Heat and Mass Transfer, Yunus A.

Cengel

CHAPTER 6
FUNDAMENTALS OF
CONVECTION
 PHYSICAL MECHANISM OF CONVECTION

Conduction and convection both

require the presence of a material
medium but convection requires
fluid motion.
Convection involves fluid motion
as well as heat conduction.
Heat transfer through a solid is
always by conduction.
Heat transfer through a fluid is by
convection in the presence of bulk
fluid motion and by conduction in
the absence of it.
Therefore, conduction in a fluid can
be viewed as the limiting case of
convection, corresponding to the
case of quiescent fluid.

Heat transfer from a hot

surface to the surrounding
3 fluid by convection and
conduction.
 The fluid motion enhances heat transfer, since it brings warmer
and cooler chunks of fluid into contact, initiating higher rates of
conduction at a greater number of sites in a fluid.
The rate of heat transfer through a fluid is much higher by
convection than it is by conduction.
In fact, the higher the fluid velocity, the higher the rate of heat
transfer.

Heat transfer through a fluid

sandwiched between two
parallel plates.
3
 Convection heat transfer strongly depends on the fluid properties
dynamic viscosity, thermal conductivity, density, and specific heat, as well
as the fluid velocity.

It also depends on the geometry and the roughness of the solid

surface, in addition to the type of fluid flow (such as being
streamlined or turbulent).

Newton’s law of cooling

Convection heat transfer coefficient, h: The rate of heat transfer

between a solid surface and a fluid per unit surface area per unit
temperature difference.

4
 No-slip condition: A fluid in direct contact with a solid “sticks” to
the surface due to viscous effects, and there is no slip.
Boundary layer: The flow region adjacent to the wall in which
the viscous effects (and thus the velocity gradients) are
significant.
The fluid property responsible for the no-slip condition and the
development of the boundary layer is viscosity.

A fluid flowing over a stationary

surface comes to a complete stop
at the surface because of the no-
5 slip condition.
 An implication of the no-slip condition is that heat transfer from the
solid
surface to the fluid layer adjacent to the surface is by pure conduction,
since the fluid layer is motionless, and can be expressed as

The determination of the convection heat transfer coefficient

when the temperature distribution within the fluid is known

The convection heat transfer coefficient, in general, varies along the

flow (or x-) direction. The average or mean convection heat transfer
coefficient for a surface in such cases is determined by properly
averaging the local convection heat transfer coefficients over the
entire surface area As or length L as

6
 Nusselt Number
In convection studies, it is common practice to nondimensionalize the
governing equations and combine the variables, which group together
into dimensionless numbers in order to reduce the number of total
variables.
Nusselt number: Dimensionless convection heat transfer coefficient

Lc characteristic
length

The Nusselt number represents the

enhancement of heat transfer through
a fluid layer as a result of convection
relative to conduction across the same
fluid layer.
The larger the Nusselt number, the
Heat transfer through a fluid more effective the convection.
layer of thickness L and A Nusselt number of Nu = 1 for a fluid
temperature difference T. layer represents heat transfer across
7 the layer by pure conduction.
 Convection in daily life

• We turn on the fan on hot

summer days to help our
body cool more effectively.
The higher the fan speed, the
better we feel.

• We stir our soup and

blow on a hot slice of pizza
to make them cool faster.

• The air on windy winter days

feels much colder than it
• actually is.
The simplest solution to
We resort to forced
convection whenever we need heating problems in
to increase the rate of heat electronics packaging is to
transfer. use a large enough fan.
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 CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
Viscous flows: Flows in which the frictional effects are significant.
Inviscid flow regions: In many flows of practical interest, there are
regions (typically regions not close to solid surfaces) where viscous
forces are negligibly small compared to inertial or pressure forces.

The flow of an originally uniform fluid stream over a flat

plate, and the regions of viscous flow (next to the plate
1 on both sides) and inviscid flow (away from the plate).
0
 Internal versus External Flow

External flow: The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface

such as a plate, a wire, or a pipe.
Internal flow: The flow in a pipe or duct if the fluid is
completely bounded by solid surfaces.

