Lecture 01

Contents
1. Fundamental of PS Protection
2. Desirable Protection Attributes
3. PS Protection Components
4. Types of Protection System
5. Protection Zones

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1. Fundamentals of PS Protection
• Power-system protection is a branch of electrical power
engineering that deals with the protection of electrical
power systems from faults through the isolation of faulted
parts from the rest of the electrical network.
• The objective of a protection scheme is to keep the power
system stable by isolating only the components that are
under fault, whilst leaving as much of the network as
possible still in operation.

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 Cont’d......
• In protection, the primary objectives is to have faulted
zone’s primary protection that operates first.
• But if there are protective relays failures, some form of
backup protection is provided, this would be secondary
objective.
• The term backup protection designates a form of
protection that operates independently of specified
devices in the main protection system.
• Backup protection is local (if local primary protection
fails to clear fault) and remote (if remote protection fails
to operate to clear fault) 3
2. Desirable Protection Attributes
• Reliability:- System operate properly
• Security:- Don’t trip when it shouldn’t
• Selectivity:- Trip the minimal amount to clear the fault
or abnormal operating condition
• Speed:- Usually the faster the better in terms of
minimizing equipment damage and maintaining system
integrity
• Simplicity:- no complicated operation
• Economic:- shouldn’t break the bank

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 3. PS Protection Components
• Protection systems usually comprise the following
components:
Instrument Transformers (VT & CT):- to step down the
high voltages and currents of the electrical power system to
convenient levels for the relays to deal with
Protective Relays:- to sense the fault and initiate a trip, or
disconnection, order;
Circuit breakers:- to open/close the system based on relay
and auto recloser commands;
Batteries:- to provide power in case of power
disconnection in the system.
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 Cont’d..........

Insulators - to insulate equipment from ground and other

phases
Isolators (switches) - to create a visible and permanent
isolation of primary equipment for maintenance purposes
and route power flow over certain buses.
Bus - to allow multiple connections (feeders) to the same
source of power (transformer).
Communication channels:- to allow analysis of current
and voltage at remote terminals of a line and to allow
remote tripping of equipment. 6
 Cont’d..........
Grounding - to operate and maintain equipment safely by
diverting current to the ground.
Arrester - to protect primary equipment of sudden
overvoltage (lightning strike).
Reactors - to limit fault current (series) or compensate for
charge current (shunt)
Regulators - voltage, current, VAR, phase angle, etc.
• Integrated scheme of components for switching, protection,
metering and control of power flow is known as switchyard.

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 4. Types of Protection System

A. Overcurrent Protection
Uses current to determine magnitude of fault
May employ definite time or inverse time curves
Coordination is depending on time
May use various polarizing voltages or ground current for
directionality for loop network

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 Cont’d..........
Instantaneous Overcurrent Coordination (IOC) or
Definite Time Overcurrent

• Relay closest to fault operates first

• Relays closer to source operate
slower
• Time between operating for same
current is called CTI (Clearing Time
Interval)

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 Cont’d.......
B. Differential Protection
 Operates depend on principle of current in equal to current out
 May employ definite time or inverse time curves
 Very fast
 Very defined clearing area

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 Cont’d........

Normal condition Faulty condition

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 Cont’d..........
C. Voltage
Uses voltage to infer fault or abnormal condition
May employ definite time or inverse time curves
May also be used for under voltage load shedding
Simple
May be slow
Selectivity at the cost of speed (coordination stacks)
Inexpensive

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 Cont’d..........

