Chapter 3.

Torsion

Department of MAE, CUHK (2023)

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 3.1
Introduction
• Torsion is the twisting of a straight bar when it is loaded by moments
(or torques) that tend to produce rotation about the longitudinal axis of
the bar
• It is a little bit more complicated behaviour than axial tensile/compres-
sive loading

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• Torsional loading of a bar

• Moment of a couple may be

represented by a vector (Fig.
(b)) using the right-hand rule

• Moment of a couple may be

represented by a curved arrow
(Fig.(c))
• Consider a prismatic bar twisted by torques T and Tꞌ acting at the ends
• The bar is under pure torsion since every cross-section is subjected to the
same torque

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3.2 Net Torque Due to Internal Stresses

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• Sum of the moments of the shearing forces dF
about the axis of the shaft is equal in
magnitude in torque T,

 dF  T

 -- shearing stress on the element of

area dA
• Net of the internal shearing stresses is an internal
torque, equal and opposite to the applied torque,

T  dF   dA

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• Although the net torque due to the shearing stresses is known, the
distribution of the stresses is not.

• Distribution of shearing stresses is statically indeterminate – must

consider shaft deformations.

• Unlike the normal stress due to axial loads, the distribution of shearing
stresses due to torsional loads cannot be assumed uniform.
Axial Shear Components
• Torque applied to shaft produces shearing
stresses on the faces perpendicular to the axis.

• Conditions of equilibrium require the existence

of equal stresses on the faces of the two planes
containing the axis of the shaft.

• The existence of the axial shear components is

demonstrated by considering a shaft made up
of axial slats.

• The slats slide with respect to each other

when equal and opposite torques are applied
to the ends of the shaft.

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 3.3 Shaft
Deformation

• From observation, the angle of twist of the shaft

is proportional to the applied torque and to the
shaft length.

 T
L

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• When subjected to torsion, every cross section of
a circular shaft remains plane and undistorted.

• Cross-sections for hollow and solid circular shafts

remain plain and undistorted because a circular
shaft is axisymmetric.

• Cross-sections of noncircular shafts are distorted

when subjected to torsion.

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Shearing Strain

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• It follows that


L   or  
L

Shear strain is proportional to twist and radius

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 

L

c
max 
L


  max
c

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 3.4 Stresses in Elastic
Range
• Multiplying the previous equation by the shear modulus,


G  Gmax
c

From Hooke’s Law,  G, so    max
c

The shearing stress varies linearly with the radial

position in the section.

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 • Recall that the sum of the moments from the internal
stress distribution is equal to the torque on the shaft
at the section,

 max 2  max
T  dA   dA  J
J  12  c 4 c c

• The results are known as the elastic torsion formulas,


J  12  c24  c14   max 
Tc
and  
T
J J

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 Polar Moment of Inertia

Compared with:

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Example 1

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Variable Cross Sections or Multiple Torques

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Normal Stresses
• Elements with faces parallel and
perpendicular to the shaft axis are
subjected to shear stresses only. Normal
stresses, shearing stresses or a combination of
both may be found for other orientations.
• Consider an element at 45o to the shaft axis,
F 2 max A0 cos 45  max A0 2
F  max A0 2
 45o    max
A A0 2
• Element a is in pure shear.
• Element c is subjected to a tensile stress on two
faces and compressive stress on the other two.
• Note that all stresses for elements a and c have
the same magnitude.

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Torsional Failure Modes
• Ductile materials generally fail in
shear. Brittle materials are weaker in
tension than shear.

• When subjected to torsion, a ductile

specimen breaks along a plane of
maximum shear, i.e., a plane
perpendicular to the shaft axis.

• When subjected to torsion, a brittle

specimen breaks along planes
perpendicular to the direction in
which tension is a maximum, i.e.,
along surfaces at 45o to the shaft
axis.
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 Example 2
Shaft BC is hollow with inner and outer diameters of 90 mm and 120 mm,
respectively. Shafts AB and CD are solid of diameter d. For the loading shown,
determine

(a) the minimum and maximum

shearing stress in shaft BC,
(b) the required diameter d of shafts
AB and CD if the allowable
shearing stress in these shafts is
65 MPa.

