Sampling

Population vs sample

• A population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions

about. A census is a survey conducted on the full set of observation
objects belonging to a given population or universe.
• A sample is the specific group that you will collect data from. The size
of the sample is always less than the total size of the population.
• A parameter is a measure that describes the whole population. A
statistic is a measure that describes the sample.
Reasons for sampling

• Sampling can save time and money. A sample study is usually less
expensive than a census study and produces results at a relatively faster
speed.
• Sampling may enable more accurate measurements for a sample study is
generally conducted by trained and experienced investigators.
• Sampling remains the only way when population contains infinitely many
members.
• Sampling remains the only choice when a test involves the destruction of
the item under study.
• Sampling usually enables to estimate the sampling errors and, thus, assists
in obtaining information concerning some characteristic of the population
 Sampling Methods
Sampling

Non
Probability
Probability

Simple Voluntary
Systematic Stratified Cluster Convenience Quota Snowball
Random response Judgmental
Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling sampling
Sampling sampling
• To draw valid conclusions from your results, you have to carefully
decide how you will select a sample that is representative of the
group as a whole. There are two types of sampling methods:

• Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to make

statistical inferences about the whole group.
• Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on
convenience or other criteria, allowing you to easily collect initial data
Simple random sampling

• In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an

equal chance of being selected. Your sampling frame should include
the whole population. To conduct this type of sampling, you can use
tools like random number generators or other techniques that are
based entirely on chance. Example- You want to select a simple
random sample of 100 employees of Company X. You assign a number
to every employee in the company database from 1 to 1000, and use
a random number generator to select 100 numbers.
Systematic sampling

• Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is

usually slightly easier to conduct. Every member of the population is
listed with a number, but instead of randomly generating numbers,
individuals are chosen at regular intervals.

• Example
• All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical order. From
the first 10 numbers, you randomly select a starting point: number 6.
From number 6 onwards, every 10th person on the list is selected (6,
16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up with a sample of 100 people.
Stratified sampling

• Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may differ in
important ways. It allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that every
subgroup is properly represented in the sample.
• To use this sampling method, you divide the population into subgroups (called strata)
based on the relevant characteristic (e.g. gender, age range, income bracket, job role).
• Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many people should
be sampled from each subgroup. Then you use random or systematic sampling to select a
sample from each subgroup.

• Example. The company has 800 female employees and 200 male employees. You want to
ensure that the sample reflects the gender balance of the company, so you sort the
population into two strata based on gender. Then you use random sampling on each group,
selecting 80 women and 20 men, which gives you a representative sample of 100 people.
Cluster sampling

• Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each subgroup should have similar
characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of sampling individuals from each subgroup, you randomly select
entire subgroups.

• If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each sampled cluster. If the clusters
themselves are large, you can also sample individuals from within each cluster using one of the techniques
above.

• This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but there is more risk of error in the
sample, as there could be substantial differences between clusters. It’s difficult to guarantee that the sampled
clusters are really representative of the whole population.

• Example
• The company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all with roughly the same number of employees in
similar roles). You don’t have the capacity to travel to every office to collect your data, so you use random
sampling to select 3 offices – these are your clusters.
Convenience sampling

• A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be

most accessible to the researcher. This is an easy and inexpensive way to
gather initial data, but there is no way to tell if the sample is
representative of the population, so it can’t produce generalizable results.

• Example -You are researching opinions about student support services in

your university, so after each of your classes, you ask your fellow students
to complete a survey on the topic. This is a convenient way to gather
data, but as you only surveyed students taking the same classes as you at
the same level, the sample is not representative of all the students at
your university.
 Purposive sampling or judgement
sampling
• This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the researcher using
their expertise to select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the research.

• It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain detailed
knowledge about a specific phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or
where the population is very small and specific. An effective purposive sample must
have clear criteria and rationale for inclusion.
• Example
• You want to know more about the opinions and experiences of disabled students at your
university, so you purposefully select a number of students with different support needs
in order to gather a varied range of data on their experiences with student services.
Snowball sampling

• If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to

recruit participants via other participants. The number of people you
have access to “snowballs” as you get in contact with more people.

