Safe Use of Analytical X-ray Equipment

Part 1:

The Effect of Ionising

Radiation on Living
Organisms and Dose
This part of the slide show will:

•Examine the effect of ionising radiation on

living organisms (X-rays are ionising radiation)

•Describe units of exposure and dose

NB: The following discussion covers general

principles of the interactions and is intended to
provide a background.

Please bear in mind that the X-rays used in

X-ray crystallography while low energy (8-9
keV) are capable of delivering a
considerable dose.
Interaction of X-rays with Matter

X-rays are classified as penetrative radiation

The penetration of X-rays (or conversely

the amount of attenuation) is a function
of:
• energy of the x-ray
• atomic number of irradiated matter (Bone will
absorb low energy x-rays more than muscle)
• thickness of irradiated material

• density of irradiated material

Attenuation of X-rays

X-rays are attenuated as they pass through

matter

The degree of that any given material is able

to attenuate x-rays is a function of its atomic
number and its density

Lead is chosen as a shielding agent because of

its high atomic number, its relatively high
density and because it interacts with x-ray
radiation such all the x-ray energy is absorbed
by the Photoelectric effect
Effect of Ionising Radiation on Living
Organisms
Effect of Ionising Radiation at a Molecular Level

• When molecules in cells become ionised

there a number of effects such as disrupted bonds,
alteration of the tertiary and quaternary structure
and by crosslinking which in turn damages cells.

• Most damage is caused by the generation of

hydroxyl free radicals
Effect of Ionising Radiation
Effect of Ionising Radiation at a Molecular Level cont’

Free radicals are generated by radiolysis of water.

2H20 H2O+ + H20-

H2O+ OH. + H+

Hydroxyl radicals react with other molecules (such as DNA)

damaging them.

Note that the indirect effect is responsible for a significant

proportion of cell damage
Effect of Ionising Radiation on
Tissues
and Cells
Cellular Radiosensitivity (Law of Bergonne and
Tribondeau)
1. Rapidly dividing tissue is more radiosensitive
2. Rapidly growing cells are more radiosensitive
3. Younger and more immature cells are more radiosensitive
4. Mature cells are less radiosensitive

NB: Dividing cells are more radiosensitive. This is why radiotherapy is

effective on rapidly dividing tumor cells.
Unfortunately rapidly dividing cells such as bone marrow, gut epithelium
and
hair follicles are also radiosensitive
Organ toxicity
The lens of the eye is particularly sensitive
Effect of Ionising Radiation on Humans

The effects of ionising radiation are classified on human in two

broad categories:

•Deterministic

•Stochastic
Effect of Radiation on Humans
Deterministic Effects

These effects have thresholds above which damage occurs

and effects are then dose dependent e.g. lens opacification,
burns, hair loss.
Determinisitic effects like the burns below suffered by those
who put their hands in the path of a x-ray beam are
relatively easy to avoid
Effect of Radiation on Humans
Stochastic Effects
•Mutational, non-threshold effects in which the chance of
occurring rather than the severity are dose
dependent.

•These affects are not predictable e.g. cancer

•Note that stochastic effects are not predictable and give

rise to the notion that there is no absolutely safe dose and
the concept of ALARA.
Ionising Radiation and ALARA

• ALARA means keeping dose “As Low As

Reasonably Achievable”

• Reducing dose wherever practicable

reduces the probabilities associated with
stochastic effects

• ALARA principles guide the periodic

scanning of x-ray equipment for
scatter and leakage as well as
following the time and distance rules
Part 2:

Units of Exposure and

Dose
This part of the slide show will explain units of
exposure and dose for ionising radiation

The Sievert is the most relevant unit and is a

measure of the health effect of ionizing radiation
on the human body.
Units of Radiation Exposure and Dose

• Exposure (unit is the Roentgen)

• Absorbed dose (unit is the Gray)

• Dose Equivalence (Unit is the

Sievert)
Dose Equivalence takes into account
the relative biological effectiveness
of different types of ionising radiation
to damage human tissue
Exposure
• Unit is Roentgen

• Amount of x-rays that will cause 1 gram of air

to absorb 86.9 ergs

• Useful for gamma and x-rays only

Absorbed dose

• SI Unit is Gray (Gy); old unit is rad

• Dose absorbed by the irradiated material

accompanied by 1 joule (100 ergs) of energy
being absorbed.

• Absorbed dose is independent of the type or

energy of ionising radiation
Dose Equivalence
• Dose equivalence takes into account the
effectiveness of the radiation to damage human
tissue

• Unit is Sievert (Sv); old unit is rem

• Dose Equivalence is the product of the Dose

(Gray) multiplied by a Radiation Weighting
Factor (WR)
Radiation Weighting factors (WR) are approximately:
• Dose Equivalence = D x WR
Alpha particles = 20
Protons, neutrons = 10
Beta particles = 1
Gamma rays and x-rays = 1
The Sievert takes into account the Biological
Effectiveness of the radiation

It can be thought of the absorbed dose of any

radiation that produces the same biological effect
as 1 Gray of therapeutic x-rays

For example:
If 2.5 Sieverts of radiation are required for a given
biological effect – then this could be delivered by
2.5 Gray of therapeutic x-rays or 0.25 Gray of
neutrons

Explanation:
Neutrons are 10 x more effective at producing the
same biological effect (ie: have a Weighting Factor
of 10) and hence 1/10 effective dose of neutrons is
required for the same biological effect as for x-rays.
Prescribed Limits for Dose
Equivalence

• The ICRP (International Commission for

Radiation Protection) is an international non-
governmental organisation providing
recommendations and guidance on ionising
radiation protection based on current scientific
evidence
ICRP Prescribed Limits per annum

Members of public
1 mSv per annum above background
5 mSv to eye
20 mSv to hands
Radiation workers
20 mSv per annum above background
150 mSv to eye
500 mSv to hands

Pregnant women must receive no more than

2mSv during the course of pregnancy
Note that:

• ICRP Exposure limits for ‘Members of the

Public’ including are deliberately set with large
margins of safety taking into account vulnerable
persons (pregnant women, babies, the aged,
infirmed).

