I.

Introduction of Higher-
Order
ThinkingCognitive
II. Bloom’s (H.O.T.) and
Why?
Taxonomy
III. Why Do We Want to Teach
Higher-Order Thinking?
IV. How Do We Teach Higher-
Order
Thinking?
V. The High Investment of
Higher-
Order Thinking
Introduction
For decades, public schools prepared children to
be good citizens—and good factory workers.
Students were expected to sit, listen, and do
exactly as they were told.

In some respects, this

model served high
school graduates well
since they learned to
follow directions in
ways that would be
valuable to their
future employers.
What Is Higher-
Order
Thinking?
I. What Is Higher-Order
Thinking?
Appropriate teaching strategies and learning
environments that facilitate growth in student
thinking skills in area of critical, logical, reflective,
meta-cognitive, and creative Thinking.

This definition is consistent to

how higher order thinking skills
are learned and developed.
Although different theoreticians
and researchers use different
frameworks to describe higher
order skills and how they are
acquired, all frameworks are in
Higher-Order Thinking
essentially
means thinking that takes place in
the higher
level of hierarchy in the cognitive
processing.
While lower-order thinking is more easily
defined as mastering facts (such as being
able to describe the Water Cycle)

or
completing a task with specific steps
(such as being able to solve a two-
variable equation), that study ultimately
describes higher-order thinking as
thinking that is (or involves), that study
ultimately describes
 Why Higher-Order Thinking
As economic and technological changes shape
the occupational outlook of today’s students,
schools have begun to embrace the need to instill
“higher-order thinking” to prepare the 21st century
workforce.

No longer is it enough for

high school graduates
simply to know basic facts
and skills.
To be successful, students
must master decision-
making, prioritizing,
strategizing and
collaborative problem
solving.
II. Bloom’s Cognitive Taxonomy
In 1948, Benjamin Bloom led a team of educational
psychologists that met to discuss classroom
activities and what goals teachers should have in
mind when designing activities for their students
(Bloom, 1956).
Bloom’s aim was to
promote higher forms of
thinking in education, such
as analyzing and
evaluating, rather than just
teaching students to
remember facts (rote
learning).
Three domains of Learning
Learning was divided into three domains of
educational activity.
Cognitive:
mental skills (Knowledge)

Affective:
g
rowth in feelings or
emotional areas (Attitude or
self )

Psychomotor:
manual or physical skills
(Skills)
While Bloom’s Taxonomy is
Bloom’s Cognitive Taxonomy
While all three domains are important for a ‘rounded’
person,
it is the first domain , Cognitive that is the subject of
(H.O.T.)

The Cognitive domain

involves ‘knowledge and the
development of intellectual
skills’.
It is generally accepted that
each behavior needs to be
mastered before the next
one can take place.

This is useful knowledge in assisting teachers in

Cognitive Domain
It involves student knowledge.
It also involves the development of intellectual
attitudes and skills.

Bloom and his associates

ranked student cognitive
abilities in the cognitive domain
from simple to the most
complex into six categories.

