I.

MOLECULAR
BIOLOGY
MOLECULAR
BIOLOGY
EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION
HOW
SIMILAR ARE
YOU TO A
CHIMPANZEE
?
 MOLECULAR
BIOLOGY
Molecular biology is a branch of biology that
studies the structure and function of
molecules that are essential for life, such as
DNA, RNA, and proteins.
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
The word molecular comes from the
Latin word molecula, meaning “small
mass” or “little lump”. The word biology
is derived from the Greek words bios,
meaning “life”, and logia, meaning
“study of”. Therefore, molecular biology
can be translated as “the study of life
at the molecular level”.
Warren Weaver
(1938)
In its earliest
manifestations, molecular
biology – the name was
coined by Warren Weaver
of the Rockefeller
Foundation in 1938 – was
an ideal of physical and
chemical explanations of
life, rather than a
coherent discipline.
 BIOCHEMICAL EVIDENCE

1 2 3
NUCLEIC ACIDS PROTEINS CHROMOSOMES
Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) Are large, complex A chromosome is a thread-
made up of long chains of molecules that play many like structure composed of
subunits called nucleotides. critical roles in the body. DNA and proteins found in
DNA, in particular, is the They are made up of smaller the nucleus of cells. It
genetic material found in units called amino acids, carries genetic information
living organisms, from which are linked together in in the form of genes, which
single-celled bacteria to long chains. determine an individual’s
multicellular mammals (like traits and characteristics.
us). RNA plays a crucial role Chromosomes are crucial for
in translating this genetic the inheritance of traits and
code into proteins. the transmission of genetic
information across
generations.
 BIOCHEMICAL EVIDENCE

4
GENETIC CODE
The genetic code is a set of rules used by living cells to
translate information encoded within genetic material
(DNA or RNA) into proteins. The genetic code is
considered a fundamental component of the theory of
evolution because it’s nearly universal across all forms
of life. This universality suggests that all life shares a
common ancestry and that the genetic code has been
maintained throughout evolution due to its optimality
and robustness to errors.
FRANCIS CRICK
(1958)
Francis Crick’s formulation of the
Central Dogma was a pivotal
moment in molecular biology.
Crick's work helped clarify how
genetic information is passed from
generation to generation and how
genetic variations can lead to
evolutionary changes. This
understanding provides a
molecular basis for genetic
inheritance and variation.
Central Dogma of
Biology The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology is
a fundamental concept that describes the
flow of genetic information within a
biological system. It states that genetic
information flows from DNA to RNA and
then to protein.
• Transcription: The information in DNA
is transcribed into messenger RNA
(mRNA).
• Translation: The mRNA then travels to
the ribosome, where it is translated
into a specific protein.
This concept emphasizes that the transfer
of information is unidirectional and
irreversible—from DNA to RNA to protein.
What is the
Contribution of The Central Dogma of molecular biology significantly

Central Dogma contributed to the theory of evolution by explaining how

genetic information is transmitted within an organism
to the Theory and across generations.

of Evolution? The Central Dogma helps illustrate how DNA, the

genetic material inherited from ancestors, is used to
produce proteins that carry out cellular functions. This
process is crucial for the development and maintenance
of life. Moreover, it provides a framework for
understanding how mutations in DNA can lead to
changes in proteins, potentially resulting in new traits
that can be acted upon by natural selection.
How Is The
Central Dogma The Central Dogma shows how DNA is the self-

Evidence For replicating genetic storehouse of any biological

body that is derived from their ancestors. So, if you
Evolution? compare the DNA sequences of any organism you’ll
find the evolutionary relationships between very
different species over the course of evolution.
 II.
MOLECULAR
HOMOLOGY
 MOLECULAR
HOMOLOGY
Molecular homology as evidence of
relatedness between species including
DNA and amino acid sequences, mtDNA
(the molecular clock) and the DNA
hybridisation technique.
 MOLECULAR
HOMOLOGY
"Molecular homology is defined as "
similarity of the nucleotide sequences of
DNA or RNA molecules, or the amino acid
sequences of proteins
".
It is an important concept in modern evol
utionary biology, used to test the relation
ships between modern taxa, and to exam
ine the evolutionary processes driving ev
olution at a molecular level
.
The Different Molecular
Techniques In
Determining
Relationships between
Species
Chromosomes are made up of DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) and proteins, located
in the nucleus of every cell in the body. Genes
on chromosomes are genetic instructions
passed down from parents to offspring. There
are 46 chromosomes in each individual, with
23 originating from the mother and 23 from
the father.
• Chromosome banding is the process of
staining chromosomes to help researchers
better understand and identify their structural
composition.
• The term “chromosome banding” refers to
the tagging and identifying of chromosomes
by giving the appearance of various coloured
bands on stained chromosomes.
Types of Chromosome
Banding:
1 2
G Banding R Banding

