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Chapter E

Essentials: Units,
Measurements,
and Problem
Solving
Chapter E
Essentials: Units, Measurements, and Problem Solving

KEY POINTS:

E.2 Units of Measurement


E.3 The Reliability of a Measurement
E.4 Significant Figures in Calculations
E.5 Density
E.7 Converting between Units
E.9 Solving Problems Involving Equations
E.2 Units of Measurement
Measurement Types: Qualitative and Quantitative

• Qualitative observations are:


– Descriptive in nature (i.e. changes in color and physical state)

• Quantitative observations are:


– Measurements
• Numerical values obtained from instrumentation, glassware, and other
measuring devices
• Varying precision and accuracy
– Counted values
• Number of cats per household in the United States

• The nature of the measurement (qualitative vs. quantitative) dictates


the types of statistics that can be used during data analysis.
What Are Measurements?
All measurements consist of two parts:
1. Scalar or dimensional unit
• Units may be part of the International System of Units (SI),
based on the metric system or the English system.
• Example: 5.9 m means 5.9 meters
3.7 kg conveys 3.7 kilograms

2. Numerical value
• Reflects the precision of the instrument or piece of glassware
used to make the measurement
• Example: 25.0 cm or 1.00 ft
Quantitative Measurement Errors
• Systematic or Determinate Error
– Error is in the same direction.
– Either higher or lower than should be

• Random or Indeterminate Error


– Equal probability of measure being lower or higher than
should be
– Difficult to correct or find source

Random

Systematic
Standard Units of Measures (SI)
• Length: meter (m)
• Mass: kilogram (kg)
• Time: second (s)
• Temperature: kelvin (K)
• Amount of substance: mole (mol) 6.02 x 1023 units
• Electric Current: ampere (A)
• Luminous Intensity: candela (cd)
Metric System: Prefix Multipliers

common units:
Length: meter (m)
*Memorize symbols, prefixes, and values Volume: liter (L)
for EXAM* Mass: gram (g)
Time: second (s)
PRACTICE
How many meters are in 0.00670 km?

How many grams are in 284 mg?

How many mL are in 0.589 L?


Temperature Scales: Comparison
Temperature Calculations
• To go from Celsius (°C) to kelvin (K) use the equation:
T (K) = t (°C) + 273.15
‒ Examples:
• Determine the body temperature in kelvin
37.00 °C + 273.15 = 310.15 K
• Liquid nitrogen boils at 77 K. What is this temperature in Celsius?

• To go from Celsius (°C) to Fahrenheit (°F) use the equation:


°F = 1.8 (°C) + 32
‒ Example: Your younger brother has a temperature of 40.0 °C. What
is this temperature in Fahrenheit?
E.3 The Reliability of a Measurement
Precision vs. Accuracy and Uncertainty

• Precision
– Agreement or closeness of a series of measured values.
– NOTE: You can be precise but not accurate in measurements
• Accuracy
– Agreement or closeness of measured value to actual
known value.
– NOTE: You can have accuracy in overall measurement but not be
precise.

High Accuracy Low Accuracy High Accuracy Low Accuracy


High Precision High Precision Low Precision Low Precision
Precision of Laboratory Glassware
• For instruments marked
with a scale, you
determine the last digit by
estimating between the
marks.

• Mentally divide the gap


between marks into
tenths; then estimate • The meniscus rests between 4.5 and 4.6.
which tenth the indicator • The graduated cylinder has markings
mark would be pointing (divisions) every 0.1 mL.
toward. • The measurement reading that you would
record would be 4.56 mL.
4.56 mL
The value “6” in this
measurement is the one you
know with the least precision
—you estimated its value.
E.4 Significant Figures in Calculations

• Reporting ofSignificant Figures


significant and Measurements
figures in an answer is
dependent on the precision of the MEASURED values
given in the problem or determined by the precision
of the glassware or laboratory equipment used.

• Conversion factors are treated as exact values.


– Exact values are measurements that have an infinite
number of significant figures.
– Examples:
1 in = 2.54 cm
100 pennies = $1
12 pieces = 1 dozen
1 mole = 6.02 x 1023 units
Significant Figure Rules
• All nonzero values are significant.
– Example: 536 has ___ significant figures.

• Zeroes between nonzero digits are significant.


– Example: 6703 has ___ significant figures.