These categories are

Knowledge, Comprehension,
Application, Analysis, Synthesis,
and Evaluation. This ranking is
known as Bloom's Taxonomy.
Bloom’s Taxonomy– l.Knowledge
Bloom defines the lowest level of student ability as
"knowledge." This category involves simple knowledge
of dates, events,
places, facts, terms, basic concepts, or answers.
Students aren't required to use this information in any
practical way. They're
simply asked to recall previously learned material.
Knowledge is the lowest level of the
scale. It involves nothing more than
information observation and
recollection. Nevertheless, Bloom
found that over ninety-five percent of
the activities students encountered
required thinking at only this level.
Even today, much of the software
used in schools is of the "skill and
drill" sort. This sort uses repetitive,
flashcard- like mechanisms to help
Bloom’s Taxonomy-
2.Comprehension
The second level of student ability is called
"comprehension." Comprehension requires students
to demonstrate an understanding of the information.
Students may show this by
summarizing main ideas,
translating a mathematical
word problem to numbers,
or by interpreting charts or
graphs. Students go further
with the information than
simply recalling it.
Comprehension task words
are "predict," "summarize,"
Bloom’s Taxonomy- 3.Application
"Application" is the third level of ability. It's observed
when students use methods, theories, or concepts in
new situations. Students don't simply interpret a
graph.
Instead, they may construct
a new graph using the data.
Or, they
may use a learned formula
to
solve an equation. The key
emphasis is that students
use an abstract idea,
theory, or principal in a
new, concrete situation to
solve a problem. Application
Bloom’s Taxonomy- 4.Analysis
Bloom calls the fourth level of ability "analysis."
Analysis requires the student to examine and break
information down into parts. The student uses these
parts to interpret and understand its meaning.
This level requires students to
"read between the lines," make
inferences, and find evidence to
support generalizations. This is a
more advanced level. It
mandates that the student see
the big picture. The student
must distinguish between facts
and
inferences while evaluating the
relevancy of data. Constructing
an outline from a reading
passage is an example of
analysis. Analysis task words are
Bloom’s Taxonomy- 5.Synthesis
"Synthesis" is the fifth level of student ability. It deals
with putting together parts to form a new whole.
This may involve putting ideas
together in a creative new
way. It may also involve using
old ideas to come up with new
ones. Writing a poem, giving a
well-organized speech, or
proposing a plan for a new
experiment would involve
synthesis. The student takes
information from several areas
and combines it to create a
new structure. Synthesis
task words are "integrate,"
"design," "invent," "modify,"
Bloom’s Taxonomy- 6.Evaluation
"Evaluation" is the sixth and highest level of
student ability. This level requires the student to
perform two simultaneous tasks. First, the student
must present and defend opinions.
Second,
material the
andstudent must make judgments about
Students compare and discriminate
the value
methods. of between ideas. They recognize
subjectivity. They judge the
adequacy with which conclusions
are supported by data. The rubric,
or evaluation criteria, may be
given to the student. Or, the
student may
devise it. The evaluation level is
considered the highest since it
incorporates elements of all the
other levels. It also requires the
student to add a conscious value
judgment based on clearly defined
criteria.
Higher-Order Thinking
Overall, “higher-order” thinking means handling
a situation that you have not encountered before
and is generally recognized as some combination
of the above characteristics.

It is thinking that
happens in the analysis,
synthesis, and
evaluation rungs of
Bloom’s ladder.
By contrast, “lower-order
thinking” is simple,
reflex-like, transparent,
and certain.
Higher-Order Thinking Skills
Higher order thinking skills are grounded in lower
order skills such as discriminations, simple
application and analysis, and cognitive strategies
and are linked to prior knowledge of subject matter
content.
 Why Higher-Order Thinking
Although most teachers learned about Bloom's
Taxonomy, many seldom challenge students beyond
the first two levels of cognition: knowledge and
comprehension.

Because most jobs in

the 21st century will
require employees to use
the four highest levels of
thinking—application,
analysis, synthesis, and
evaluation—this is
unacceptable in today's
instructional programs. We
must expect students to
Fostering Higher-Order
Thinking
In 1987, the National Research Council sponsored a
project
that attempted to synthesize all the many theories
about higher-order thinking.

The express goal of

the project was to
make
recommendations
about how to foster
higher-order
thinking
in students.
High Order Thinking (H.O.T.)
Skills
Higher order thinking skills include Critical Thinking
skills which are logical, reflective, meta-cognitive
and creative. They are activated when individuals
encounter unfamiliar problems, uncertainties,
questions, or dilemmas.
Applications of the skills
result in
Reasoning,
Evaluating,
Problem solving,
Decisions making &
Analyzing products that are
valid within the context of
available knowledge and
Wise judgment in Critical Thinking
In critical thinking, being able ‘to
think’ means students can apply wise
judgment or produce
a reasoned critique. The goal of
teaching is then to equip students to
be wise by guiding them towards how
to make sound decisions and exercise
reasoned judgment. The skills
students need to be taught to do this
include: the ability to judge the
credibility of a source; identify
assumptions, generalisation and bias;
identify connotation in language use;
understand the purpose of a written
or spoken text; identify the audience;
and to make
critical judgments about the relative
effectiveness of various strategies
used to meet the purpose of the text.
Teaching (H.O.T.) Skills
It is hard to imagine a teacher or school leader
who is not aware of the importance of teaching
higher-order thinking (H.O.T.) skills to prepare
young men and women to live in the 21st
Century.
However, the extent
to which higher-
order thinking skills
are taught and
assessed continues
to be an area of
debate, with many
teachers and
employers
expressing concern
Teaching (H.O.T.) Skills
Teachers are good at writing and asking literal
questions
(e.g., “Name the parts of a flower”), but we tend
to do this far too often.

