
INSTRUMENTATION FOR
DETECTING IONISING RADIATION
• Gas based detectors –
• Geiger- Muller counter,
• GM tube, or
• Geiger counter

• Scintillation detectors -
• Solid state
• Liquid
 Gas filled detectors

Gas

C R
Electrodes

V
V = Voltage source
R = High resistance
C = All the capacitance in the detector circuit
Mini 900 series EP15 probe GM gas
counter
Scintillation detectors
Mini 900 series 44A probe Solid state
scintillation counter
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE
EQUIPMENT
Personal Protective
Equipment

Overshoes
Often worn routinely in the
Radiopharmacy for sterility reasons.
Not always otherwise worn routinely
to prevent the spread of
contamination, but widely used for
this purpose following a spillage.
Radiation protection in X-ray
Thermoluminescent
dosemeters
• Measurement range 0. 1 mSv to 5 Sv
• Only issued if risk assessment concludes they are
required
THANK YOU