21EES101T-ELECTRICAL AND

ELECTRONICSENGINEERING
EEE-UNIT 3

Machines and Drives

Construction and working principle of DC machines-
Construction and Working principle of a single-phase
Transformer- Construction and working of three phase Inductor
motor, BLDC motor, PMSM, Stepper and Servo motor -
Introduction to Electrical Drives-Block diagram explanation of
chopper fed DC drives, Selection of drives for real time
applications (cranes/EV/ Pumping applications)
Practice on chopper applications, Demo on DC& AC machines

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 Single Phase
Transformer
Principle of operation
The transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. In
this case, the conductors are stationary and the magnetic flux is varying
with respect to time. Thus, the induced emf comes under the
classification of statically induced emf.

The transformer is a static piece of apparatus used to transfer electrical

energy
from one circuit to another. The two circuits are magnetically coupled.
One of the circuits is energized by connecting it to a supply at specific
voltage magnitude, frequency and waveform. Then, we have a mutually
induced voltage available across the second circuit at the same
frequency and waveform but with a change in voltage magnitude if
desired. These aspects are indicated in Fig.

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Construction
The following are the essential requirements of a transformer:
(a) A good magnetic core
(b) Two windings
(c) A time varying magnetic flux
The transformer core is generally laminated and is made out of a
good magnetic material such as transformer steel or silicon steel. Such a
material has high relative permeability and low hysteresis loss. In order to
reduce the eddy current loss, the core is made up of laminations of iron. ie,
the core is made up of thin sheets of steel, each lamination being insulated
from others 8
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PMSM

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BLDC Motor

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How Does A Brushless DC Motor Work?
BLDC Motor operation is based on the attraction or repulsion
between magnetic poles. Using the three-phase motor as shown in
figure below, the process starts when current flows through one of the
three stator windings and generates a magnetic pole that attracts the
closest permanent magnet of opposite pole.
The rotor will move if the current shifts to an adjacent winding.
Sequentially charging each winding will cause the rotor to follow in a
rotating field. The torque in this example depends on the current
amplitude and the number of turns on the stator windings, the
strength and the size of the permanent magnets, the air gap between
the rotor and the windings, and the length of the rotating arm.

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 Stepper motor construction is quite similar
to DC motor. It also has a permanent magnet as
Rotor. Rotor will be in the center and will rotate
when force is acts on it. This rotor is surrounded
by a number of stator which is wound by
magnetic coil all over it. Stator will be placed as
close as possible to rotor so that magnetic fields
in stators can influence rotor’s movement.
To control the stepper motor each stator
will be powered one by one alternatively. In this
case the stator will magnetize and act as an
electromagnetic pole exerting repulsive force on
the rotor and pushes it to move one step.
Alternative magnetizing and demagnetizing of
stators will move the rotor step by step and
enable it to rotate with great control. 23
 Types of Stepping Motors
Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor
• Permanent magnet motors use a permanent magnet (PM) in the
rotor and operate on the attraction or repulsion between the rotor
PM and the stator electromagnets.
• This is the most common type of stepper motor as compared with
different types of stepper motors available in the market.

Variable Reluctance
• Variable reluctance (VR) motors have a plain iron rotor and
operate based on the principle that minimum reluctance occurs with
minimum gap, hence the rotor points are attracted toward the stator
magnet poles.
• The stepper motor like variable reluctance is the basic type of motor and it
is used for the past many years. As the name suggests, the rotor’s angular
position mainly depends on the magnetic circuit’s reluctance that can be
formed among the teeth of the stator as well as a rotor.
Hybrid
• This is a combination of above two motor permanent and variable
reluctance stepper motor. This motor consists of permanent magnetic
toothed rotor like the ones in permanent magnet stepper motor with set of
north and south poles in it. Also just like variable reluctant motor the
stators have teeth in it.
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 Few teeth of stator will be aligned to teeth of rotor while
others will not be aligned to each other. When stator is
magnetized by supplying current to it, magnetic flux drives the
rotor to move by one step. The presence of teeth in both stator
and rotor changes the magnetic flux and drives the motor by
steps as intended.
The Hybrid synchronous motor is most popular since it
has high torque and resolution. Driving modes like half step can
even increase the resolution of this motor. While full step or
micro-stepping can be used to increase the torque, accuracy and
smooth working. The hybrid motor is most popular because of
the advantages it hold but comes with high cost due to its
complex construction.

