SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Content of the Session

• Introduction to Sampling
• Advantages of Sampling
• Disadvantages of Sampling
• Types of Sampling Techniques
• Sampling Error
 Sampling
• A sample is any number of persons selected to
represent the population according to some rule or plan.
Thus a sample is a smaller representation of the
population.
• Sampling is a statistical procedure that is concerned
with the selection of the individual observation; it helps
us to make statistical inferences about the population.

• Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which

a predetermined number of observations are taken from
a larger population.
• Behavioral sciences draw some inferences
regarding a well-specified and identifiable
group on the basis of some selected measures.
• The well specified and identifiable group is
known as a population or universe and the
selected number of persons or objects is
known as a sample.
• The generalized conclusions are technically
known as the statistical inferences.
Importance or Advantages of Sampling
• Saving of time
• Saving of money
• Saving of labor
• Accuracy of results
• Intensive study
• Convenience in operation
• Appropriate for experimental studies
• Realibility
 Limitations or Disadvantages of Sampling

• Possibility of biased sampling

• Need of specialization
• Lack of exact knowledge about parameter
• Unitability of the units of the sample
• Difficulty in obtaining a representatives
sample
• Impossibility of sampling
• Misleading results
 Population vs Sample
• The population is the entire group that you
want to draw conclusions about.
• The population can be defined in terms of
geographical location, age, income, and
many other characteristics.
• The sample is the specific group of
individuals that you will collect data from.
Population vs Sample
 Sampling frame

• The sampling frame is the actual list of

individuals that the sample will be drawn from.
Ideally, it should include the entire target
population.
 Sample size

• The number of individuals in your sample

depends on the size of the population, and on
how precisely you want the results to represent
the population as a whole.
• You can use a sample size calculator to
determine how big your sample should be. In
general, the larger the sample size, the more
accurately and confidently you can make
inferences about the whole population.
Sampling frame vs sample
 Fundamentals of Sampling

• Statistic and Parameter

• Sampling frame
• Confidence interval and Significance level
• Sample design
Factors influencing Decision to Sample

• Size of the population

• Cost involved in obtaining the elements
• Convenience and accessibility of the elements
Methods of Drawing Random Samples

• Fishbowl Draw Method

• Using Table of Random Numbers
• Method of Computer-determined
Randomness
 Sampling Methods
• Probability is less than certain and for which there exists som
e evidence.
A probability is a number that reflects the chance or
likelihood that a particular event will occur. Probabilities can
be expressed as proportions that range from 0 to 1, and they
can also be expressed as percentages ranging from 0% to
100%

• Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you

to make statistical inferences about the whole group.
• Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection
based on convenience or other criteria, allowing you to easily
collect initial data.
 Probability Sampling Methods

