Chapter 2.

3 Counting Sample Points

Combination
 In many problems we are interested in the number of ways of
selecting r objects from n without regard to order. These selections
are called combinations.
 The number of combinations of n distinct objects taken r at a
time is
n!
n Cr 
r !(n  r )!

A young boy asks his mother to get five game-boy cartridges from
his collection of 10 arcade and 5 sport games. How many ways are
there that his mother will get 3 arcade and 2 sports games,
respectively?

The number of ways of selecting 3 arcade games is 10C3.

The number of ways of selecting 2 sports games is 5C2.
Using the multiplication rule,
10! 5!
10 C3 5 C2    1200 ways
3!(10  3)! 2!(5  2)!
 Chapter 2.4 Probability of an Event

Probability of an Event
 The likelihood of the occurrence of an event resulting from such a
statistical experiment is evaluated by means of a set of real
numbers called weights or probabilities ranging from 0 to 1.

 The probability of an event A is the sum of the weights of all

sample points in A. Therefore,
0 P ( A) 1, P( ) 0, P( S ) 1
 Furthermore, if A1, A2, A3, ... is a sequence of mutually exclusive
events, then
P ( A1  A2  A3 ) P ( A1 )  P ( A2 )  P ( A3 )  

 If an experiment can result in any one of N different equally likely

outcomes, and if exactly n of these outcomes correspond to event
A, then the probability of event A is
n
P( A) 
N
 Chapter 2.4 Probability of an Event

Probability of an Event
A coin is tossed twice. What is the probability that at least one head
occurs?

S {HH , HT , TH , TT }  Sample space of the experiment, 4 events

A {HH , HT , TH }  Events of interest, at least one head occurs

3
P( A) 
4
 Chapter 2.4 Probability of an Event

Probability of an Event
A dice is loaded in such a way that an even number is twice as likely
to occur as an odd number. If E is the event that a number less than
4 occurs on a single toss of the dice, find P(E).

S {1, 2,3, 4,5, 6} P (even) 2 9

E {1, 2,3} P (odd) 1 9
P ( E ) 1 9  2 9  1 9  4 9

As the last example, let A be the event that an even number turns up
and let B be the event that a number divisible by 3 occurs. Find P(A
È B) and P(A Ç B).

A {2, 4, 6}  A  B {2,3, 4, 6}  P ( A  B )  7 9
B {3, 6}  A  B {6}  P( A  B)  2 9
 Chapter 2.5 Additive Rules

Additive Rules
 If A and B are any two events, then
S
P ( A  B ) P ( A)  P ( B )  P ( A  B )
A AÇB B

AÈ B

 If A and B are mutually exclusive, then

S
P ( A  B ) P ( A)  P ( B )
A B

AÈ B

 For three events A, B, and C,

P ( A  B  C ) P ( A)  P ( B )  P (C ) 
P( A  B)  P( A  C )  P( B  C )  P( A  B  C )
?Can you prove using
Venn diagram?
 Chapter 2.5 Additive Rules

Additive Rules
The probability of John to be hired by company A is 0.8, and the
probability that he gets an offer from company B is 0.6. If, on the
other hand he believes that the probability that he will get offers
from both companies is 0.5, what is the probability that he will get at
least one offer from these two companies?

P( A  B ) P ( A)  P ( B )  P ( A  B ) 0.8  0.6  0.5  0.9

What is the probability of getting a total of 7 or 11 when a pair of fair

dice are tossed?

Let A be the event that 7 occurs and B the event that 11 comes up.
The events A and B are mutually exclusive, since a total of 7 and 11
cannot both occur on the same toss. Therefore,
6 2 2
 
P ( A  B ) P ( A)  P ( B ) 36 36 
9
 Chapter 2.5 Additive Rules

Additive Rules
 If A and A’ are complementary events, means A Ç A’ = Æ and
A È A’ = S, then
P ( A)  P ( A) 1

The probabilities that an automobile mechanic will service 3, 4, 5, 6,

7, or 8 or more cars on any given workday are, respectively, 0.12,
0.19, 0.28, 0.24, 0.10, and 0.07. What is the probability that he will
service at least 5 cars on his next day at work?

Let E be the event that at least 5 cars are serviced, then E’ is the
event that fewer than 5 cars are serviced.
P ( E ) 0.12  0.19 0.31
P ( E ) 1  P( E ) 1  0.31  0.69
 Chapter 2.5 Additive Rules

Exercise: Additive Rules

A retail shop accepts either BNI or Mandiri credit cards. A total of
24% of its customers carry BNI credit cards, while 64% Mandiri credit
cards. 11% carry both cards.
What percentage of the customers must pay cash in the retail shop?

Ans ● 0.23
 Chapter 2.6 Conditional Probability

Conditional Probability
 The probability of an event B occurring when it is known that some
event A has occurred is called a conditional probability.
 It is denoted by symbol P(B|A), usually read “the probability that B
occurs given that A occurs” or simply “the probability of B, given
A.”
 The probability P(B|A) can be seen as an “updating” of P(B) based
on the knowledge that even A has occurred.