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 Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

• It consists of a wound stator and a soft iron multi-tooth rotor.

• The stator has a stack of silicon steel laminations on which stator
windings are wound.
• Usually, it is wound for three phases which are distributed between the
pole pairs.
• The rotor carries no windings and is of salient pole type made entirely of
slotted steel laminations.
• The rotor pole’s projected teeth have the same width as that of stator teeth.
• The number of poles on stator differs to that of rotor poles, which
provides the ability to self start and bidirectional rotation of the motor.

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 Cross section model of 3-ph VR stepper motor and winding
arrangement

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 VR Stepper motor has following modes of
operation

1. 1 phase ON (or) Full step operation mode

2. 2 phase ON mode
3. Alternate 1 phase ON and 2 phase ON mode (or) Half
step operation mode
4. Micro stepping operation mode

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 Working of Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor
• The stepper motor works on the principle that the rotor aligns in a
particular position with the teeth of the excitation pole in a
magnetic circuit wherein minimum reluctance path exist.
• Whenever power is applied to the motor and by exciting a
particular winding, it produces its magnetic field and develops its
own magnetic poles.
• Due to the residual magnetism in the rotor magnet poles, it will
cause the rotor to move in such a position so as to achieve
minimum reluctance position and hence one set of poles of rotor
aligns with the energized set of poles of the stator.
• At this position, the axis of the stator magnetic field matches with
the axis passing through any two magnetic poles of the rotor.

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• When the rotor aligns with stator poles, it has enough
magnetic force to hold the shaft from moving to the next
position, either in clockwise or counter clockwise direction.
• The stepper motor works on the principle that the rotor
aligns in a particular position with the teeth of the
excitation pole in a magnetic circuit wherein minimum
reluctance path exist.

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 Servo Motor
 Servo is an electromagnetic device uses a negative feedback
mechanism to converts an electric signal into controlled motion. Basically,
servos behave like as actuators which provide precise control over
velocity, acceleration, and linear or angular position.
 It consists of four things: DC motor, position sensor, gear train, and a
control circuit. The gear mechanism connected with the motor provides
the feedback to the position sensor.
 If the motor of the servo is operated by DC then it is called a DC servo
motor and if it is operated by AC then it is called as AC servo motor. The
gear of the servo motor is generally made up of plastic but in high power
servos, it is made up of metal.

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 Types of Servo Motors on the Basis of Rotation

Positional Rotation Servos: Positional servos can rotate the shaft in about
half of the circle. Also, it has the feature to protect the rotational sensor
from over-rotating. Positional servos are mainly used in limbs, robotic arms,
and in many other places.
Continuous Rotation Servos: Continuous servos are similar in construction
to the positional servo. But, it can move in both clockwise and anticlockwise
directions. These types of servos are used in radar systems and robots.
Linear Servos: Again linear servos are also like a positional servo, but with
additional gears to the adjust the output from circular to back-and-forth.
These type of servos are used in high model airplanes and are rare to find on
the stores.

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On the Basis of Operating Signal
(i) Analog Servomotors: Analog servos are operated over PWM (Pulse Width
Modulation) signals.
(ii) Digital Servomotors: Digital Servo receives signal and acts at high-frequency
voltage pulses. Digital servo gives a smooth response and consistent torque, due to
faster pulse. Digital servos consume more power than an analog servo.

On the Basis of Operating Power

(i) DC Servo Motor
(ii) AC Servo Motor

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Construction of Servo Motor:

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Closed loop system - Servo Motor:

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Stator Winding: This type of winding wound on the stationary part of the

motor. It is also known as field winding of the motor.

Rotor Winding: This type of winding wound on the rotating part of the motor.

It is also known as an armature winding of the motor.

Bearing: These are of two types, i.e, font bearing and back bearing which are

used for the movement of the shaft.

Shaft: The armature winding is coupled on the iron rod is known as the shaft

of the motor.

Encoder: It has the approximate sensor which determines the rotational

speed of motor and revolution per minute of the motor.