• Leading zeroes:
– Place-holder zeroes to the left of a nonzero digit are NOT significant.
• Example: 0.0043 has two significant figures.

• Trailing zeroes:
– Zeroes to the right after a nonzero digit are NOT significant.
• Example: 7000 has only one significant figure.
• Example: 32040 has four significant figures since the interior zero is
significant.

– Zeroes to the right after a decimal point ARE significant.


• Example: 50.0 has three significant figures; the interior zero is also
significant.
• Example: 0.0600 has three significant figures; the leading zeroes are not
Practice
How many sig figs? Express number in 3 sig figs

50,003 km 96.455 mL

400 L
868.2 km

0.04450 m

2058273494 miles
Sig Figs with Scientific Notation
Use for very large or small numbers

0.00000000432
. Rules:
1. Move the decimal point until the
9 number is between 1 and 10
4.32 x 10-9 2. Add the exponential term with the
exponent equal to the number of
953.20
.
times you move the decimal point
3. The exponent is negative if you
moved the decimal right
2 4. The exponent is positive if you
9.5320 x 102 moved the decimal left
Scientific Notation
Practice:

12035 =

0.01450 =
Mathematical Operations and Sig. Figs
• Mathematical operations dictate the reporting of significant
figures in an answer.

– Multiplication and division


• The least precise measured value determines the number of significant
figures in the reported answers.

– Addition and subtraction


• The value with the smallest decimal measurement determines the
answer’s significant figures.

• Only apply rules at the end of EACH calculation – we drop the


insignificant digits
Multiplication and Division
• 3.56 cm x 4 cm = 14.24 cm2

• 2.050 mL x 5.0 mL = 10.25 mL2

• 45.0 cm / 9 cm = 5.0 cm

• (4.5 ft) x (12 in/1 ft) x (2.54 cm/1 in.) x (1 m/100 cm)
= 1.3716 m
Addition and Subtraction
• Examples:

2 3 . 4 6 7 in
+ 3 1 3 . 2 1 in
3 3 6 . 6 7 7in

4 5 7 cm
– 0 . 6 8 cm
4 5 6. 3 2 cm
Sig Figs rules in mathematical operations
practice:

9.3440 +67.3=¿

(14.84 × 0.55) – 8.02 =

( 4.562 ∗3.99870)
=¿
( 452.6755 − 452.33)

=
E.5 Density
An Intensive Physical Property of Matter

• Density is defined as mass/volume

Density = mass
volume

• Intensive physical property

‒ Intensive physical properties are independent of the amount of


substance being measured.
• Extensive physical properties.

‒ Extensive physical properties are dependent on amount.


Intensive vs. Extensive Properties

Independent of Size

Depend on Size
Practice Problem:
(1 cm3 = 1 mL)
Mercury (Hg) has a density of 13.6 g/cm3. What is the mass in grams for 95 mL of
mercury?

• Strategy:
1. Convert mL to cm3.
2. Rearrange the equation to solve for mass.
3. Substitute numerical values and the units into the equation and calculate
the answer.
E.7 Converting between Units
Dimensional Analysis

• Many problems in chemistry involve using relationships


to convert one unit of measurement to another.
– Conversion factors are relationships between two units.
– Conversion factors can be generated from equivalence statements.
• Example: 1 inch = 2.54 cm can be written as
1 𝑖𝑛 2.54 𝑐𝑚
or
2.54 𝑐𝑚 1 𝑖𝑛
• Example: How many cm are in 12 inches?
Unit Conversions
• Goal is to convert a value from one unit to another

• Use conversion factors (a fraction whose numerator and denominator are


the same quantity, but expressed in different units)

• Examples: How many mL of medicine should you give an 11 lb child if


the dosage is 0.5 mL per 1 lb?

“Train Track” Method (used in class):


Practice Problem
How many apples can you buy if you have $2.50 and each apple cost
$0.50?

A diamond has a mass of 241.5 carats (1 carat = 0.200 g). What is the
mass of the diamond in grams?
E.9 Solving Problems Involving
Equations
Practice Problems:
The mass of fuel in a jet must be calculated before each flight to ensure
that the jet is not too heavy to fly. A 747 is fueled with 173,231 L of jet
fuel. If the density is 0.768 g/mL, what is the mass of the fuel in
kilograms?

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