Fuels

Fuels
 is any substance that can provide heat and produce
energy when it is burned.

 is a combustible substance that mostly consists of

carbon.

 On proper burning in the presence of air, Fuel releases

a considerable amount of energy in the form of heat and
light.

 produce an immense amount of energy, which is

economically used for various domestic and industrial
 The flame, for example, produces light when
we burn a paper with a matchstick. If we look
closely, light energy is not created there;
rather, it is produced as a result of the
matchstick’s heat energy being transformed
into light energy. As a result, humans always
require certain materials to convert one form
of energy into another in order to complete
numerous tasks. Fuels are what we term
such materials.
Examples of Fuels

 Methanol.
 Gasoline.
 Diesel.
 Natural gas.
 Hydrogen.
 Biodiesel.
 What is the Calorific value?
o Calorific Value of a fuel is the total quantity of heat
liberated by complete combustion of a unit (or
volume) of the fuel.

o It can be expressed as:

British Centigra
Kilocalor de
Calorie Thermal
ie Heat Unit
Unit
Characteristics
of good fuel
 High Calorific Values
 Moderate Ignition Temperature
 Low Moisture Content
 Low Ash Content
 Should not produce harmful products such as CO₂,
SO2 , H 2S which are toxic and cause pollution
 Low cost
 Easy storage
 Easy transportation
Classification of
Fuels:
A.Base on Occurrence
B.Base on the State of
Aggregation
A.Base on Occurrence
 1. Natural or Primary Fuels

 are obtained naturally and can be extracted, filtered,

cleaned, or graded without any energy expenditure.
 Such fuels are processed and collected before
converting into heat or mechanical work.
 These primary fuels are likely to be non-renewable,
and some of the well-known primary fuels are fossil
fuels.

 examples: coal, wood, crude oil, natural gas, peat,

etc.
 2. Artificial or Secondary Fuels

 are derived from primary fuels by purifying or

removing some impurities by various chemical or
physical processes.
 Secondary fuels are not found directly as a
natural resource. But they are processed forms
of primary fuels
 examples: kerosene, charcoal, petrol, diesel,
water gas, biogas, etc.
B. Base on the State
of Aggregation
 1. Solid Fuel

 All the fuels that exist in a

solid-state are known as
solid fuels.

 Example: Coal, Bituminous,

Anthracite, Peat, Wood,
Coke, Charcoal, etc.
Advantages:
○ Easier transportation and storage.
○ Low production cost.
○ Moderate ignition temperature.
Disadvantages:
o Large portion of energy is wasted.
o Cost of handling is high and controlling is
also hard.
o Ash content is high & burn with clinker
formation.
 2. Liquid Fuel

 All the fuels that exist in

the liquid state are known
as liquid fuels.

 Example: Diesel, Petrol,

Kerosene, Crude oil.
 Advantages:
o Higher calorific value per unit mass.
o Burn without ash, clinkers, etc.
o Controlling the combustion is easier.
o Transportation easier through pipes and
stored indefinitely without loss.
o Loss of energy is comparatively lower.
o Require less furnace space for combustion.
 Disadvantages:

o Cost of liquid fuel is much higher compared

to solid fuel.
o Storage methods are costlier.
o Greater risk of fire hazards.
o Special burning equipment required for more
efficient combustion.
 3. Gaseous Fuel

 All the fuels that exist in the gaseous state are

known as gaseous fuels.
 Gaseous fuels are derived from different sources.
 Most gaseous fuels are composed of hydrocarbons,
carbon monoxide, hydrogen or a mixture of them
all. They are:
1. Natural Gas
2. Gaseous fuels are obtained from other
processes
 1. Natural gas:

 occurs near coal and petroleum deposits.

 They mainly contain methane gas along with other

components.
 They have high calorific value.

 Natural gas is liquified to form compressed Natural

Gas (CNG).
 2. Gaseous fuels are obtained from other
processes:

 Biomass and waste produce biogas from

fermentation, LPG (Liquified Petroleum Gas) is
obtained from various petroleum refining
processes and many more.
 Advantages:

o Transportation through pipes is easy.

o Sparking combustion is really easy.
o They have a higher heat content.
o Clean after use.
o Do Not require any special burner technology.
 Disadvantages:

o Large storage tanks required.

o As they are highly inflammable, the chance

for fire hazards are extremely high and strict
safety measures need to be followed.
 LPG
o is a predominant mixture of propane and butane
with a small percentage of unsaturated (Propylene
and Butylene) and some lighter C2 as well as
heavier C5 fractions.
o defined as those hydrocarbons, which are gaseous
at normal atmospheric pressure, but may be
condensed to the liquid state at normal
temperature, by the application of moderate
pressures.
Difference
between CNG and
LPG
CNG LPG
What are Fossil Fuels?
 Fossil Fuels

o are fuels made from the decomposition of dead remains of

plants and animals.

o These fuels mainly contain carbon and hydrogen and are

found in the Earth’s crust.

o Some examples of fossil fuels are coal, petroleum, crude oil.