Students must be taught to

find the information they
need, judge its worth, and
think at higher levels. There is
simply too much information
in the world for us to waste
students' time with
regurgitations of basic facts.
As Bellanca (1997) states:
III. Why Do We Want to Teach
Higher-Order Thinking?
We push toward higher-order thinking skills in
the classroom
because they have enormous benefits for our
students.

The reasoning here

is similar to the
rationale for pushing
knowledge into our
long-term memory.
Why Do We Want to Teach
Higher- Order Thinking?
First, information learned and processed through
higher-order thinking processes is remembered
longer and more clearly than information that is
processed through lower-order, rote memorization.
Consider for example, the
difference between
memorizing a formula and
explaining the derivation of
the formula.
In this case, a student who
has the latter-type of
understanding will carry that
knowledge longer.
Deep Conceptual understanding
Research study showed that students are more
likely to apply a skill to solve new problems when
they have a deep conceptual understanding of that
skill than when there is a lack of this conceptual
understanding.

One researcher used

two methods to teach
children the “drop-
perpendicular”
method
for computing the area

of a parallelogram.
 Memorizing a formula
Group A

lxh =

Students in Group A simply

memorized by rote the “drop perpendicular”
method and applied it to the shape,
successfully finding the area of the
parallelogram.
Explaining derivation of the
formula
Students in Group B were provided the reasoning behind
the process. They were shown how one could cut off a
triangular portion of a parallelogram and re-attach it at
the other end to make a rectangle.
Group B
h h

l l

lxh =

The students
were led to understand that the method is actually
a simple variation on the “(length) x (width)” =
(area)” formula that they already knew for
 Application of the deep conceptual
understanding in problem solving
The students were led to understand that the
method is
actually a simple variation on the “(length) x
(width)” = (area)” formula that they already knew for
rectangles.

This set of students, Group B,

then applied the method and,
like Group A, successfully
found the area of
the parallelogram.

Then, when a parallelogram were presented in an unusual

orientation, Group A students incorrectly applied the
process, arriving at an incorrect answer. Group B students,
Why Do We Want to Teach Higher-
Order Thinking?
Knowledge obtained through higher-order
thinking processes is more easily transferable,

so that students with a

deep conceptual
understanding of an
idea will be much more
likely to be able to
apply that knowledge
to solve new problems.
Teaching Higher-Order Thinking
This sort of higher-order “transfer” of
understanding is the key to good thinking and
problem solving. Good thinking and problem
solving
the realskills make learned knowledge applicable
in
world. As teachers of students who
are often lagging behind
their peers in better
resourced schools, we have
a mandate to do all that we
can to ensure that our
students are engaging new
knowledge at a
level that will allow them to
transfer it to new real-world
applications. If our students
can add numbers with
Teaching Higher-Order
Thinking
So, you know that your students are engaged in
higher-order thinking when they: a problem by
• Visualize
•diagramming it
Separate relevant from
irrelevant
information
• Seek reasons in a word
and causes
problem
• Justify solutions
• See more than one side of a
problem
• Weigh sources of information
based
on their credibility
• Reveal assumptions in
reasoning
• Identify bias or logical
Teaching Higher-Order
“Non-algorithmic” Involving paths of action for solving
Thinking problems that are not specified in
advance (creative problem solving)

Complex
Involving problem solving where multiple
solutions
are possible
Effortful
Involving considerable mental energy
directed
toward problem solving
Nuanced
judgments
Involving subtle, less-than-obvious
decisions about
Application of
strategies
multiple
criteria Involving transferal of some (sometimes
Teaching Higher-Order
Thinking
Uncertainty Involving problems that do
about not provide a clear
starting point
what is Involving some degree of
meta- cognition and self-
known Self- awareness about
strategies being employed
regulation
Involving development
and application of new
Imposition of theories onto sets of facts
Teaching Higher-Order Thinking?
If our students can write a persuasive essay, can
they write a letter to their banks requesting a
loan, their senators arguing policy points, or,
someday, their children’s teachers calling for
high expectations for their children?
Teaching Higher-Order Thinking?