3 4
C Banding Q Banding
Chromosome painting is a technique in which
specific regions or segments of chromosomes
are painted with sequence-specific probes
which are fluorescently labelled. Therefore,
chromosomal painting is always coupled with
in situ FISH technique.
 DNA &
PROTEIN
SEQUENCES
WHAT IS DNA
SEQUENCING?DNA Sequencing is the process of determining the
nucleic acid sequence (the order of nucleotides in DNA).
The sequence of the bases (A,T,C,G) encodes the
biological information that cells use to develop and
operate.

DNA or Deoxyribonucleic acid is a molecule that contains

the genetic code that is unique to every individual.

DNA has two strands that twist into the shape of a spiral
ladder called Helix. DNA is made up of four building blocks
called nucleotides: Adenine (A), thymine (T), Guanine (G),
Cytosine (C).
 There are four different types of DNA
nucleotides:
1 2
Adenine (A) Thymine (T)
• Is a purine base, meaning it has a • is a pyrimidine base, meaning it has a
double-ring structure consisting of six- single-ring structure consisting of a
membered ring fused to a five- six-membered ring.
membered ring.
• it pairs with Adenine via two hydrogen
• It pairs with thymine via two hydrogen bonds in double-strandede DNA,
bonds in double-stranded DNA, forming the A-T base pair.
forming the A-T base pair

3 4
Cytosine (C) Guanine (G)
• is a pyrimidine base, like thymine, and • like Adenine, Guanine is a purine base
it also consists of a single-ring and has a double-ring structure similar
structure. to adenine.

• it pairs with guanine via three • it pairs with cytosine via three
hydrogen bonds in double-stranded
hydrogen bonds in double-stranded DNA, forming the C-G base pair.
DNA, forming the C-G base pair.
The four types of DNA nucleotides:
Why is it important
to Sequence DNA?
Sequencing DNA means
determining the order of the four
chemical building blocks - called
"bases" - that makes up the DNA
molecule. The sequence tells
scientists the kind of genetic
information that is carried in a
particular DNA segment.
What is DNA
Hybridization?
DNA Hybridization is a molecular technique used to
determine the genetic relatedness between species.

This is also a technique used to compare and analyze

DNA sequences from different sources. It involves
pairing complementary DNA strands from two
samples, forming double-stranded molecules.

During the process of hybridization, the atomic

orbitals of comparable energies are mixed together
and mostly involves the merging of two ‘s’ orbitals or
two ‘p’ orbitals or the mixing of an ‘s’ orbital with a
‘p’ orbital, as well as ‘s’ orbital with a ‘d’ orbital
THE ATOMIC
ORBITALS
What is the
process of DNA
Hybridization?
DNA hybridization involves hybridizing the DNA from two
different species based on complementary base pairing. A
single strand of DNA from each species is combined and
allowed to recombine, and then it is heated to reach the
melting temperature.
TYPES OF HYBRIDIZATION

1. sp Hybridization
sp hybridization is observed when one s and one p orbital in the same
main shell of an atom mix to form two new equivalent orbitals. The new
orbitals formed are called sp hybridized orbitals. It forms linear
molecules with an angle of 180°.
TYPES OF HYBRIDIZATION
2. sp2 Hybridization
sp2 hybridization is observed when one s and two p orbitals of the same
shell of an atom mix to form 3 equivalent orbitals. The new orbitals
formed are called sp2 hybrid orbitals. All three hybrid orbitals remain in
one plane and make an angle of 120° with one another.
TYPES OF HYBRIDIZATION
3. sp3 Hybridization
When one ‘s’ orbital and 3 ‘p’ orbitals belonging to the same shell of an
atom mix together to form four new equivalent orbitals, the type of
hybridization is called a tetrahedral hybridization or sp3. The new
orbitals formed are called sp3 hybrid orbitals. The angle between the
sp3 hybrid orbitals is 109.280.
TYPES OF HYBRIDIZATION
4. sp3d Hybridization
sp3d hybridization involves the mixing of 1s orbital, 3p orbitals and 1d
orbital to form 5 sp3d hybridized orbitals of equal energy. They have
trigonal bipyramidal geometry.

