Lecture-1 Introduction to statistical theory

INTRODUCTION TO
STATISTICAL
THEORY
BY UNSA
SHAKIR
An Overview
of
Statistics
Why study
statistics?
1. Data are everywhere
2. Statistical techniques are used to make many
decisions that affect our lives
3. No matter what your career, you will make
professional decisions that involve data. An
understanding of statistical methods will help
you make these decisions efectively
Statisti
cs
⚫ The science of collectiong, organizing,
presenting, analyzing, and interpreting
data to assist in making more effective
decisions
⚫ Statistical analysis – used to manipulate

summarize, and investigate data, so that
useful decision-making information
results.
Definition: Population
Types o f Population
Definition: Sample
Exampl
e:
Parameters &
AStatistics
parameter is a numerical descriptionof a
population characteristic.
A statistic is a numerical description

of a sample
characteristic.
Parameter Population
Statistic Sample
Parameters &
Statistics
•Example:
Decide whether the numerical value describes a
population parameter or a sample statistic.
a.) A recent survey of a sample of 450 college

students reported that the average
weekly income for students is $325.
Because the averageof $325 is based
on a sample, this is a sample
statistic.
b.) The average weekly income for all
students is
$405.
Because the averageof $405 is based
Branches of
Statistics
The study of statisticshas two major
branches:
and inferential statistics.
descriptive statisticsStatistics
Descripti Inferenti
ve al
statistic
Methods of Thestatistic
methods
s
organizing, s to
used
summarizing, determine
and presenting something
data in an about a
informative population on
Inferential
Statistics
• Estimation
• Hypothesis
testing
Inference is the process of
drawing conclusions or
making decisions about a
population based on sample
results
Descriptive
Statistics
• Collect
data
• e.g., Survey
• Present
data
• Summarize data
•e.g.,
• Tables
e.g., Sample
and
X i
n
mean =
graphs
Descriptive and Inferential
•Statistics
Example:
•In a recent study, volunteers who had less than 6

hours of sleep were four times more likely to answer
incorrectly on a science test than were participants
who had at least 8 hours of sleep. Decide which part
is the descriptive statistic and what conclusion
might be drawn using inferential statistics.
• The statement “four times more likely to answer

incorrectly” is a descriptive statistic.
• An inference drawn from the sample is that all

individuals sleeping less than 6 hours are more
likely to answer science question incorrectly
Data
Classification
Statistical
⚫ The collection of data that are relevant to the
data
problem being studied is commonly the most
difficult, expensive, and time-consuming part of
the entire research project.
⚫ Statistical data are usually obtained by counting
or measuring items.
⚫Primary data are collected specifically for the

analysis desired
⚫Secondary data have already been compiled
and are
available for statistical analysis
⚫A variable is an item of interest that can take on
many different numerical values.
Types of
Data
Data sets can consist of two types of
data:
qualitative data and quantitative data.
Data
Qualitati Quantitati
ve ve
Data of
Consists Data of
Consists
attributes, numerical
labels, or measurements
nonnumeric or counts.
al entries.
Qualitative
data data are generally described by
Qualitative
words or letters. They are not as widely used as
quantitative data because many numerical
techniques do not apply to the qualitative data.
For example, it does not make sense to find an
average hair color or blood type.
Qualitative data can be separated into two
subgroups:
⚫ dichotomic (if it takes the form of a word with two

options (gender - male or female)
⚫ polynomic (if it takes the form of a word with more
than two options (education - primary school,
Quantitative
data
Quantitative data are always numbers and are the
result of counting or measuring
attributes of a population.
Quantitative data can be separated into two
subgroups:
• discrete (if it is the result of counting (the number of

students of a given ethnic group in a class, the
number of books on a shelf, ...)
• continuous (if it is the result of measuring
(distance
traveled, weight of luggage, …)
Qualitative and Quantitative
•Data
Example:
•The grade point averages of five students are listed
in the table. Which data are qualitative data and
which are quantitative data?
Student GPA
Sally 3.22
Bob 3.98
Cindy 2.75
Mark 2.24
Kathy 3.84
Qualitative data Quantitative data
Types of
variables
Variable
s
Qualitati Quantitati
ve ve
Dichotom Polynomi Discret Continuo