Formation of Coal
Millions of years ago, dead plants and animals were
deposited deep inside the Earth. Initially, these dead
organic materials decomposed into peat. As time passed
on, under high pressure and temperature, oxygen,
hydrogen, and nitrogen was removed from them, and only
carbon content was left that decomposed into coal. Coal
is a natural fossil fuel that is extracted by mining. It is a
huge source of energy. This process of coal formation from
the decomposition of buried plants is known as
‘Metamorphism’.
Why are Fossil Fuels
Exhaustible Natural
Resources?
The formation of fossil fuels is a time-consuming
process; it takes millions of years. Hence, it will
again take another million years to replenish
them once they get completely consumed. It
means the rate at which fossil fuels are
consumed due to human activities is very fast
compared to the rate of their formation. The
amount of these exhaustible resources of energy
is available in a limited quantity. Thus, fossil
fuels are exhaustible natural resources.
 Burning Fossil Fuels
refers to burning coal, crude oil, and natural
gas to generate energy. This energy is used to
generate electricity and other industrial
activities. Petrol, diesel, and CNG are widely
used as fuels for running vehicles that help
transportation. Coal was firstly used around the
1700s as a fuel in fired steam engines.
With time, the burning of fossil fuels has steadily
increased. Each year, all across the world, fossil
fuels are burned to produce around 35 million
tonnes of carbon dioxide, which is a significant
reason for global warming. Along with carbon
dioxide, other gases such as nitrogen oxides,
sulphur, and many other harmful gases are
released into the atmosphere that adversely
affects our environment. This combustion of fossil
fuels can be explained by the chemical equation
given below:
Alternatives to
Fossil Fuels
1. Wind Energy is widely used to produce electricity
by using wing mills.

2. Solar energy is one of the major renewable

energy sources available on our planet. Various
solar cells and solar panels are used to generate
electricity.

3. Hydroelectricity – Water is used as a source of

energy in hydropower plants.
4. Biofuel – Biodiesel is a liquid fuel produced from
renewable sources, such as vegetable oils and
animal fats and is a suitable replacement for diesel
fuel. Biodiesel is non-toxic and biodegradable.

5. Nuclear Fuel – Nuclear fuel is the fuel that is used to

produce a tremendous amount of energy in a
nuclear reactor to carry on a nuclear chain reaction.
These fuels are fissionable; Uranium−235 and
Plutonium−239 are the most common nuclear fuels.
They also produce less air pollution.
6. Hydrogen fuel – Nowadays, Hydrogen fuel has
proved to be one of the best alternatives to fossil
fuels due to its high calorific value and efficiency.
a. a. Hydrogen is readily available in the
environment in H2O, hydrocarbons, and other
organic matter.

b. It is highly efficient as compared to other energy

sources.

c. Hydrogen fuel is environmentally friendly as it

Properties of
an Ideal Fuel
1. Calorific Value: It is the quantity of heat produced
by the combustion of a fuel. The primary purpose of
the fuel is to convert the maximum of its chemical
energy into heat energy and other forms of energy on
combustion. The higher the calorific value of a fuel,
the more ideal a fuel is considered.

2. Ignition Temperature: The minimum temperature

at which a substance catches fire is known as its
ignition temperature. An ideal fuel must have an
easily achievable ignition temperature.
3. Rate of Combustion: Combustion of an ideal fuel
should take place at a constant or ordinary rate. If a
fuel undergoes rapid and explosive combustion, it
cannot be considered an ideal fuel.

4. Environmental Friendly: The major concern while

using fuel is its impact on our environment. An ideal
fuel must leave less residue on burning by complete
combustion, so as not to add particulate matter in the
atmosphere—for example, CNG, LPG, etc.
5. Readily available: Availability is also a
significant factor for an ideal fuel. It should be
readily available whenever needed and at a low
cost.

6. Handling: Easy storage and transportation of

fuel gives better accessibility, prevents the loss
of fuel, and protects the environment.
Proximate analysis of
coal and its
importance
 Analysis of Coal

 Coal Analysis techniques are specific

analytical methods designed to measure the
particular physical and chemical properties of
coal. There are two methods to analyze coal
i.e., the proximate analysis and the ultimate
analysis.
 The proximate analysis determines only the
fixed carbon, volatile matter, moisture and
ash percentages.