• University staff members and students are

considered themselves Members of the Public for
the purposes of setting exposure limits

• Users of analytical x-ray equipment should not

receive any measurable dose when operating
this equipment.
 Background Dose

• Background dose in NZ is approx

1.8 mSv per annum

• Background dose depends on activity

• Airline crew on international flights are

the most occupationally exposed
group in NZ
and receive 6-8 mSv per annum
 Background Dose
(or Exposure to Ionising Radiation is a
Fact of Life)
• Cosmic radiation – approx 300
microSieverts per annum at sea level

• Dose from cosmic radiation doubles for

every 1500 meters above sea level

• Moving up a hill 35m increases annual

background dose by 10 microSieverts per
annum

• Moving from wooden house to brickhouse

may increase background dose by 100
microSieverts per annum
 Typical Dose
Airplane travel = 5 microSv/hr

Dental x-ray (bitewing) = 12 microSv

Dental x-ray (panorama) = 90 microSv

Chest X-ray = 50 microSv

Mammogram = 0.7milliSv

Barium Enema = 7 milliSv

CT Scan (abdomen) = 10 milliSv

CT Scan (whole body) = 20 milliSv

Effective dose 0.5 Sv = Increased lifetime dose in
Chernobyl
Effective dose over 1-2 Sv = Haemopietic
Syndrome depression of immune function
Effective dose over 2-3 Sv = hair loss

Effective dose 5 Sv = Median Lethal Dose

Radiation Risk

• ICRP data – 1 mSv increases lifetime cancer

risk of 1/20,000

• Lifetime cancer risk for whole population is 1/4

Applicability to Analytical X-ray
Equipment

• While analytical x-rays are low energy, the x-

ray intensity or flux is very high and capable of
delivering a lot of energy
50kV Mo x-ray tube at 40 mA will deliver 7000 Sv/sec

3.5 Months
1 Month

ICRP limit is 500 mSv to hands per year

14,000 x Annual limit received in one second!
This is why:
1. Analytical x-ray instruments are closed beam
and are surrounded in a housing and lead
glass windows to protect the users from the
primary beam and x-ray scatter.
2. The instruments are interlocked so that the
shutter is closed and x-ray beam is stopped
when glass windows are opened.
3. The local rules are to be obeyed.
4. Only authorised maintenance licensees carry
out repairs.
5. Any malfunction must be reported
immediatel.
Part 3:

Safe Use of the X-ray

Equipment and Legal
Requirements
Part 3 of the slide show will:

1. Give the 4 fundamentals of x-ray safety

2. Explain the legal obligations as part of the use

of x-rays.

3. Explain the safety features incorporated into

modern analytical x-ray equipment.
 Safety with Ionising Radiation
In order to follow ALARA principle there are
Four Principles of Ionising Radiation Safety:
1. Minimise Exposure Time

2. Maximise Distance from Source

3. Use Correct Shielding

4. Follow Manufacturers Instructions and Local Rules

Applicability to Analytical X-ray
Equipment

Time and Distance

• Analytical X-ray equipment has highly collimated
beams and extensive shielding but because dose is
a function of time you should as a rule should
minimise the time spent very close to any
source of ionising radiation
Shielding

• Only authorised maintenance licensees

may over-ride interlocks and remove and
install shielding
• Authorised maintenance licensees must
then check and document that they have
reinstated shielding and interlocks correctly

• Dosimetry is conducted periodically to

verify that the shielding is intact and is
functioning as intended
Follow Local Rules and
Manufacturers Instructions

• Only authorised operators of X-ray equipment

who are familiar with safe operation of machine
use the apparatus.

• Authorised users must follow licensee and

manufacturers instructions

• Authorised users must report any anomalies or

any equipment malfunction to the license holder
immediately
Legal Obligations
• The Office of Radiation Safety (ORS) is the
New Zealand statutory body which regulates
use of radioisotopes and irradiating apparatus.

• All irradiating equipment must have a current

licence-holder in charge of the apparatus.

• All use of irradiating equipment must be under

the supervision (ie physical presence of license
holder) or operate the equipment under the
liccensees instruction.
Specific legal requirements for the Use
of Analytical X-ray Equipment

• There must be a current licence holder in charge

• All users are authorised by licence holder

• All users are properly trained (training is documented)

• Access to the machine is restricted

• Prominent warning signs on doors and equipment

• Users must observe all local rules

• There is a log of authorised users and log of use
and repairs – you must fill out the machine log

• Any anomalies or any equipment malfunction

must be reported to the license holder
immediately
• All emergency procedures for the equipment must
be observed

• Equipment is periodically monitored for

scatter and X-ray leakage and repairs are
undertaken only by authorised persons
Analytical x-ray safety features:

1. Analytical x-ray instruments are enclosed to

protect the users from primary beam and
scatter.
2. Beams are highly collimated to prevent
unwanted exposure and reduces scatter.
3. Any opening door/windows are interlocked to
x-ray shutter.
4. Interlocks are fail safe (i.e. wired in series with
x-ray generator so if the interlocks fail, the
generator will not be powered)
5. Warning lights are fail safe (i.e. in series with
x-ray generator as above)
Analytical X-ray Unit Safety Features

Interlocke
Warnin d leaded
g lights glass
panels
protectin
g from
primary
beam and
scatter
 End of Slideshow

You should now undertake the test