 The conditional probability of B, given A, denoted by P(B|A), is

defined by
P( A  B)
P ( B A)  if P ( A)  0
P ( A)
 Chapter 2.6 Conditional Probability

Conditional Probability
If a fair dice is tossed once, what is the probability of getting a 6,
given that the number you got is an even number?

A {2, 4, 6}  P ( A) 3 6
B {6}  P ( B ) 1 6
A  B {6}  P ( A  B ) 1 6
P( A  B) 1 6 1
P ( B A)   
P ( A) 36 3
 Chapter 2.6 Conditional Probability

Conditional Probability
The probability that a regularly scheduled flight departs on time is
P(D) = 0.83; the probability that it arrives on time is P(A) = 0.82; and
the probability that it departs and arrives on time is P(D Ç A) = 0.78.
Find the probability that a plane
(a) arrives on time given that it departed on time,
(b) departed on time given that it has arrived on time, and
(c) arrives on time given that it did not depart on time

P ( D  A) 0.78
(a) P( A D)    0.94
P( D) 0.83 D A S
AÇD
P ( A  D ) 0.78
(b) P ( D A)    0.95 D’
P ( A) 0.82 A Ç D’

P ( D  A) 0.82  0.78
(c) P ( A D)    0.24
P ( D) 1  0.83
 Chapter 2.6 Conditional Probability

Conditional Probability
Yes No Total
The question “Do you smoke?” was
asked to 100 people. The results are Male 19 41 60
shown in the table. Female 12 28 40
What is the probability that: Total 31 69 100
(a) a randomly selected individual being a male who smokes?
(b) a randomly selected individual being a male?
(c) a randomly selected individual is smoking?
(d) a randomly selected male is smoking?
(e) a randomly selected smoker is male?

(a) P(MÇS) = 19/100

MÇN
(b) P(M) = P(MÇS) È P(MÇS’) = 60/100 Y S
(c) P(S) = P(SÇM) È P(SÇM’) = 31/100
MÇY
(d) P(S|M) = 19/60
(e) P(M|S) = 19/31 FÇY
FÇN
 Chapter 2.6 Conditional Probability

Conditional Probability
A dice is loaded in such a way that an even number is twice as likely
to occur as an odd number. It is tossed once.
(a) What is the probability that event B of getting a perfect square
will turn out?
(b) What is the probability that event B will happen when it is known
that the toss of the dice resulted in a number greater than 3?

(a) B {1, 4}  P ( B ) 1 9  2 9  3 9

(b) G {4,5, 6}  P (G ) 2 9  1 9  2 9 5 9
B  G {4}  P ( B  G ) 2 9

P (G  B ) 29
P( B G )   25
P (G ) 59
 Chapter 2.6 Conditional Probability

Exercise: Conditional Probability

2 blue and 3 red marbles are in a bag. 2 marbles are taken out at
random and without replacement.
(a) If the first marble taken out is blue, what is the probability to get
the red marble next?
(b) What is the probability of taking two red balls in a row?

Ans ● (3/4)
● (3/5)(2/4)=(3/10)
 Chapter 2.6 Conditional Probability

Independent Events
 Two events A and B are independent if and only if
P ( B A) P ( B ) or P ( A B ) P ( A)
Otherwise, A and B are dependent.
 Chapter 2.7 Multiplicative Rules

Multiplicative Rules
 If in an experiment the events A and B can both occur, then
P ( A  B ) P ( A) P ( B A)
Since A Ç B and B Ç A are equivalent, it follows that
P ( B  A) P ( B ) P ( A B )

 Two events A and B are independent if and only if

P ( A  B ) P ( A) P ( B )

Suppose that we have a fuse box containing 20 fuses, of which 5 are

defective. If 2 fuses are selected at random and removed from the
box in succession without replacement, what is the probability that
both fuses are defective?

Let A be the event that the first fuse is defective and B the event
that the second fuse is defective, then
5 4 1
P ( A  B ) P ( A) P ( B A)   
20 19 19
 Chapter 2.7 Multiplicative Rules

Exercise: Multiplicative Rules

Two defective resistors are mixed with five good ones. An operator
tests the resistors one-by-one to find out the defective resistors. He
takes two resistors at random and without replacement.
What is the probability that the operator finds the two resistors
directly in the first two tests?

Ans
● (2/7)(1/6)
 Chapter 2.7 Multiplicative Rules

Multiplicative Rules
One bag contains 4 white balls and 3 black balls, and a second bag
contains 3 white balls and 5 black balls. One ball is drawn from the
first bag and placed unseen in the second bag. What is the
probability that a ball now drawn from the second bag is black?