• Probability sampling means that every member

of the population has a chance of being selected.
• It is also called random sampling methods or
random sampling method.
• If you want to produce results that are
representative of the whole population, you
need to use a probability sampling technique.
 The major probability sampling methods are the
following :
1. Simple random sampling
2. Stratified random sampling
a. Proportionate stratified random sampling
disproportionate stratified random
sampling
3. Area or cluster sampling
 Simple Random Sampling
• In a simple random sample, every member of the population has
an equal chance of being selected. Your sampling frame should
include the whole population.
• The selection of one individual is in no way dependent upon the
selection of another individual.
• To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random
number generators or other techniques that are based entirely
on chance.
• Example
• You want to select a simple random sample of 100 employees of
Company X. You assign a number to every employee in the
company database from 1 to 1000, and use a random number
generator to select 100 numbers.
 Advantages of Random Sampling
• In simple random sampling the investigator need not know the true
composition of the population beforehand.
• With a view to understanding simple random sampling is the easiest
and simplest technique of all probability sampling plans.
• Simple random sampling serves as a foundation upon which all other
types of random sampling are based because this method of
sampling can be readily applied in conjunction with all other
probability sampling plans.
• In simple random sampling the sampling error associated with any
given sample drawn can easily be assessed.
• In this method the investigator does not commit classification errors.
The error which results from the improper classification of
population characteristics or segments.
• We can write the name or roll number of each employee
on each separate slips of paper-all equal size and color
and fold them in a similar way.
• Subsequently, they may be placed in a box and reshuffled
thoroughly. A blindfolded person, then may be asked to
pick up one slip. Here, the probability of each employee
being selected is 1/1000.
• When an element of the population is returned to the
population after being selected, it is called sampling with
replacement and is not returned, it is called sampling
without replacement.
 Disadvantages of Random Sampling
• One of the major disadvantages is that simple random
sampling does not ensure that those elements which
exist in small numbers in the population will be included
in the given sample.
• Random sampling does not fully exploit the knowledge
the investigator has concerning the segments of the
population.
• In the case of sample random sampling error of a
sample of size n is greater as compared with the
sampling error incurred in the case of a stratified
random sample of the same size.
 Systematic Sampling
• Systematic sampling is similar to simple random
sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to conduct.
Every member of the population is listed with a number,
but instead of randomly generating numbers,
individuals are chosen at regular intervals.
• Example
• All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical
order. From the first 10 numbers, you randomly select a
starting point: number 6. From number 6 onwards,
every 10th person on the list is selected and you end up
with a sample of 100 people.
 Systematic sampling
• Systematic sampling is a method of non-
probability sampling plan, though the label
systematic is somewhat misleading in the
sense that all probability sampling methods
are also systematic sampling methods. Due to
this, it sounds that systematic sampling should
be included under one category of probability
sampling, but in reality this is not the case.
 Advantages
• Systematic sampling is relatively a quick method of
obtaining a sample of elements. If the investigator
has a short time schedule, this methods of
sampling eliminates several steps otherwise taken
in different methods of sampling.
• Systematic sampling makes it very easy to check
whether every nth number or name has been
selected.
• Systematic method is very easy to use.
 Disadvantages
• In systematic sampling , the error increases if the list is
arranged in a particular order, say, the list increases or
decreases with respect to some trait such as age,
education, income, caste, etc.
• In such situation a bias will be introduced in the sample,
because more individuals are likely to be drawn from one
group, particularly from that group which is represented
most frequently on the group.
• Systematic sampling ignores all persons between every
nth element chosen. Obviously then it is not a probability
sampling plan.
 Stratified Sampling
• This sampling method is appropriate when the population
has mixed characteristics, and you want to ensure that every
characteristic is proportionally represented in the sample.
• You divide the population into subgroups (called strata)
based on the relevant characteristic .
• Example
• The company has 800 female employees and 200 male
employees. You want to ensure that the sample reflects the
gender balance of the company, so you sort the population
into two strata based on gender. Then you use random
sampling on each group, selecting 80 women and 20 men,
which gives you a representative sample of 100 people.
• In stratified random sampling the population
is, first divided into two or more strata, which
may be based upon a single criterion such as
sex, yielding two strata- male and female or
upon a combination of two or more criteria
such as sex and graduation- male
undergraduate, male graduate, female
undergraduate, female graduate. These
divided population
• In stratified random sampling the stratification of
population is the first requirement. There can be
many reasons for stratification in a population.
1. Stratification tends to increase the precision in
estimating the attributes of the whole population. If
the whole population is divided into several internally
homogeneous units, the situation a precise estimates
can be made for each unit by combining all these
estimates, we can make a still more precise estimate
regarding the population.
2. Stratification gives some convenience in
sampling, when the population is divided into
several units, a person or group of persons may
be deputed to supervise the sampling survey in
each unit.
Stratified random sampling is of two types :
A. Proportionate stratified random sampling
B. Disproportionate stratified random sampling
• In Proportionate stratified sampling the researcher
stratifies the population according to the known
characteristics of the population and subsequently
randomly draws the individuals in a similar proportion
from each stratum of the population.
• In proportionate stratified random sampling, the sampling
error is minimized because the sample drawn possesses
all the necessary characteristics of the parent population.
• Propionate stratified random sampling is difficult method,
time consuming method and this method has the
probability of classification error.
• Disproportionate stratified random sampling bears similarity
with the proportionate stratified random sampling. The only
difference is that the substrata of the drawn sample are not
necessarily distributed according to their proportionate
weight in the population from which they were randomly
selected .
• Sampling disproportionately means that
a. Either the investigator will give equal weight to each of the
substrata or
b. He will give greater representation to some substrata and
not enough weight to other substrata of the population in
the sample to be drawn.
• Disproportionate stratified random sampling is comparatively less time
consuming than proportionate stratified random sampling because here
the investigator is not worried about making proportionate
representation of each stratum of the population.
• In disproportionate stratified random sampling the investigator is able to
give weight to the particular groups of elements that are represented as
frequently in the population as compared with other elements.
• The limitation of this sampling is that the assignment of greater weight
to one set of elements or over representing one stratum of the
population may introduce some bias in the sample.
• This method can not be used in a situation where the investigator has
no idea about the composition of the original population.
 Cluster Sampling
• Cluster (Area) sampling also involves dividing the population into
subgroups, but each subgroup should have similar characteristics to the
whole sample. Instead of sampling individuals from each subgroup, you
randomly select entire subgroups.
• In cluster or area sampling, generally, geographical divisions of territory,
community, neighborhood, cities, states, etc. are made on map and a
certain number of them is drawn at random and called sample.