• Water flow in a
pipe is internal
flow, and airflow
over a ball is
external flow .
• The flow of liquids
in a duct is called
open- channel flow if
the duct is only
External flow over a tennis ball, partially filled with
and the turbulent wake region the liquid and there
behind. is a free surface.
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 Compressible versus Incompressible Flow
Incompressible flow: If the density of flowing fluid remains
nearly constant throughout (e.g., liquid flow).
Compressible flow: If the density of fluid changes during flow (e.g.,
high-speed gas flow)

When analyzing rockets,

spacecraft, and other systems
that involve high- speed gas
flows, the flow speed is often
expressed by Mach number

Ma = Sonic flow
1 Subsonic flow
Ma < Supersonic
1
Ma >> 1flow
Hypersonic
Ma
flow>
1
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 Laminar versus Turbulent Flow

Laminar flow: The highly

ordered fluid motion
characterized by smooth
layers of fluid. The flow of
high-viscosity fluids such as
oils at low velocities is
typically laminar.

Turbulent flow: The highly

disordered fluid motion that
typically occurs at high
velocities and is
characterized by velocity
fluctuations. The flow of low-
viscosity fluids such as air at
high velocities is typically
turbulent.

Transitional flow: A flow that

alternates between being
12
laminar and turbulent.
 Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow

Forced flow: A fluid is

forced to flow over a
surface or in a pipe by
external means such as a
pump or a fan.

Natural flow: Fluid motion

is due to natural means
such as the buoyancy
effect, which manifests
itself as the rise of warmer
(and thus lighter) fluid and
the fall of cooler (and thus
denser) fluid.
I
n

t
13 h
i
s
 One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
• A flow field is best characterized
by its velocity distribution.
• A flow is said to be one-, two-, or
three- dimensional if the flow velocity
varies in one, two, or three
dimensions, respectively.
• However, the variation of velocity in
certain directions can be small
relative to the variation in other
directions and can be ignored.

The development of the velocity profile in a circular pipe. V = V(r, z)

and thus the flow is two-dimensional in the entrance region, and
becomes one-dimensional downstream when the velocity profile fully
develops and remains unchanged in
15 the flow direction, V = V(r).
 VELOCİTY BOUNDARY LAYER

The region of the flow above the plate bounded by δ is

called the velocity boundary layer.

The development of the boundary layer for flow over a

1 flat plate, and the different flow regimes.
6
 VISCOSITY

Viscosity: A property
that represents the
internal resistance of
a fluid to motion or
the “fluidity”.

Drag force: The force

a flowing fluid exerts on
a body in the flow
direction. The
magnitude of this force
depends, in part, on
viscosity
A fluid moving relative to a body
exerts a drag force on the body,
partly because of friction caused by
viscosity.
1
7
 Shear stress

Shear force

The behavior of a fluid in

laminar flow between two
parallel plates when the upper
plate moves with a constant
velocity.

 dynamic viscosity
kg/ms or Ns/m2 or Pas
1 1poise
poise= 0.1 s
Pa Pa
= 0.1
Fluids for which the rate of
deformation is proportional to the  s
shear stress are called Newtonian
1
fluids.
8
Kinematic viscosity,
m2/s or stoke
1 stoke = 1 cm2/s = 0.0001 m2/s

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to deformation, and it is a

strong function of temperature.

Wall shear stress:

Cf friction coefficient or
skin friction coefficient

Friction force over the entire surface:

The friction coefficient is an important parameter in heat transfer

studies since it is directly related to the heat transfer coefficient and the
power requirements of the pump or fan.