D. Frequency
Uses frequency of voltage to detect power balance
condition
May employ definite time or inverse time curves
Used for load shedding & machinery under/over speed
protection
Simple
May be slow
Selectivity at the cost of speed can be expensive
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 Cont’d.........
E. Power
Uses voltage and current to determine power flow
magnitude and direction
Typically definite time
Complex
May be slow
Accuracy important for many applications
Can be expensive

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 Cont’d........
E. Distance (impedance)
Uses voltage and current to determine impedance of fault
Set on impedance [R-X] plane
Uses definite time
Impedance related to distance from relay
Complicated
Fast
Somewhat defined clearing area with reasonable accuracy
Expensive
Communication aided schemes make more selective
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 Cont’d.........
X ZL
• Relay in Zone 1 operates first
• Time between Zones is called CTI

R ZB
T2
ZA
T1

21 21

16
A B
Source
 5. Protection Zones
1. Generator or Generator-Transformer
Units
2. Transformers
3. Buses
4. Lines (transmission and distribution)
5. Utilization equipment (motors, static
loads, etc.)
6. Capacitor or reactor (when
separately protected)

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 Cont’d............

Bus zone Bus zone Bus zone

Unit Generator-Tx zone

Line zone
Transformer zone Motor zone
Transformer zone

Bus Line Bus XFMR Bus Motor

Generator XFMR

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 Lecture- 02
Relays
1.Introduction
2.Types of Relay
3.Construction and Operation of Relay
4.Advantages and Disadvantages of
relay types
5.Substation design and protection ,
Layout and arrangement, design aspect,
classification, protection, switchyards,

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 1. Introduction
• A relay is a device that detects the fault and
initiates the operation of the circuit breaker to
ioslate the defective element from the rest of
the system.

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Cont’d.........

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 Important Terms
• Pick-up current. It is the minimum current in
the relay coil at which the relay starts to
operate. So long as the current in the relay
is less than the pick-up value, the relay
does not operate.
• Current setting. It is often desirable to adjust
the
pick-up current to any required value. This is
known as current setting and is usually
achieved by the use of tappings on the
relay operating coil.
• Pick-up current = Rated secondary current of C.T. ×
Current setting
2
• The current plug settings usually range 2
 Important Terms
For example, suppose that an overcurrent relay
having current setting of 125% is connected to
a supply circuit through a current transformer
of 400/5.
•The rated secondary current of C.T. is 5
amperes.
•Therefore, the pick-up value will be 25% more
than 5 A i.e. 5 × 1·25 = 6·25 A.
•It means that with above current setting, the
relay will actually operate for a relay coil
current equal to or greater than 6·25 A.

2
3
 THREE MEMBERS OF PROTECTIVE SYSTEM

1. Sensor - Feeds system information to the

relay, e.g., currents and voltages
2. Relay - Makes a decision as to the
need for action, e.g., overcurrent
relay, etc.
3. Switching or Controlling
Device
physically isolates or control the
problem, e.g., circuit breaker 24
OPERATION PRINCIPLE OF RELAYS

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 2. Types of Relay
• Relays may be classified according to the
technology used: (Read: Relay Technology
on network protection and automation
guide)
a. electromechanical
b. static
c. numerical

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 1, Electromechanical Relays
• use the principle of electromechanical energy
conversion
• When the coil controlling the electromagnet is given
a voltage, the electromagnet causes the contacts in the
relay to connect and transfer current through the
relay.
• EMRs consist of an input coil that's wound to accept
a particular voltage signal, plus a set of one or more
contacts that rely on an armature (or lever) activated
by the energized coil to open or close an electrical
circuit.
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Cont’d.............

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 2. Static (solid state) relay
• ASSRs use semiconductor output(analogue circuits) instead of
mechanical contacts to switch the circuit. The output device is
optically-coupled to an LED light source inside the relay. The
relay is turned on by energizing this LED, usually with low-
voltage DC power.
• An Optocoupler, is an electronic components that interconnects
two separate electrical circuits by means of a light sensitive optical
interface.

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• Advantages are
 Less power consumption and low burden.
 Improved dynamic performance
characteristics.
 Reduced panel space.
 Provide high speed switching
 Generate little noise
 Self checking and communication facility.