• Example
• Suppose the investigator wants to assess the attitude of the people of
Gujarat towards Demonetization. For this the investigator to have the
map of Gujarat with him and then divide it into various sections then
he will draw a specified number of sections to constitute the sample
that he will finally study .
 Applications
• Large scale surveys of political, religious, and
social behavior are easily conducted by cluster
sampling.
• Where somehow lists of specific individuals
are unobtainable or are increasable area
sampling becomes the best method sampling.
• Public opinion polls are easily and smoothly
conducted using an area sampling plan.
 Advantages
• When larger geographical area are to be covered, it is easier to use area
sampling than any other method of probability sampling. The
investigator draws some geographical sections randomly and
subsequently he interviews all the families or persons living in the
randomly drawn sections.
• In this sampling respondents can readily be substituted for other
respondents within the same random section. This is permitted because
clusters of elements are sampled and not individuals.
• This plan can save both time and money. The investigator can
concentrate his efforts in one specific region and thus can save time .
The cost of such sampling is much less as compared to the other
methods as the investigator need not travel great distances to interview
specific individuals residing in a certain geographical region.
• This sampling possesses the trait of flexibility. I multi-
stage area sampling design the investigator can
successfully employ different forms of sampling in several
successive stages. For example, after drawing several
sections randomly in the first stage, the investigator may
decide to stratify each of the first-stage units and select
sections from some strata to constitute the second stage
units.
• Respondents can readily be substituted for other
respondents within the same random section. This further
increases the degree of flexibility in the area of sampling.
 Disadvantages
• In cluster sampling the degree of sampling the degree of sampling
error is usually very high. This makes sampling much less fruitful or
dependable in comparison to other methods of probability sampling.
• In area sampling there is no correct way to ensure that each sampling
unit included in an area sample will be equal size. Researcher has little
control over the size of each cluster which leads bias into the samples.
• In this sampling it is also difficult to ensure that the individuals
included in one cluster are independent of other randomly drawn
clusters. It may be that an individual is interviewed in one cluster and
next morning he travels to another area that falls within another
randomly selected section.
• Despite these disadvantages, area sampling is a common and popular
method of sampling in behavioral researches.
 Non-Probability Sampling Methods

• In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected

based on non-random criteria, and not every individual
has a chance of being included.
• This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but
you can’t use it to make valid statistical inferences about
the whole population.
• Non-probability sampling techniques are often
appropriate for exploratory and qualitative research. In
these types of research, the aim is not to test a
hypothesis about a broad population, but to develop an
initial understanding of a small or under-researched
population.
• Non probability sampling is one method in
which there is no way of assessing the
probability of the element or group of
elements of the population being included in
the sample.
• Non probability sampling samples don’t use
the techniques of random sampling.
 Important Techniques of nonprobability
sampling methods