ic c e us
Amount of
Gender, Brands of
Children in income tax
marital clothes,
family paid, weight of
status hair color
a student
Levels of
Measurement
The level of measurement determines which
statistical calculations are meaningful. The
four levels of measurement are: nominal,
ordinal, interval, and ratio.
Nominal
Level Lowes
Ordinal t to
s of
Measurement highes
t
Interval
Ratio
Nominal Level of
Measurement
Data at the nominal level of measurement
are qualitative only.
Nominal
Levels Calculated using names,
of labels, or qualities. No
Measurement mathematical computations
can be made at this level.
Colors in Names of Textbooks you

the Indian students in your are using this
flag class semester
Ordinal Level of
Measurement
Data at the ordinal level of measurement
are qualitative or quantitative.
Level
s of Ordinal
Measuremen Arranged in order, but
t differences between data
entries are not
meaningful.
Class standings: Numbers on the Top 50 songs
freshman, back of each played on
sophomore, player’s shirt the radio
junior, senior
Interval Level of
Measurement
Data at the interval level of measurement are
quantitative. A zero entry simply represents a
position on a scale; the entry is not an inherent
zero.
Level Interval
s of Arranged in order, the
Measurement differences between data entries
can be calculated.
Years on
Temperatures a
timeline
Ratio Level of
Measurement
Data at the ratio level of measurement are
similar to the interval level, but a zero entry is
meaningful.
Level A ratio of two data values can be
s of formed so one data value can be
Measuremen expressed as a ratio.
t
Ratio
Ages Grade point Weights

averages
Summary of Levels of
Measurement
Arrange Determine if one
Level of Put data in Subtract data
data in data value is a
measurement values
order multiple of another
categories
Nominal Yes No No No
Ordinal Yes Yes No No
Interval Yes Yes Yes No
Ratio Yes Yes Yes Yes
Experimental
Design
Designing a Statistical
Study
GUIDELINES
1. Identify the variable(s) of interest (the
focus) and the population of the study.
2. Develop a detailed plan for collecting
data. If you use a sample, make sure
the sample is representative of the
population.
3. Collect the data.
4. Describe the data.
5. Interpret the data and make decisions
about the population using inferential
statistics.
Methods of Data
InCollection
an observational study, a researcher observes
and measures characteristics of interest of part of a
population.
In an experiment, a treatment is applied to

part of a population, and responses are
observed.
A simulation is the use of a mathematical or physical
model to reproduce the conditions of a situation or
process.
A survey is an investigation of one or more
characteristics of
a population.
A census is a measurement of an entire population.
Samplin
g
A sample should have the same
characteristics as the population it is
representing.
Sampling can be:
• with replacement: a member of the

population may be chosen more than
once (picking the candy from the bowl)
• without replacement: a member of the population

may
be chosen only once (lottery ticket)
Characteristic o f G o o d Sample
Types o f Sampling
There are two types o f samplings:
1. Probability Sampling and
2. Non- Probability Sampling
1. Probability Sampling
Types o f Sampling
2. Non - Probability Sampling

Types o f Sampling
2. Non - Probability Sampling

Sampling Selection Methods
Sample Selection Methods

Types o f Probability Sampling
Type – 1: Simple Random Sampling Method (SRS)

Steps for selection o f sample using SRS Method
Type – 2: Systemetic Sampling Method
Type – 2: Systemetic Sampling Method
Type – 3: Stratified Sampling Method
Type – 3: Stratified Sampling Method
Type – 4: Clustered Sampling Method
Type – 5 : Multistage Sampling Method
Types o f Non-Probability Sampling
Reference
Books
1.Ronald Walpole, Myers, Myers, Ye, “Probability &
Statistics for Engineers & Scientists”, 8th edition,
2008, Prentice Hall Publisher.
2.Lay L. Devore, Probability and Statistics for
Engineering and the Sciences, 2003, Duxbury
Publishers.
3.G. Cowan, Statistical Data Analysis, 1998,
Clarendon, Oxford.

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INTRODUCTION TO

⚫ Statistical analysis – used to manipulate

A statistic is a numerical description

a.) A recent survey of a sample of 450 college

•In a recent study, volunteers who had less than 6

• The statement “four times more likely to answer

• An inference drawn from the sample is that all

⚫Primary data are collected specifically for the

⚫ dichotomic (if it takes the form of a word with two

• discrete (if it is the result of counting (the number of

Dichotom Polynomi Discret Continuo

Colors in Names of Textbooks you

Ages Grade point Weights

In an experiment, a treatment is applied to

Sampling can be:

• with replacement: a member of the

• without replacement: a member of the population

1. Probability Sampling and

2. Non- Probability Sampling

2. Non - Probability Sampling

2. Non - Probability Sampling

Sample Selection Methods

Type – 1: Simple Random Sampling Method (SRS)

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