• Three hybrid orbitals lie in the horizontal plane inclined at an angle of

120° to each other, known as the equatorial orbitals.
• The remaining two orbitals lie in the vertical plane at 90 degrees plane
of the equatorial orbitals, known as axial orbitals.
TYPES OF HYBRIDIZATION
5. sp3d2 Hybridization
• sp3d2 hybridization has 1s, 3p and 2d orbitals, that undergo
intermixing to form 6 identical sp3d2 hybrid orbitals.
• These 6 orbitals are directed towards the corners of an
octahedron.
• They are inclined at an angle of 90 degrees to one another.
 O T E I N
I S P R
WH AT G ?
E N CI N
SEQ U is the process of determining the precise order of amino
acids in a protein chain. This involves identifying the
sequence of amino acids, which are the building blocks
of proteins, in a specific protein molecule.

Why
i s it
i mp
orta
Protein sequencing is important for understanding protein nt?
structure, function, and interactions in biological systems.
It helps scientists study the role of proteins in various
processes such as enzyme catalysis, cell signaling, and
gene expression regulation.
• Each protein or peptide consists of a linear sequence of
amino acids. The protein primary structure conventionally
begins at the amino-terminal (N end and continues until
the carboxyl-terminal (C) end. The structure of a protein
may be directly sequenced or inferred from the sequence
of DNA.
Methods of Protein
Sequencing
1. Mass Spectrometry
• Mass spectrometry is a method used in protein
sequencing to analyze the mass-to-charge ratio of ions
formed from protein molecules. It helps identify the
sequence of amino acids in proteins by ionizing peptides,
separating them based on their mass-to-charge ratio, and
comparing observed peptide masses to known protein
sequences.
• It is also the most common
method in use today because of
its ease of use.
Methods of Protein
Sequencing
2. Edman Degradation
• Edman degradation is a technique for sequencing
proteins. It labels and cleaves the N-terminal amino acid,
identifies it, and repeats the process to sequence the
entire protein. While reliable, it has limitations with
impure samples and large proteins.

• The most useful method if the

N-terminus of a protein needs
to be characterized.
 20 amino acids that occur
naturally in nature:
• •Alanine (Ala, A) • Leucine (Leu, L)
• Arginine (Arg, R) • Lysine (Lys, K)
• Asparagine (Asn, N) • Methionine (Met, M)
• Aspartic acid (Asp, D) • Phenylalanine (Phe, F)
• Cysteine (Cys, C) • Proline (Pro, P)
• Glutamic acid (Glu, E) • Serine (Ser, S)
• Glutamine (Gln, Q) • Threonine (Thr, T)
• Glycine (Gly, G) • Tryptophan (Trp, W)
• Histidine (His, H) • Tyrosine (Tyr, Y)
• Isoleucine (lle, I) • Valine (Val, V)
mtDNA and
Molecular
Clock
 mtDNA (Mitochondrial DNA)

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is a

small, circular molecule of DNA
found within the mitochondria, the
energy-producing organelles
present in the cells of eukaryotic
organisms.
Structural gene coded by mitochondrial DNA
mtDNA (Mitochondrial DNA)

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is

inherited from the mother
(maternal inherited)
MOLECULAR CLOCK
A technique used in evolutionary
biology that estimates the age
divergence of organisms from a
common ancestor by looking at their
differences in DNA. Molecular clocks are
used to determine how closely two
species are related by calculating the
number of differences between the
species' DNA sequences or amino acid
sequences.
What is a Cytochrome?
The cytochromes are a family of
coloured proteins that facilitate the
movement of electrons in
photosynthesis and anaerobic/aerobic
respiration.
• Are related by the presence of a
bound heme group.
• They are found in all eukaryotes and
in most, but not all, prokaryotes.
Cytochrome
 CYTOCHROME C EVOLUTION