• Quota sampling
• Accidental sampling
• Judgemental or purposive sampling
• Snowball sampling
• Saturation sampling
• Dense sampling
Nonprobability Sampling Methods
• Quota Sampling
• Accidental /Incidental/ Convenience Sampling
• Purposive or Judgemental Sampling
• Systematic Sampling
• Snowball Sampling
• Saturation Sampling
• Dense Sampling
 QUOTA SAMPLING
• Quota sampling is one of the important types
of non-probability sampling methods which is
apparently similar to stratified random
sampling.
• In Quota sampling the investigator recognizes
the different strata of population and from
each stratum he selects the number of
individuals arbitrarily. This constitutes the
Quota sampling.
• Suppose the investigator knows that the
population of the individual he is going to
study has five strata( FYBA, SYBA, TYBA, MA-1,
MA-2) in terms of level of intelligence. Further
suppose he knows in each strata there are
500, 400, 300, 200,and 100 students. If he
wants to select 150 students he will select 50,
40, 30,20 and 10 students from each year. This
constitutes quota sample.
• There is similarity between quota sampling
and proportionate stratified random sampling.
The only difference that in the former the final
selection of individuals is not random,
whereas in the latter the final selection of
individuals is random.
 Advantages
• Quota samples are the most satisfactory
means when quick results are desired.
• This method of sampling is convenient and
less costly than many other methods of
sampling.
• Quota sampling, to a greater extent, can
guarantee the inclusion of individuals from
different strata of population.
 Disadvantages
• In quota sampling there is no means of establishing randomness. As
such, the selected samples remain no longer representative of the
population. Therefore , lacks external validity or generalizability.
• In quota sampling the investigators or interviewers get ample
opportunity to select the most accessible individuals influencing
their friends and relatives. Such readily accessible individuals may
not be typical of the population they are going to study.
• In quota sampling the investigator remains ignorant to many
variables for classification that makes quota sampling less reliable.
• In Quota sampling, the researcher, to a greater extend, controls one
variable such as sex or caste, etc., but he can not control other
variables that may have both theoretical or practical significance,
this mars the dependability of quota sampling.
 Purposive Sampling
• This type of sampling involves the researcher
using their judgement to select a sample that is
most useful to the purposes of the research.
• Example
• You want to know more about the opinions and
experiences of disabled students at your
university, so you purposefully select a number
of students with different support needs in order
to gather a varied range of data on their
experiences with student services.
 PURPOSIVE OR JUDGEMENTAL SAMPLING