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 Numerical Relays (Microprocessor-Based Relay)
• Other popular nomenclatures for such relays
are digital relay, computer-based relay or
microprocessor-based relay.
• In numerical relays, there is an additional
entity, the software, which runs in the
background and which actually runs the
relay.
• With the advent of numerical relays, the
emphasis has shifted from hardware to
software.
• The modern numerical relay has thus evolved 31

from a torque balancing device to a

programmable information processor.
• Numerical Relays
• Operation of a numerical relay
involves analog to digital conversion
of voltage and currents obtained from
VT and CTs.
• These samples are fed to the
microprocessor or DSP where the
protection algorithms process these
signals and necessary decisions are
taken.
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33
4. Advantage and disadvantages of
the types
•Electromagnetic Relays (EMRs)
– Simplicity
– Not expensive
– Mechanical Wear
•Solid-state Relays (SSRs)
– No Mechanical movements
– Faster than EMR
– No sparking between contacts

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 Cont’d..........

• Microprocessor-based Relay
– Much higher precision and more reliable and durable
– Capable of both digital and analog I/O.
– Higher cost
– Multifunctional
– Cable to integrate with other digital system
– Low maintenance
– High reliability
– Self supervision
– Programmed wise versatile

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 Lector 03
contents
1. Applications of relays
2. Generator protection
3. Transformer protection
4. Motor protection relays

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 1, Overcurrent relays/time-overcurrent relays
• Currents above an adjustable threshold value are detected
in one or more phases, and interrupted after a pre-settable
time. The release time is the same, no matter how much the
threshold has been exceeded by
•It is of three types.
•Definite Time Over Current Relay
•Definite Time Lag Relay (DTL relay)
•Direction Over Current Relay

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 Cont’d.........
I. Definite Time Over Current
Relay
• In this type, Two conditions must be
satisfied for operation (tripping),
Current must exceed the setting value
and the fault must be continuous at least
for a time equal to time setting of the
relay. Modern relays may contain more
than one stage of protection each stage
includes each own current and time
setting. This figure shows a multi stage
over current relay.

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II. Definite Time Lag
Cont’d.......
Relay (DTL relay)
The preference in
English-speaking
countries is for Inverse
Definite Minimum Time
Lag (IDMT) relays which
respond faster to
heavier currents.
• In this type of relays,
operating time is
inversely changed with
current. So, high
currents will operate
over current relay
faster than lower ones.
Different currents of
inverse time type are
defined as standard
inverse, very inverse ,
extremely inverse
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III. Direction Over Current
Cont’d......
Relay
The directional over current relay
is an over current relay operates
in on direction of current flow
and blocks in the opposite
direction. Three condition must
be satisfied for operation the
previous two conditions which
are current magnitude and time
delay must be considered and
the third condition which is
added in this type is the
directionality.
The directionality of current flow is
identified using voltage as a
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reference of direction.
 2, Earth fault relay
• In the case of a neutral system the
vector sum of grounded the current
flowing in the three different phases
will flow through the neutral
conductor. Under healthy condition
the resultant current flowing
through the secondary grounded
neutral current transformer will be
zero. In such a three phase system if
one of the three phases gets
grounded or earthed then
unbalancing of current occurs, the
vector sum of all the three phases
will have certain value. If this value
exceeds the set value indicated on
the relay, then the relay actuates and
trips the main circuit.

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 3, Directional earth fault relay
• Directional earth fault relay
consists of one current coil
feed by current of neutral path
of current transformer , and
voltage coil feed by open delta
core of voltage transformer.

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 4, Distance relay
• The basic principle of distance protection involves the division
of the voltage at the relaying point by the measured current.
• The apparent impedance so calculated is compared with the
reach point impedance. If the measured impedance is less than
the reach point impedance, it is assumed that a fault exists on
the line between the relay and the reach point. The reach point
of a relay is the point along the line impedance locus that is
intersected by the boundary characteristic of the relay.