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Solution

• Cut sections through shafts AB and BC and perform static equilibrium

analysis to find torque loadings.

 M x 0 6 kN m  TAB  M x 0 6 kN m  14 kN m  TBC

TAB 6 kN m TCD TBC 20 kN m

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• Apply elastic torsion formulas to • Given allowable shearing stress and
find minimum and maximum applied torque, invert the elastic
stress on shaft BC. torsion formula to find the required
diameter.

c24  c14  0.0604  0.0454 

 
J
2 2
13.92 10 6 m 4 Tc Tc 6 kN m
 max   4 65MPa 
J c  c3
TBC c2 20 kN m 0.060 m  2 2
 max  2  
J 13.92 10 6 m 4 c 38.9 10 3 m
86.2 MPa
 min c1  min 45 mm
 
 max c2 86.2 MPa 60 mm
 min 64.7 MPa
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 3.5 Angle of Twist in Elastic
Range

• Recall that the angle of twist and maximum shearing

strain are related,
c
max 
L
• In the elastic range, the shearing strain and shear
are related by Hooke’s Law, and recalling the
 max
elastic torsion formula for
 Tc
max  max 
G JG
• Equating the expressions for shearing TL
strain and solving for the angle of

JG
twist,
Department of MAE, CUHK (2023)
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 Example 3

Solution

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Case 1. Shaft with several cross sectional areas

• If the torsional loading or shaft cross-section changes along the

length, the angle of rotation is found as the sum of segment
rotations
Ti Li
 
i J i Gi

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Case 2. Shaft with variable cross sectional areas

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 Example 4
The horizontal shaft AD is attached to a fixed base at D and is subjected to the
torques shown. A 44-mm-diameter hole has been drilled into portion CD of the
shaft. Knowing that the entire shaft is made of steel for which G = 77GPa,
determine the angle of twist at end A.

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 A Special Case
Both ends of a shaft rotate: the angle of twist of the shaft is equal to the
angle through which one end of the shaft rotates with respect to the others.
Example

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 Example 5
Two solid steel shafts are connected by gears. Knowing that for each shaft G = 77
GPa and that the allowable shearing stress is 55 MPa, determine (a) the largest
torque T0 that may be applied to the end of shaft AB, (b) the corresponding angle
through which end A of shaft AB rotates.

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Solution
• Apply a static equilibrium analysis on the two shafts to find a relation-ship
between TCD and T0 .

• Apply a kinematic analysis to relate the angular rotations of the gears.

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• Find the T0 for the maximum allowable torque on each shaft – choose the
smallest.

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• Find the corresponding angle of twist for each shaft and the net angular
rotation of end A.

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3.6 Statically Indeterminate
Shafts

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 Example: Statically Indeterminate Shafts
• Given the shaft dimensions and the applied
torque, we would like to find the torque reactions
at A and B.
• From a free-body analysis of the shaft,
Outer: 22mm
Inner: 16mm
which is not sufficient to find the end torques.
The problem is statically indeterminate.
• Divide the shaft into two components which
must have compatible deformations,

• Substitute into the original equilibrium equation,

1.72TA = 120Nm TA=?

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 3.7 Design of Transmission
Shafts
Problem

• Designer must select shaft material and cross-

section to meet performance specifications
without exceeding allowable shearing stress.

Department of MAE, CUHK (2023)

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 Design of Transmission Shafts
• Determine torque applied to shaft • Find shaft cross-section which will not
at specified power and speed, exceed the maximum allowable
shearing stress,
P T 2fT Tc
 max 
J
P P
T  J  3
 c 
T
solid shafts
 2f c 2  max
J

 4 4
c2 2c2
 
c2  c1 
T
 max
hollow shafts

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 3.8 Stress
Concentrations
• The derivation of the torsion formula,
Tc
 max 
J
assumed a circular shaft with uniform cross-
section loaded through rigid end plates.

• The use of flange couplings, gears, and

pulleys attached to shafts by keys in keyways,
and cross-section discontinuities can cause
stress concentrations.
• Experimental or numerically determined
concentration factors are applied as
Tc
 max  K
J
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Example 6

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