• In purposive sampling the investigator has some belief that the

sample being handpicked is typical of the population or is a
very good representative of the population.
• A purposive sample is also known as a judgmental sample
because the investigator on the basis of his impression makes a
judgement regarding the concerned cases, which are thought
to be typical of the population.
• For studying attitudes towards women, a sample of
Journalists, Feminists, Social activists may be taken as an
example of purposive samples because they can be more
reasonably be expected to represent the correct attitude than
other classes of persons residing in the country.
 Advantages
• Since purposive sampling does not involve any random
selection process, it is somewhat less costly and more
readily accessible to the investigator.
• Purposive sampling is a very convenient method of
sampling as compared to other methods of non-
probability.
• Purposive sampling guarantees that those individuals
will be included in the sample that are relevant to the
research design. The investigator does not get such
guarantee in any other methods of non-probability
sampling.
 Disadvantages
• In purposive sampling there is no way to ensure that the sample
is truly random or representative of the population despite the
belief in typically of the sample by investigator. This inhibits his
ability to generalize the findings.
• In purposive sampling too much emphasis is placed on the
ability of the investigator to asses which elements or individuals
are typical of population and which are not. This leaves sample
scope for introducing subjectivity in the sampling.
• In the case of purposive sampling the inferential statistics can
not be used legitimately, because, under all inferential statistical
techniques, there is an assumption of randomness. This criticism
also applies to other forms of non-probability sampling method.
 Accidental/Incidental/ Convenience
Sampling
• Convenience sampling refers to a sampling
procedure in which the investigator selects
the persons according to his convenience.
• Investigator does not care about including the
people with some specific or designated trait,
rather he is mainly guided by convenience and
economy.
• Heiman (1995) has named it as convenience
sampling.
 Convenience Sampling
• A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who
happen to be most accessible to the researcher.
• This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but
there is no way to tell if the sample is representative of the
population, so it can’t produce generalizable results.
• Example
• You are researching opinions about student support services
in your university, so after each of your classes, you ask your
fellow students to complete a survey on the topic. This is a
convenient way to gather data, but as you only surveyed
students taking the same classes as you at the same level,
the sample is not representative of all the students at your
university.
 Advantages
• Accidental sampling is the most convenient
method of sampling.
• This method of sampling possesses the trait of
economy. This method saves time, money and
labor of the investigator.
• An investigator may take students of class X
into research project because the class
teacher of that class happens to be his friend.
This illustrates the convenient sampling.
 Disadvantages
• From this method nothing can be generalized with confidence
as the samples remain no longer representative of the
population.
• In accidental sampling the investigator gets ample opportunity
to show his bias and prejudice in selecting the individuals so this
method of sampling is not much dependable.
• In accidental sampling the probability of sampling error is high.
Therefore, the validity and reliability of this method are badly
affected.
• Despite these disadvantages, it will not be an exaggeration to
say that in many psychological and sociological researches this
method of sampling is frequently used.
 Snowball Sampling
• If the population is hard to access, snowball
sampling can be used to recruit participants via
other participants. The number of people you
have access to “snowballs” as you get in contact
with more people.
• Example
• You are researching experiences of
homelessness in your city. Since there is no list
of all homeless people in the city, probability
sampling isn’t possible.
 Snowball Sampling
• Snowball sampling , which is a non-probability sampling
method, is basically indirectly sociometric.
• It is defined as having all the persons in a group or
organization identifying their friends who in turn identify their
friends and associates until the researcher observes that a
constellation of friendships converges into some type of a
definite social pattern.
• In fact the reality is that sometimes the researcher seeks to
study a hidden population which is not easily identifiable for
example, when he deals with drugs addicts, hardened
criminals, commercial sex workers , HIV positive patient, in
such cases, snowball sampling is used.
• Here, the researcher identifies one potential
subject and from him, he obtains the name
and addresses of other subjects and from
them, he obtains still other potential subjects
so that the growth of the sample tends to
build or “snow ball” .
• Snowball sampling has important in relatively
small business and industrial organizations
where N is expected not to exceed 100.
 Advantages
• Snowball sampling, which is primarily a sociometric
sampling technique, has proved very important and is
helpful in studying small informal social group and its
impact upon formal organizational structure.
• Snowball sampling revels communication pattern in
community organization concepts like community power
and decision making can also be studied with the help of
such sampling technique.
• This technique is amenable to various scientific sampling
procedures a various stages such as use of random
numbers or computer determination.
 Disadvantages
• Snowball sampling becomes cumbersome and
difficult when N is large or say it exceeds 100.
• This method of sampling does not allow the
researcher to use probability statistical methods.
• In fact, the elements included in sample are not
randomly drawn and they are dependent on the
subjective choices of the originally selected
respondents. This introduces some bias in the
sampling.
 Voluntary Response
Sampling
• Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is
mainly based on ease of access. Instead of the researcher choosing
participants and directly contacting them, people volunteer
themselves
• Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased, as
some people will inherently be more likely to volunteer than others.
• Example
• You send out the survey to all students at your university and a lot of
students decide to complete it. This can certainly give you some
insight into the topic, but the people who responded are more likely
to be those who have strong opinions about the student support
services, so you can’t be sure that their opinions are representative
of all students.
 Sample Size Calculator

• Before using the sample size calculator, there

are two terms that you need to know.
• These are: confidence interval and confidence
level.
• Enter your choices in a calculator below to find
the sample size you need or the confidence
interval you have.
• Leave the Population box blank, if the
population is very large or unknown.
 Confidence interval
• The confidence interval also called margin of
error is the plus-or-minus figure usually
reported in newspaper or television opinion poll
results.
• For example, if you use a confidence interval of
4 and 47% percent of your sample picks an
answer you can be "sure" that if you had asked
the question of the entire relevant population
between 43% (47-4) and 51% (47+4) would have
picked that answer.
 Confidence Level
• The confidence level tells you how sure you can
be. It is expressed as a percentage and
represents how often the true percentage of the
population who would pick an answer lies within
the confidence interval.
• The 95% confidence level means you can be
95% certain; the 99% confidence level means
you can be 99% certain.
• Most researchers use the 95% confidence level.
 Sample Size Calculation
• You can calculate sample size by using this link

• https://www.surveysystem.com/sscalc.htm

• https://www.calculator.net/sample-size-calculat
or.html

• https://www.qualtrics.com/blog/calculating-sam
ple-size/
 Sampling Error
• Sampling error is the deviation of the selected sample
from the true characteristics, traits, behaviors, qualities
or figures of the entire population.
• Sampling error is the difference between a population
parameter and a sample statistic used to estimate it.
• For example, the difference between a population
mean and a sample mean is sampling error.
• Sampling error occurs because a portion, and not the
entire population, is surveyed.
•