NUMBER OF AMINO ACID DIFFERENCE FROM

ORGANISM
HUMAN

Chimpanzee 0

Rhesus Monkey 1

Cytochrome C comparison
Rabbit 9
reveals that the more recent
shared ancestry with humans, Cow 10
the lesser the amino acid
sequence difference. Pigeon 12

Bull frog 20

Fruit Fly 24

Wheat Germ 37

Yeast 42
 COMPARATIVE
GENOMICS
Comparative genomics is a field of
biological research where scientists
compare the genome sequences of
different species, such as humans,
mice, and a wide array of other
organisms, to understand the molecular
differences that distinguish various life
forms.
PERCENT IDENTITY
Percent Identity is the basis of
comparative genomics. It refers to a
quantitative measurement of the
similarity between two sequences (DNA,
amino acid or otherwise). Closely related
species are expected to have a higher
percent identity for a given sequence
than would more distantly related
species, and thus percent identity to a
degree reflects relatedness.
Phylogenetic Trees
Phylogenetic trees are constructed to
represent the evolutionary relationships
among different species or organisms.
The formation of these trees is often
based on the concept of percent
identity, particularly when using genetic
information such as DNA sequences.
Phylogenetic Tree
Phylogenetic Tree
HOW
SIMILAR ARE
YOU TO A
CHIMPANZEE
?
Phylogenetic Tree
How Molecular
Homology Molecular homology supports the theory of evolution by

Contribute to revealing common ancestry among species through

similarities in DNA, RNA, and protein sequences. This
the Evidence demonstrates fundamental genetic and biochemical
similarities linking all forms of life, reflecting their
of Evolution? evolutionary relationships and descent from a common
ancestor.
How Molecular
Biology Molecular Biology Like anatomical structures, the

Contribute to structures of the molecules of life reflect descent with

modification. Evidence of a common ancestor for all of
the Evidence life is reflected in the universality of DNA as the genetic
material and in the near universality of the genetic code
of Evolution? and the machinery of DNA replication and expression.
What is the
Importance of The importance of molecular biology to the evidence of

Molecular evolution lies in its capacity to provide tangible data

and detailed understanding of genetic variation,
Biology to the relatedness among species, and the timing of
evolutionary events. Through techniques like DNA
Evidence of sequencing, chromosomal analysis, and protein

Evolution? comparisons, molecular biology offers empirical support

for evolutionary theory, shedding light on the
mechanisms underlying the diversity of life on Earth.
III. DARWIN’S
THEORY OF
NATURAL
SELECTION
CHARLES DARWIN
Charles Darwin was a British naturalist who
proposed the theory of biological evolution by
natural selection. When he published his
book On the Origin of Species in 1859, his
findings launched a revolution and
controversy in the discipline of biology.
Darwin focused on explaining evolution
within the concept of population, a group of
individuals of the same species. He became
aware of the wide variation in characteristics
between members of the same species and
observed that many of these variations were
inherited.
EVOLUTIONARY
ADAPTATION
Evolutionary adaptation is defined as
the alteration or adjustment in
structure or habits which is
hereditary, and by which a species or
individual improves its ability to
survive and pass on its genes in
relationship to the environment.
NATURAL SELECTION AND
EVOLUTION
Charles Darwin's concept of evolution
through natural selection suggested
that species change slowly over time as
a response to their environment. This
theory changed our scientific
understanding of the diversity of life on
Earth and laid the groundwork for the
development of modern biology.
How Does
Natural According to Darwin, the individuals within a
population possess variations, some of which are
Selection better suited to the environment in which they live.
As a result, those with these adaptations are more
Work? likely to survive, reproduce, and thus pass these
advantageous characteristics down to their
offspring.
 The Five Principles of Natural
Selection
The five principles of natural selection described by Charles Darwin can
be remembered using the acronym VISTA:
1. Variation: In all populations of any species, there are individual
variations in different traits. The species' members can vary in
appearance, size, abilities, immunity, and numerous other
characteristics. Many of these
variations result from genetic inheritance but can also occur due to
random mutations.
2.Inheritance: The various traits organisms possess can be inherited
through genetic inheritance. In other words, when members of a
species reproduce, their offspring are more likely to also possess
 The Five Principles of Natural
Selection
3. Selection: Environmental resources are limited, so organisms with
advantageous characteristics that make it easier for them to survive are
more likely to thrive in their environment and reproduce. This increased
chance of reproduction means that their children are more likely to have
the same traits that helped their ancestors survive.
4. Time: As time passes, each generation continues to produce more
offspring with advantageous characteristics. With the passage of time, the
beneficial traits continue to accumulate, resulting in significant changes in
the characteristics of the entire population.
5. Adaptation: Such traits eventually become more common in the
population, making the entire species better suited to survive in their
 SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST

Natural selection is usually described as the "survival

of the fittest." However, "fittest" does not mean that
an organism is the strongest, biggest, or fastest in the
brood. The idea suggests that when it comes to each
organism's struggle to survive and reproduce, those
with traits that make them the best suited to their
environment are the most likely to survive and pass
down their genes to the next generation. Fitness
pertains to the adaptive traits of the individual that
makes it likely to survive and reproduce.
 DARWIN’S THEORY OF EVOLUTION BY NATURAL SELECTION

MAJOR POINTS INFERENCE OBSERVATION IN NATURE

Organisms die from diseases, starvation, or

The number of offsprings is usually
predators, and not all can survive due to
greater than the available
1. Overpopulation limited resources. Many perish before
resources necessary for organisms
reproducing, shaping populations through
to survive.
natural selection.

Organisms compete for limited resources such

as food, space, and protection from predators.
2. Struggle for Every organisms must struggle to This competition can be active or passive,
Existence survive. depending on the situation. Survival depends
on an organism's ability to win these
competitions for essential resources.

There are physical variations or differences

among members of a population of a species.
3. Presence of
There is variation within species. If organisms were all the same, none would be
variation
better suited than any other, and selection
 DARWIN’S THEORY OF EVOLUTION BY NATURAL SELECTION

MAJOR POINTS INFERENCE OBSERVATION IN NATURE

Some variations allow members of

4. Survival of the If an organism has a trait that helps it survive
a species to survive and reproduce
fittest or reproduce.
better than others.

Organisms with traits that are well suited to

Organisms that survive and
5. Variations can be the environment survive, reproduce, and
reproduce pass their traits to their
transmitted successfully pass on their traits to the next
offspring.
generation of offspring.
IV. PATTERNS OF
SELECTION:
ALTERING
EVOLUTIONARY
TRAJECTORY
PATTERNS OF SELECTION
Natural selection acts on the phenotypic variations
within a population, favoring those that are better
adapted to their environment. This process can lead
to adaptations that increase the fitness of individuals
in the population, allowing them to survive and
reproduce more effectively.
“EVOLUTIONARY TRJECTORY”
The term “evolutionary trajectory” refers to the path
of evolutionary changes that a population of
organisms undergoes over successive generations. It
encompasses the gradual alterations in the
characteristics of a population, which can lead to the
emergence of new species from ancestors that were
unlike them.
Patterns of Selection
Directional Selection
an extreme phenotype (characteristics
or traits) is favored over other
phenotypes and this causes the allele
frequency (how often the variant of a
gene shows up in a population) to shift
over time in favor of the extreme
phenotype.
Patterns of Selection
Stabilizing Selection
can be thought of as “middle-of-the-
road” selection, meaning a non-
extreme trait is favored instead of one
of the two extreme traits.
Patterns of Selection
Disruptive Selection
This type of natural selection is bimodal
and favors both extreme traits in a
population.
Patterns
Patterns of
of Selection
Selection
Why is it
Important to Understanding the patterns of selection in evolution is
Understand crucial because it allows us to comprehend how species

These Patterns adapt and evolve over time. Natural selection, one of
the core mechanisms of evolutionary change, is
of Selection that responsible for the complexity and adaptive intricacy of

leads to Altering the living world. By studying these patterns, we can

predict how populations might change in response to
Evolutionary environmental pressures, which is essential in fields like

Trajectory? medicine, agriculture, and conservation.