If our students can list

the steps in the scientific
method, can they also
recognize that the
conclusions drawn by a
polluting company failed
to be reached using that
scientific method?
IV. How Do We Teach Higher-
Order Thinking?
Higher order thinking is a very difficult to teach.
Thinking aloud is the most effective. Whenever
students are being pushed to their academic levels,
or being forced to apply what they
know, they often need to be shown how to think.
They need to be aware
that there should be
something going on in their
head. I always model my
thinking aloud. I pretend to
be a student in the class
and put on a special hat.
When that hat is on, I use
Heuristics: Tools for Solving
Problems

Heuristics are general problem-solving strategies

that may
help students tackle difficult questions.
You can practice these techniques with your
students and then provide novel situations for
them to apply their newly acquired skills
 10 Heuristics Problems Solving
strategies
1) Do not focus only on the details; try to
see the
forest as well as the trees.
2) Do not rush to a solution rashly.
3) Try working backwards by starting with
the goal.
4) Create a model using pictures,
diagrams,
symbols or equations.
7) Discuss a problem aloud until a solution
5) Use analogies: “What does this remind
emerges.
8) Keep track of partial solutions so you can come back
me of?”
to them and
resume where 6)you
Look
leftfor unconventional or new ways
off.
to use the available
9) Break tools.into parts.
the problem
10) Work on a simpler version of the problem.
IV. How Do We Teach Higher-
Order Thinking?
The importance of higher-order thinking makes it a
priority in our classroom, but how does one teach
towards higher-order thinking?
How does one foster the
kind of deep conceptual
understanding that is
transferable to various
academic contexts and,
perhaps more
importantly, to real-world
problems?
We have gathered here
various strategies for
doing just that:
IV. How Do We Teach Higher-
Order Thinking?
If you are studying persuasive writing, have all
students write a letter to a local leader on some
hot-button topic in your community.
If you are considering
how to teach the
scientific method, look
for community issues
that will simultaneously
motivate your students
and provide them an
authentic context for
applying the
skills you are teaching.
Teaching Higher-Order Thinking
(1) Teach skills through real-world contexts.
Because higher-order thinking is difficult—after
all, you are asking students to make decisions,
rather than simply follow a prescriptive path—it
will help your cause if you build motivation for
the tasks you have developed.

If you are teaching your

students when to use the
various equipment
operations, bring them to

the workshop and

demonstrate the
application.
Teaching Higher-Order Thinking
(2) Vary the context in which students use a
newly taught skill.
Another prerequisite for
(H.O.T.) is flexible
approaches to problem
solving. Besides an
emphasis on real world
application of skills, a
teacher should work to
introduce students to a
variety of real- world
contexts in using a
particular skill.

The more settings in which a student uses some

Teaching Higher-Order Thinking
(For example, to teach addition of numbers
with decimal points, have students work with
and add decimal-laden temperatures, metric-
based measurements of the lengths of walls,
and the scores from skating competitions.)

By coming at a skill from many different angles,

you will loosen the contextual grip that a
student’s mind may have linking a particular
skill with a particular circumstance.
Teaching Higher-Order Thinking
(3) Throughout your instruction, take every
opportunity to emphasize the building
blocks of higher-order thinking.
Teach content in ways that require students to:
Build background knowledge.
The more your students are
gaining and retaining
information about the world
around them, the more they
bring to the table when
solving complex problems.
Help students tap into what
they already know, which
might just be the
information needed to
Teaching Higher-Order Thinking
Classify things into categories.
You might, for example, have your first
graders develop and create categories for a
series of words based on their structure.

Students might come up

with categories based on
first letter, ending letter,
or vowel sound. Arrange
items along some
dimension.
Teaching Higher-Order Thinking
As you are teaching students to write persuasive
essays, you might provide students with five
different essays of different qualities, asking the
students to rank them and explain their ranking.
Teaching Higher-Order
Thinking
Make hypotheses. In any type of “discovery
learning,” ask students to mentally conduct
the experiment before you actually do conduct
it.

“What do you think

will happen when I
tape this weight to the
side of the ball and
throw it?”
Teaching Higher-Order Thinking
Draw inferences.
“Having now read these three letters from American
soldiers in Vietnam, what can we tell about the
experience of being there?” Analyze things into their
components.
“What sound does ‘shout’
start with?
How do you write that
sound?”
or “What influences do you

think were weighing on the

President’s mind when he
made that decision?”
Solve problems. Puzzles and problems can be
Meta-cognitive Development
Meta-cognitive development supports students'
internalization of strategies. It does this through a
conscious focus on the implementation of plans of
attack.