 Useful to find out HCV

 Needs simple analysis Equipment

Proximate Analysis
Involves the following
determinations in terms of
percentage by weight:
Moisture means the water expelled from the fuel by specialized
methods without causing any chemical change to the fuel. Hence,
lesser the moisture content better is the quality of fuel.
Volatile matter is the loss in weight minus the moisture when the
fuel is heated to a sufficiently high temperature under specified
conditions. A high volatile matter containing coal burns with a long
flame, high smoke and has low calorific value.
Ash is the inorganic residue left when the fuel is completely burnt
in air under specified conditions.
Fixed Carbon is the residue obtained by subtracting the sum of
the percentages by weight of moisture, volatile matter and ash
from 100. it is essentially carbon containing minor amounts of
nitrogen, sulphur, oxygen, and hydrogen.
 Importance of Proximate Analysis

Moisture content:
 Excess of moisture is undesirable in coal.
 It lowers the effective calorific value of the coal.
 It consumes some of the liberated heat in the form of latent heat of
vapourization of water. For every percentage of moisture, about 10%
of heat is lost.
 Presence of moisture quenches the fire in the furnace
 Excessive surface moisture generally causes difficulty in handling the
coal.
 Presence of moisture increases the transport cost and causes difficulty
in heating.
 Presence of about 10% moisture produces uniform fuel bed and low fly
ash.
Volatile matter:
 High percentage of volatile matter indicates that high proportion of fuel distill over as
gas vapour. The coal burns with long smoky flame and possess low calorific value.
 For burning the coal with high volatile content, it requires larger combustion space. A
large proportion of gas escapes without burning, if volatile matter is present in the large
quantity.
 Coals containing 26-30% volatile matter yield hard and strong coke on carbonization.
Whereas high volatile coals do not cake well.
 Coals containing low volatile matter do not cake at all and are not suitable for
manufacturing coke.
 In the volatile matter the combustible gases like CH4 H 2 CO and some hydrocarbons
may be present. But non combustible gases like CO2 and N2 should be absent.
 High volatile matter is desirable on by in “coal gas” manufacture.
Ash Content:

 Ash content is undesirable.

 It is a non-combustible matter which does not contribute to calorific
value of coal.
 It causes trouble by forming clinkers which blocks the interspaces of
the grate, obstruct flow of air and heat.
 It increases transportation, handling and storage costs.
 Ash leads to large heat losses and causes problem of clinkering. About
1% increase in coal ash, leads to 4% decrease in boiler efficiency.
 It affects the slag and metal composition in metallurgical operations.
 The coal particles gets embedded in clinkers and leads to loss of fuel.
 Some ash is desirable as it protects the grate from oxidation when it
comes in direct contact with the coal.
Fixed Carbon:

 Fixed carbon is the carbon which burns in solid state.

 Higher the percentage of fixed carbon, greater the

calorific value of fuel, better the quality of coal and
smaller the percentage of volatile matter.

 Fixed carbon also helps in designing the furnace and

shape of fire-box.
Difference Between Octane
Number and Cetane Number
Octane Number and the Cetane Number are
used as reference points for determining the quality
of gasoline and diesel fuel and how likely a fuel is to
catch fire on its own. The efficiency of gasoline fuel
is determined by its octane number, whereas diesel
is evaluated using its cetane number. Gasoline with
a high cetane rating has a low octane rating, the
opposite is also true. Because of this, neither
gasoline nor diesel can be used in a vehicle’s engine
that runs on either of those fuel types.
 Octane Number of Gasoline Fuel
The octane number of a fuel specifies the amount of iso-
octane (2,2,4-trimethylpentane) in the blend of iso-
Octane (Octane number 100) and normal-heptane
(Octane number 0).
Octane rating is the measure of the gasoline fuel’s
resistance to knock during combustion in an engine. The
higher the resistance higher will be the Octane number
and the lower will be the knocking in an engine. Higher
octane number or high resistance to knock will cause
efficient combustion of fuel and as a result low knocking
 Cetane Number of Diesel Fuel
The cetane number or cetane rating is measure of the
ignition quality or knocking tendency of diesel fuel in a
diesel engine. It is used to predict how easily the diesel
fuel will ignite and burn when injected into the
combustion chamber of a diesel engine. A high cetane
number indicates a fuel that burns smoothly in the engine
cylinder with minimum delay between fuel injection and
autoignition.
The cetane number scale is based upon two
hydrocarbons, Cetane (n-hexadene,C16H34) and
isocetane (2,3,4,5,6,7,8-heptamethylnonane, C11H10).the
cetane number of cetane is 100which has a short delay
period during ignition. Whereas the cetane number of
heptamethylnonane is 15 and has a long delay period.
The cetane number of a fuel is measure of how much n-
hexadecane is present in a mixture of n-hexadecane and
1-methylnaphthalene, which slows the ignition process.
 There are four categories of these
processes:
• Electrowinning, the extraction of metal from ores
• Electrorefining, the purification of metals. Metal
powder production by electrodeposition is included in
this category, or sometimes electrowinning, or a
separate category depending on application.
• Electroplating, the deposition of a layer of one metal
on another
• Electroforming, the manufacture of, usually thin,
metal parts through electroplating
 Chemistry is good
when you make love
with it. Chemistry is
bad when you make
crack with it.
-Frederick Soddy-