V. HOW AND
WHY LIFE
CYCLE ENDS
1.
CELLULAR
SENESCENCE
THEORY OF
AGING
Hi crush.
Senescent is relating to,
characterized by, or associated with
the state of being old or the process
of aging : marked by or undergoing
SENESCENCE.
 Cellular theory of aging states that human
Hi Wallen aging is the result of cellular aging, in which
an increasing proportion of cells reach
senescence.

Senescence, from the Latin word senex,

means "growing old," is an irreversible
growth arrest which occurs in response to
damaging stimuli, such as DNA damage,
telomere shortening, telomere dysfunction
and oncogenic stress leading to
suppression of potentially dysfunctional,
transformed, or aged cells..
CELLULAR
SENESCENCE
Cellular Senescence is a phenomenon
characterized by the cessation of cell
division.

Cellular senescence was first

described by Leonard Hayflick and
Paul Moorfield in 1961 who observed
that cultures of normal human
fibroblasts had a limited replicative
potential and eventually became
irreversibly arrested.
The classic evolutionary
theory of aging explains why
mortality rises with age: as
individuals grow older, less
lifetime fertility remains, so
continued survival contributes
less to reproductive fitness.
 AUGUST
WEISMANN alas 10 na
maam

Weismann's "programmed death" theory,

suggest that deterioration and death due
to ageing are a purposeful result of an
organism's evolved design, and are
referred to as theories of programmed
ageing or adaptive ageing.
 PETER
MEDAWAR
Mutation accumulation refers to a process
which involves both natural selection and
mutation which can lead to senescence. This
process assumes there exist deleterious
mutations that act in an age-specific fashion
and that the strength of natural selection
weakens as the age of onset of the mutation
increases.
 GEORGE C.
WILLIAMS
Antagonistic pleiotropy theory, as it applies to
aging, hypothesizes that animals possess
genes that enhance fitness early in life but
diminish it in later life and that such genes can
be favored by natural selection because
selection is stronger early in life even as they
cause the aging phenotype to emerge.
2.

REPRODUCTIV
E
STRATEGIES
 Semelparity Vs. Iteroparity
Semelparity and
Iteroparity are two
contrasting
reproductive
strategies available
to living organisms.
 SEMELPARITY
• Semelparity, also known as "big bang" reproduction, is a
reproductive strategy in which an organism reproduces only
once in its lifetime and then dies.

• Semelparity is particularly common in environments where

resources are limited or unpredictable, and where the
chances of survival to reproduce again are low. It is also
favored in situations where rapid population growth or
colonization of new habitats is advantageous.

• Trade-offs: Semelparity maximizes reproductive output in a

short time but sacrifices future reproductive opportunities and
survival. Organisms prioritize current reproduction over future
chances of survival and reproduction.
 ITEROPARITY
• Iteroparity, or "repeated reproduction," allows for multiple
reproductive events throughout an organism's life.

• In the iteroparous strategy, organisms allocate their energy

and resources more evenly across multiple reproductive
events. This allows them to produce fewer offspring per event
but increases their chances of survival and reproductive
success over the long term.

• Trade-offs: Iteroparity distributes reproductive activities

across time, enhancing resource distribution and boosting
offspring survival. Nonetheless, it could lead to fewer
offspring per occurrence and a more gradual population
increase compared to semelparous species.
 3.

ENVIRONMENTA
L FACTORS
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

The life cycle of organisms can end

due to various environmental factors
such as Habitat destruction, Climate
change, and pollution.
EVOLUTIONARY RESPONSES
TO CHANGING CONDITIONS

In terms of evolutionary
responses to changing
conditions, the end of a life cycle
can occur through several
mechanisms such as Adaptation,
and Speciation.
 CONCLUSION
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
MOLECULAR HOMOLOGY
COMPARATIVE GENOMICS
PHYLOGENETIC TREE
NATURAL SELECTION
ALTERING EVOLUTIONARY TRAJECTORY
How Similar
Are You To A Chimpanzees and humans turn out to be very

Chimpanzee? similar—if you look at their DNA. When scientists

determined the entire genetic code of both humans
yess and chimpanzees, they found that we have over
98% identical DNA.