• Example
• You are researching experiences of homelessness in your city. Since
there is no list of all homeless people in the city, probability sampling
isn’t possible. You meet one person who agrees to participate in the
research, and she puts you in contact with other homeless people
that she knows in the area.
Voluntary response sampling

• Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly based on ease of

access. Instead of the researcher choosing participants and directly contacting them, people
volunteer themselves (e.g. by responding to a public online survey).

• Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased, as some people will
inherently be more likely to volunteer than others.

• Example
• You send out the survey to all students at your university and a lot of students decide to
complete it. This can certainly give you some insight into the topic, but the people who
responded are more likely to be those who have strong opinions about the student support
services, so you can’t be sure that their opinions are representative of all students.
Quota Sampling
• In quota sampling, a population is first segmented into mutually
exclusive sub-groups, just as in stratified sampling. Then judgment is
used to select the subjects or units from each segment based on a
specified proportion. For example, an interviewer may be told to
sample 200 females and 300 males between the age of 45 and 60.
This means that individuals can put a demand on who they want to
sample (targeting).
• This second step makes the technique non-probability sampling. In
quota sampling, there is non-random sample selection
Sampling bias
• Your choice of research design or data collection method can lead to sampling
bias. Sampling bias can occur in both probability and non-pro bability sampling.
• In probability sampling, every member of the population has a known chance of
being selected. For instance, you can use a random number generator to select a
simple random sample from your population. Although this procedure reduces
the risk of sampling bias, it may not eliminate it. If your sampling frame – the
actual list of individuals that the sample is drawn from – does not match the
population, this can result in a biased sample.
• A non-probability sample is selected based on non-random criteria. For instance,
in a convenience sample, participants are selected based on accessibility and
availability.Non-probability sampling often results in biased samples because
some members of the population are more likely to be included than others.
Types of sampling bias

• Self-selection-People with specific characteristics are more likely to agree to take part in a
study than others . People who are more thrill-seeking are likely to take part in pain
research studies. This may skew the data.
• Non-response -People who refuse to participate or drop out from a study systematically
differ from those who take part.In a study on stress and workload, employees with high
workloads are less likely to participate. The resulting sample may not vary greatly in terms
of workload.
• Undercoverage Some members of a population are inadequately represented in the
sample. Administering general national surveys online may miss groups with limited
internet access, such as the elderly and lower-income households.
• Survivorship Successful observations, people and objects are more likely to be represented
in the sample than unsuccessful ones.In scientific journals, there is strong publication bias
towards positive results. Successful research outcomes are published far more often than
null findings.
• Pre-screening or advertising The way participants are pre-screened or where a
study is advertised may bias a sample .When seeking volunteers to test a novel
sleep intervention, you may end up with a sample that is more motivated to
improve their sleep habits than the rest of the population. As a result, they may
have been likely to improve their sleep habits regardless of the effects of your
intervention.
• Healthy user Volunteers for preventative interventions are more likely to pursue
health-boosting behaviors and activities than other members of the population.A
sample in a preventative intervention has a better diet, higher physical activity
levels, abstains from alcohol, and avoids smoking more than most of the
population. The experimental findings may be a result of the treatment
interacting with these characteristics of the sample, rather than just the
treatment itself.
How to avoid or correct sampling
bias
• Using careful research design and sampling procedures can help you
avoid sampling bias.
• Define a target population and a sampling frame (the list of
individuals that the sample will be drawn from). Match the sampling
frame to the target population as much as possible to reduce the risk
of sampling bias.
• Make online surveys as short and accessible as possible.
• Follow up on non-responders.
• Avoid convenience sampling.
• In statistics, a sampling frame is the source material or device from
which a sample is drawn. It is a list of all those within a population
who can be sampled, and may include individuals, households or
institutions