18
 The viscosity of liquids decreases and
the viscosity of gases increases with
temperature.
19
 THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER
A thermal boundary layer develops when a fluid at a specified
temperature flows over a surface that is at a different temperature.
Thermal boundary layer: The flow region over the surface in
which the temperature variation in the direction normal to the
surface is significant.
The thickness of the thermal boundary layer δt at any location along the
surface is defined as the distance from the surface at which the temperature
difference T – Ts equals 0.99(T− Ts).
The thickness of the thermal
boundary layer increases in
the flow direction, since the
effects of heat transfer are
felt at greater distances from
the surface further down
stream.
The shape of the
temperature profile in the
thermal boundary layer
Thermal boundary layer on a flat dictates the convection heat
plate transfer between a solid
surface and the fluid flowing
(the fluid is hotter than the plate over it.
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 Prandtl Number
The relative thickness of the velocity and the thermal boundary
layers is best described by the dimensionless parameter Prandtl
number

The Prandtl numbers of gases are

about 1, which indicates that both
momentum and heat dissipate
through the fluid at about the same
rate.

Heat diffuses very quickly in

liquid metals (Pr << 1) and very
slowly in oils (Pr >> 1) relative to
momentum.

Consequently the thermal

boundary layer is much thicker for
liquid metals and much thinner
2
for oils relative to the velocity
1
boundary layer.
 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOWS
Laminar flow is
encountered when
highly viscous fluids
such as oils flow in small
pipes or narrow
passages.

Laminar: Smooth
streamlines and highly
ordered motion.

Turbulent: Velocity
fluctuations and
highly disordered
motion.

Transition: The flow

fluctuates between
Laminar and laminar and turbulent The behavior of
turbulent flow flows. colored fluid injected
regimes of candle into the flow in
smoke. laminar and turbulent
Most flows
22 flows in a pipe.
encountered in
 Reynolds Number

The transition from laminar to At large Reynolds numbers,

turbulent flow depends on the the inertial forces, which are
geometry, surface roughness, flow proportional to the fluid
velocity, surface temperature, and density and the square of the
type of fluid. fluid velocity, are large relative
The flow regime depends mainly to the viscous forces, and thus
on the ratio of inertial forces to the viscous forces cannot
viscous forces (Reynolds number). prevent the random and rapid
fluctuations of the fluid
(turbulent).

At small or moderate Reynolds

numbers, the viscous forces
are large enough to suppress
these fluctuations and to keep
the fluid “in line” (laminar).

Critical Reynolds number, Recr:

The Reynolds number at which
The Reynolds number can be the flow becomes turbulent.
viewed as the ratio of inertial
2 forces to viscous forces acting on The value of the critical
3 a fluid element. Reynolds number is different
for different geometries and
 TURBULENT FLOW IN PIPES
Most flows encountered in engineering practice are turbulent,
and thus it is important to understand how turbulence affects
wall shear stress.
Turbulent flow is a complex mechanism dominated by fluctuations, and
it is still not fully understood.
We must rely on experiments and the empirical or semi-empirical
correlations developed for various situations.
Turbulent flow is characterized by
disorderly and rapid fluctuations of
swirling regions of fluid, called
eddies, throughout the flow.
These fluctuations provide an
additional mechanism for
momentum and energy transfer.
The intense mixing in
turbulent flow brings fluid In turbulent
transport flow,momentum,
mass, the swirlingand
particles at different eddies
energy to other regions of flow much
momentums into close contact more rapidly than molecular
and thus enhances momentum diffusion, greatly enhancing mass,
transfer. momentum, and heat transfer.
As a result, turbulent flow is associated with much higher values of
friction, heat transfer, and mass transfer coefficients
24
 Turbulent flow is characterized by
random and rapid fluctuations of
swirling regions of fluid, called
eddies, throughout the flow.

25
 Fluctuations of the velocity component
u with time at a specified location in
turbulent flow.

26
 Turbulent Velocity Profile
The very thin layer next to the wall
where viscous effects are dominant is
the viscous (or laminar or linear or wall)
sublayer.
The velocity profile in this layer is very
nearly
linear, and the flow is streamlined.
Next to the viscous sublayer is the buffer
layer, in which turbulent effects are
becoming significant, but the flow is still
dominated by viscous effects.
Above the buffer layer is the overlap
(or transition) layer, also called the
inertial sublayer, in which the turbulent
effects are much more significant, but
still not dominant.
Above that is the outer (or turbulent)
layer in the remaining part of the flow in
which turbulent effects dominate over
molecular diffusion (viscous) effects.
27The velocity profile in fully
developed pipe flow is parabolic
 The velocity gradients at the wall, and thus the wall shear
stress, are much larger for turbulent flow than they are for
laminar flow, even though the turbulent boundary layer is
thicker than the laminar one for the same value of free-
stream velocity.