B1 : the drawing of a black ball from bag 1

B2 : the drawing of a black ball from bag 2
W1 : the drawing of a white ball from bag 1

P( B2 ) P( B1  B2 )  P(W1  B2 )
3 6 4 5 38
P ( B2 ) P( B1 ) P( B2 B1 )  P (W1 ) P ( B2 W1 )     
7 9 7 9 63
 Chapter 2.7 Multiplicative Rules

Multiplicative Rules
An electrical system consists of four components as illustrated below.
The system works if components A and B work and either of the
components C or D work. The reliability (probability of working) of
each component is also indicated. Find the probability that
(a) the entire system works
(b) the component C does not work,
given that the entire system works
(c) the entire system works given that
the component C does not work.
Assume that four components work
independently.

(a) P( A  B  (C  D)) P ( A) P ( B ) ( P(C )  P( D)  P(C  D))

(0.9)(0.9)  (0.8)  (0.8)  (0.8)(0.8)
 0.7776
 Chapter 2.7 Multiplicative Rules

Multiplicative Rules
(b) Find the probability that the component
C does not work, given that the entire
system works
P (system works while C not working)
P (C  system works) 
P (system works)
P( A  B  C   D) (0.9)(0.9)(1  0.8)(0.8)
   0.1667
P (system works) 0.7776

(c) Find the probability that the entire system works given that the
component C does not work
P (C not working but system works )
P (system works C ) 
P (C )
P( A  B  C   D) (0.9)(0.9)(1  0.8)(0.8)
   0.648
P (C ) (1  0.8)
 Chapter 2.8 Bayes’ Rule

Bayes’ Rule
 Refer to the following figure.
A ( E  A)  ( E   A)
P ( A) P  ( E  A)  ( E   A) 
P ( E  A)  P ( E   A)
P( E ) P( A E )  P ( E ) P ( A E )

 If the events B1, B2, ..., Bk constitute a

partition of the sample space S such
that P(Bi) = 0 for i = 1, 2, ..., k, then
for any event A of S,
k k
P ( A)  P ( Bi  A)  P ( Bi ) P ( A Bi )
i 1 i 1
 Chapter 2.8 Bayes’ Rule

Bayes’ Rule
A travel agent offers 4-day and 8-day trips around USA. Based on
long-range sales, the probability that a customer will book a 4-day
trip is 0.75. Of those that book that trip, 60% also order the bus pass.
But only 30% of 8-day trip customers order the bus pass. A randomly
selected buyer purchases a bus pass and a round trip. What is the
probability that the trip she orders is a 4-day trip?

F : the customer books a 4-day round trip

E : the customer books an 8-day round trip
B : the customer orders a bus pass
P( B  F )
P ( B ) P ( B  F )  P ( B  E ) P( F B) 
P( B)
P ( F ) P ( B F )  P ( E ) P ( B E ) P ( F ) P ( B F )

(0.75)(0.6)  (1  0.75)(0.3) P( B)
(0.75)(0.6)
0.525 
0.525
 0.857
 Chapter 2.8 Bayes’ Rule

Bayes’ Rule
In a certain assembly plant, three machines, B1, B2, and B3, make
30%, 45%, and 25%, respectively, of the products. It is known from
past experience that 2%, 3%, and 2% of the products made by each
machine, respectively, are defective. Now, suppose that a finished
product is randomly selected. What is the probability that it is
defective?

B1 : the product is made by machine B1

B2 : the product is made by machine B2
B3 : the product is made by machine B3
D : the product is defective

P ( D) P ( B1  D)  P ( B2  D)  P ( B3  D)
P ( B1 ) P ( D B1 )  P ( B2 ) P ( D B2 )  P ( B3 ) P ( D B3 )
(0.3)(0.02)  (0.45)(0.03)  (0.25)(0.02)
 0.0245
 Chapter 2.8 Bayes’ Rule

Bayes’ Rule
With reference to the last example, if a product were chosen
randomly and found to be defective, what is the probability that it
was made by machine B3?

P ( D  B3 )
P ( B3 D) 
P( D)
P ( B3 ) P ( D B3 )

P( D)
(0.25)(0.02)

0.0245
 0.204
 Exercises
1. A satellite can fail for many possible reason, two of which are computer failure and
engine failure. For a given mission, it is known that:
The probability of engine failure is 0.008.
The probability of computer failure is 0.001.
Given engine failure, the probability of satellite failure is 0.98.
Given computer failure, the probability of satellite failure is 0.45.
Given any other component failure, the probability of satellite failure is zero.
(a) Determine the probability that a satellite fails.

(b) Determine the probability that a satellite fails and is due to engine failure.
(c) Assume that engines in different satellites perform independently. Given a
satellite has failed as a result of engine failure, what is the probability that the
same will happen to another satellite?
2. You have two boxes, one with 4 black balls and 3 white balls, the other with 2 black
balls and 2 white balls. You pick one box at random and then select a ball from the
box.
(a) What is the probability that the ball is white?
(b) If you picked a black ball, what is the probability that it comes from the first
box?
3. A dice is thrown twice.

(a) What is the probability that the sum of the faces is greater than 8?
(b) If at the first throw we get the 6, what is the probability that the sum of the
faces is greater than 8?