Meta-cognitive
development
fosters student
autonomy
through self-
monitoring and
self-assessment
(Walqui, 1992).
Meta-cognitive Development
An example is teaching what a "good" reader does
as he or she reads. The actual steps could be
outlined to the students.

This way, the students

can copy the steps

themselves as they
read. Students can
stop from time to time
during their reading
and examine whether
they're getting
the main idea,
understanding the
Teaching Higher-Order Thinking
Think about planning (“How should I approach this
problem?
What additional resources or information do I
need?”

Purposefully
allocate time and
energy (“How do I
prioritize my tasks
in order to most
efficiently solve
this problem?”)
Teaching Higher-Order Thinking
Specifically, for a teacher, this means delineating and
teaching specific problem-attack strategies, giving
students time to ponder difficult answers for
themselves, and modeling those strategies by
thinking aloud to solve problems during guided
practice.
Teaching Higher-Order Thinking
New Jersey, Susan Asiyanbi realized that many of her
fourth grade math students lacked proficiency in open-
ended questions because of their lack of reading
comprehension:
She then had them break down any higher-order problem
into five steps:

Q. Question,
F. Facts,
S. Strategy,
S. Solve, and
C. Check.

After modeling how to

break down sample problems into these five steps, she
had her students identify and write down the questions
Teaching Higher-Order Thinking
Only then could they solve the problem. Once done,
they went back to the question and made sure they
answered every part.

Children are very quick to

solve
a problem and often do
not recognize that they
have not finished all the
steps or are not answering
the question being asked.

These basic five steps ensured that all of the

students could feel successful, regardless of reading
Teaching Higher-Order Thinking
Theproblem ProblemSolving: Draw a Picture
drawcoulda pictureb edstrategyby drawingis a problema pcture:-solving technique in which studens mak

The draw a picture strategy is a

a visual representation of the problem. For example, the folowing

problem-solving technique in which students make

a visual representation of the problem.

eg. A frog is at the bottom of

a 10-
meter well.
Each
day he climbs up 3 meters.
Each night he slides down 1
meter. On what day will he
reach the top
of the well and escape?
Teaching Higher-Order Thinking
Why Is Draw a Picture method so Important?
Drawing a diagram or other type of visual
representation is often
a good starting point for solving all kinds of word
problems.
It is an intermediate step between language-as-text
and the symbolic language of mathematics.
By representing units of
measurement and other
objects visually, students can
begin to think about the
problem
mathematically.
Pictures and diagrams are also
good ways of describing
Teaching Higher-Order Thinking
Keep in mind that these techniques can be
implemented in all classrooms at all levels. Do not
make the mistake of thinking that higher-order
thinking should be reserved for older students, or
for high performing students, or for supplemental
activities.

In fact, one of the

recommendations
from the National
Research Council’s
study of higher-
order thinking was
that we
not wait to move to
higher-order.
Teaching Higher-Order Thinking
The Council suggested that we teach content at
the earliest grades through open-ended complex
problems.

While some degree of

common sense is obviously
called for with younger
students who may not have
the capacity for all forms of
higher-order thinking,
research indicates that even
the youngest
of students can be prepared
for higher-order thinking
through an
emphasis on basic problem
Teaching Higher-Order Thinking
All of the developmental approaches have
emphasized the fact there is a natural progression
in thinking from lower
forms to higher forms with age or experience.

This developmental
progression implies that
students need to have a
certain amount of education,
experience, or practice
before they can become
capable of the highest forms
of thought. . . .

And yet, each approach also reveals that it is

wrong to assume that teachers should do nothing
Teaching Higher-Order Thinking
This also means that the “lower-level” mastery of
basic
facts and skills plays a critical role in supporting
the development of higher-order thinking.

Teachers must give

their students a lot of
experience making a
data table if they are
going to expect them
to be able to access
that strategy to their
toolbox when tackling
open-ended problems.
IV. The High Investment of
Higher- Order Thinking
Teaching higher-order thinking requires more
work from the teacher. Higher-order thinking
takes considerable time to develop through lots
of practice in different contexts.