28
DERIVATION OF DIFFERENTIAL
CONVECTION EQUATIONS
We apply three fundamental laws to the fluid element that we selected:
1-Conservation of mass
2-Conservation of momentum
3-Conservation of energy
To obtain continuity, momentum, and energy equation for laminar flow in boundary layers.
 The Continuity Equation
In steady flow, the amount of mass within the
control volume remains constant, and thus the
conservation of mass can be expressed as

Where
The rate at which fluid enters the control volume from the LEFT surface is

The rate at which fluid leaves the control volume from the RIGHT surface is

The rate at which fluid enters the control volume from the BOTTOM surface is

The rate at which fluid leaves the control volume from the TOP surface is

30
The Continuity Equation

Simplifying and dividing both sides by

Continuity Equation

31
The Continuity Equation

Simplifying and dividing both sides by

Continuity Equation

32
 The Momentum Equations

The differential forms of the equations of motion in the velocity boundary layer are
obtained by applying Newton’s second law of motion to a differential control volume
element in the boundary layer.
The net force acting on the control volume is equal to the mass times the acceleration
of the fluid element within the control volume, which is also equal to the net rate of
momentum outflow from the control volume.

=Rate of change of momentum in x- direction

 The Momentum Equations

The total momentum is x- direction is made by the mass flow in each of the two (x,y) directions

Mass flowing into the control volume from LEFT (x-direction) is

The corresponding momentum in x-direction is

Mass flowing into the control volume from BOTTOM is

The corresponding momentum in x-direction is
The rate at which fluid leaves the control volume from the RIGHT surface is

The corresponding momentum in x-direction is

Multiply which are shown in RED

* Neglect second order differentials

The rate at which fluid leaves the control volume from the TOP
surface is
The corresponding momentum in x-direction is
*

Multiply which are shown in RED

* Neglect second order differentials

The net rate of change in momentum in x-direction is

Simplifying we get

Continuity
Equation

Finally we get
The net rate of change in momentum in x-direction Net force acting in
x-direction
DERIVATION OF DIFFERENTIAL CONVECTION EQUATIONS
The Continuity Equation

45
 The Momentum Equations
Newton’s second law is an expression for momentum balance and can
be stated as the net force acting on the control volume is equal to the
mass times the acceleration of the fluid element within the control volume,
which is also equal to the net rate of momentum outflow from the control
volume.

46
 During steady flow, a fluid may
not accelerate in time at a fixed
point, but it may accelerate in
space

47
 Conservation of Energy Equation

the net energy convected by the fluid out of the control volume is
equal to the
32 net energy transferred into the control volume by heat conduction.
 For the special case of a stationary fluid,
u=v= 0

49
 SOLUTIONS OF CONVECTION EQUATIONS FOR A FLAT PLATE

56
 dimensionless similarity
variable

57
58
 The Energy Equation

59
 When Pr 1, the velocity and thermal boundary layers
coincide, and the nondimensional velocity and
temperature profiles are identical for steady,
incompressible, laminar flow over a flat plate.

60
SOME İMPORTANT RESULTS FROM CONVECTİON
EQUATİONS
The velocity boundary layer
thickness

The average local skin friction

coefficient

Local Nusselt number

The thermal boundary layer

thickness Reynold analogy

Modified Reynold
analogy

61
 SUMMARY
Physical Mechanism of Convection
• Nusselt Number
Classification of flows
Thermal Boundary Layer
• Prandtl Number
Laminar and Turbulent Flow
• Reynolds Number

62