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 Directional impedance relay
• Adding the
directionality criteria to
the previous situation,
Then the characteristic
of operation and
blocking of the distance
relay is as shown in
figure.

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 Differential Relay
• The operating principle is based upon the
comparison of one or more operating
quantities with each other.
• A current balance relay may compare the
current in one circuit with the current in
another circuit, which should have equal or
proportional magnitudes under normal
operating conditions.
• The relay will operate when the current
deviation in the two circuits varies by a given
tolerance.
 Breaker failure relay
• Breaker failure relays are called back-up protection devices are
applied as back-up protection relays for the main relays.
• In the fault condition of any equipment it is expected that the
circuit breaker of this equipment will be tripped by main protection
relays of such equipment if there is a failure in the tripping circuit
of the circuit breaker or in the circuit breaker it self . in this case the
circuit breaker will not tripped and so, to isolate this fault ,the bus
bar at which this equipment is connected must by completely
isolated by tripping all the equipment connected to it by a delayed
time .then , the only connected equipment to this bus bar is the
faulted one. In this case , the faulted equipment has no current
passing through it so , it is can be disconnected manly by isolates.

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 2. Generator protection
• A generator is the heart of an electrical power
system, as it converts mechanical energy into
its electrical equivalent, which is further
distributed at various voltages.
• Many different faults can occur on this system,
for which diverse protection means are
required.
• Example:- overload, insulation failure,
overvoltage, rotor fault, excitation failure etc.

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 Stator earthing and earth faults
• The neutral point of the generator stator
winding is normally earthed so that it can be
protected, and impedance is generally used
to limit earth fault current.
• The stator insulation failure can lead to
earth fault in the system. Severe arcing to
the machine core could burn the iron at the
point of fault and weld laminations together.
• Generators connected direct to the
distribution network are usually earthed
through a resistor.

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 Cont’d..........
• Earth fault protection can be applied by
using a transformer and adopting a
relay to measure the earthing
transformer secondary current or by
connecting a voltage-operated relay in
parallel with the loading resistor

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 Cont’d.............
• The current operated relay should
incorporate third harmonic filter and is
normally set for about 5% of the maximum
earth fault current.
• The third harmonic filter is required
because of the low current of the earthing
system, which may not be much different
from the possible third harmonic current
under normal conditions.

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 3. Transformer protection
• A transformer consists of two windings
viz., primary and secondary coupled to a
common magnetic core.
• If the core flux induces an instantaneous
emf from a low-number terminal to a high
number terminal in one winding, then the
direction of induced emf in all other
windings linked by that flux will also be
from a low-number terminal to a high-
number terminal.
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 Cont’d..............
• The types of faults that can occur in a
power transformer:
– HV and LV bushing flashovers (external
to the tank)
– HV winding earth fault
– LV winding earth fault
– Inter-turn fault
– Core fault
– Tank fault
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 Earth faults
• The fault current in this case is controlled
mainly by the leakage reactance, which varies
in a complex manner depending on the
position of the fault in the winding.
• The input primary current is modified by the
transformation ratio and is limited to 2–3
times the full load current of the transformer
for fault positions over a major part of the
star winding. An overcurrent relay on the HV
side will therefore not provide adequate
protection for earth faults on the LV side.
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 Cont’d.............
• The reactance decreases towards the
neutral so that the current actually rises
for faults towards the neutral end.

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 Cont’d...............

• Differential protection, normally

applied to a transformer protection

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 4. Motor protection
• The bi-metal thermal overload relay has
proved itself an effective and economical
solution for small to medium-sized motors up
to about 22 kW.
• On larger, more expensive motors or when
maximum motor utilization is required under
varying operational conditions more
sophisticated flexible and accurate
microprocessor protection relays should be
considered.

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 lecture 4
Substation design and protection
 Layout and arrangement,
design aspect, classification,
protection, switchyards,

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