As researcher Jere Brophy

emphasizes, teaching
higher-order thinking
requires a commitment to
class discussion,
debate, and
problem-solving, all of which
take
time.
IV. The High Investment of
Higher- Order Thinking
Teaching involves inducing conceptual change in
students, not infusing information into a vacuum,
[and this] will be facilitated by the interactive
discourse
activitie during lessons and
Clear explanations and
s.
modeling from the
teacher are important,
but so are opportunities
to answer questions
about the content,
discuss or debate its
meanings and
implications, or apply it
in authentic problem-
solving or decision-
Conclusion and Key Concepts
By now, you should understand what is meant by
“higher- order thinking.
You should recognize why
we want to teach higher-
order thinking,
understanding
that a deeper conceptual
understanding of ideas is
remembered longer and
is more transferable to
other contexts.

You should also understand that higher-order

thinking is best taught through real-world contexts
and by varying the scenarios in which students must
use their newly-acquired skills.
Conclusion and Key Concepts
You should emphasize the building blocks of
higher-order thinking and encourage students to
think about the strategies they are using to
solve problems.

As victims of the
achievement gap, our
students need to make
significant academic
gains just to catch up
with many other
students and to have an
even chance at life’s
opportunities.

One of the ways that you can help provide that

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Examples of Activities that
Promote Higher Order Thinking
Examples of Activities: Science

Apply a Rule:
The student could be asked to explain why a
shotgun "kicks" when fired. His response would
include a statement to the effect that for every
action there is an equal and opposite reaction
(Newton's Law of Motion), and that the "kick" of the
shotgun is equal to the force propelling the shot
toward its target. The
faster the shot travels and the greater the weight of
the shot, the greater the "kick" of the gun.
Examples of Activities that Promote
Higher Order Thinking
Classify:
Given several examples of each, the student could be
asked to classify materials according to their physical
properties as gas, liquid, or solid.

Construct:
The student could be asked to construct a model of a
carbon atom.
Examples of Activities that Promote
Higher Order Thinking

Define:
Given several types of plant leaves, the student could
be asked to define at least three categories for
classifying them. NOTE: Defining is not memorizing
and writing definitions created by someone else -- it is
creating definitions.

Demonstrate:
Given a model of the earth, sun, and moon so devised
that it may be manipulated to show the orbits of the
earth and moon, the student could be asked to
demonstrate the cause of various phases of the moon
as viewed from earth.
Examples of Activities that
Promote Higher Order Thinking

Describe:
The student could be asked to describe the
conditions essential for a balanced aquarium that
includes four goldfish.

Diagram:
The student could be asked to diagram the life
cycle of a grasshopper.
Examples of Activities that Promote
Higher Order Thinking
Distinguish:
Given a list of paired element names, the student
could be asked to distinguish between the metallic and
non-metallic element in each pair.

Estimate:
The student could be asked to estimate the amount of
heat given
off by one liter of air compressed to one-half its
original volume.
Examples of Activities that
Promote Higher Order Thinking
Evaluate:
Given several types of materials, the student could
be asked to evaluate them to determine which is
the best conductor of electricity.

Identify:
Given several types of materials, the student could
be asked to identify those which would be attracted
to a magnet.
 Examples of Activities that Promote
Higher Order Thinking

Interpret:
The student could be asked to interpret a weather map
taken from a newspaper.

Locate:
The student could be asked to locate the position of
chlorine on the periodic table. NOTE: To locate is to
describe location. It is not identification of location.
Examples of Activities that Promote
Higher Order Thinking
Measure:
Given a container graduated in cubic centimeters, the
student
could be asked to measure a specific amount of liquid.

Name:
The student could be asked to name the parts of an
electromagnet. Order: The student could be asked to
order a number of animal life forms according to their
normal length of life.
Examples of Activities that
Promote Higher Order Thinking
Predict:
From a description of the climate and soils of an area,
the student could be asked to predict the plant
ecology of the area

Solve:
The student could be asked to solve the following:
How many grams of H2O will be formed by the
complete combustion of one liter of hydrogen at 70
degrees C?
Examples of Activities that
Promote Higher Order Thinking

State a Rule:
The student could be asked to state a rule that tell
what form the offspring of mammals will be, i.e. they
will be very similar to their parent organisms.

Translate:
The student could be asked to translate 93,000,000
into standard scientific notation.