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 Working of Servo Motors

 The servo has a position sensor, a DC motor, a gear system, a control circuit.
The DC motor run at high speed and low torque when getting power from a
battery. The position of shaft senses by position sensor from its definite
position and supply information to the control circuit.
The reduction gearbox is connected to a shaft which decreases the RPM of
the motor. The output shaft of the reduction gearbox is the same as of motor
which is connected with encoder or potentiometer.
The output of the encoder is then connected to the control circuit. The wires
of the servomotor are also connected to the control circuit.
The motor control through microcontroller by sending signals in the form of
PWM which decodes the control circuit to rotate the motor in required angle
the control circuit moves the motor in a clockwise or anticlockwise direction,
with this the shaft also rotates in the desired direction. 45
Applications of Servo Motors

 They are used to control the positioning and movement of elevators in

radio controlled airplanes.
 They play an important role in robotics information of robot because of
their smooth switching on or off and accurate positioning.
 They are used in hydraulic systems to maintain hydraulic fluid in the
aerospace industry.
In radio controlled toys these are also used.
They are used to extend or replay the disc trays in electronic devices such
as DVDs or Blue-ray Disc players.
They are used to maintain the speed of vehicles in the automobile
industries.

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 Electrical Drives

Diesel/petrol/gas/stream engines,
hydraulic motors, electric motors

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Advantages of Electrical Drives

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Block Diagram of Electric Drive System

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 Components in electric drives
Motors
• DC motors - permanent magnet – wound field
• AC motors – induction, synchronous
• brushless DC
• Applications, cost, environment
• Natural speed-torque characteristic is not compatible with load
requirements

Power sources
• DC – batteries, fuel cell, photovoltaic - unregulated
• AC – Single- three- phase utility, wind generator - unregulated

Power processor
• To provide a regulated power supply
• Combination of power electronic converters
•More efficient
•Flexible
•Compact
•AC-DC, DC-DC, DC-AC, AC-AC

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 Components in electric drives

Control unit
• Complexity depends on performance requirement
• analog- noisy, inflexible, ideally has infinite bandwidth.
• DSP/microprocessor – flexible, lower bandwidth - DSPs perform
faster operation than microprocessors (multiplication in single
cycle), can perform complex estimations
• Electrical isolation between control circuit and power circuit is
needed:
• Malfunction in power circuit may damage control circuit
• Safety for the operator
• Avoid conduction of harmonic to control circuit

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 Components in electric drives

Sensors
• Sensors (voltage, current, speed or torque) is normally
required for closed-loop operation or protection.
• Electrical isolation between sensors and control circuit is
needed.
• The term ‘sensorless drives’ is normally referred to the drive
system where the speed is estimated rather than measured.

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 Applications of Electric Drives
Transportation Systems
Rolling Mills
Paper Mills
Textile Mills
Machine Tools
Fans and Pumps
Robots
Washing Machines etc
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Chopper fed dc drive

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Factors for selection of Electrical Drives

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Solar Powered Pump System

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 Solar Powered Pump Drives with reciprocating pump

 For pump ratings of 1 kW and above, three phase induction

motor drive is employed.
 A PWM voltage source inverter with maximum-power-point-
tracker is used for variable frequency control of the squirrel-
cage induction motor.

Solar pump drive using induction motor 57

 Solar Powered Pump Drives with battery

 Solar Powered Pump Drives with an intermediate battery, can

also be used.
 The drive is fed from the battery charged by solar panel.

Solar pump with a battery

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Selection of drives and control schemes for lifts and cranes

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Selection of drives and control schemes for lifts and cranes

1) Quick Lift: To allow a lightly loaded or empty hoist to move up and

down faster than the base speed of the motor
2) Reverse Plug Simulation: When reversing directions, the inverter
will decelerate at a faster rate than the normal deceleration rate.
3) Load Hold (Hang Time): To hold a load aloft at zero speed without
setting the brake. Permit precise positioning of the load without
delays normally associated with mechanical operation of the brake.
4) Fast Stop: To Rapidly decelerate the drive when the run command is
removed i.e. when back-up limit switch is tripped

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 Selection of drives and control schemes for lifts and cranes
4) Speed Control: To accommodate five-speed cabin/pendant
control, infinitely variable speed control, and a bi-polar voltage
or analog current input speed command
5) Micro speed Positioning Control: To Permit extremely slow
movements for greater positioning accuracy
6) Dual Upper and Lower Limit Switch Inputs: To accommodate
limit-switch inputs on both the upper and lower travel of the
hoist displayed. Further movement in hoist direction is
prevented.
7) Torque Limits: Two sets of Fwd and rev torque limits are
provided.
8) Torque Limited Acceleration / Deceleration Times: For smooth
starts and stops to prevent load sway

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EV Control schemes

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EV Control schemes

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