THEORIES OF MASS

COMMUNICATION
Many social scientists studied the effect of mass
communication within the society. This has resulted
in a number of theories which essentially trace the
relationship between mass communication and
society.
Bullet Theory, Two-Step, Multistep Theory
Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Uses and Gratification Theory

Cultivation Theory
Normative Theories: Authoritarian,
Libertarian, Soviet-Communist, Social
Responsibility, Developmental, Democratic
Participation
 BULLET THEORY
In 1940s and 1950s, mass media had a powerful influence on behaviour
change.
Bullet Theory is also called as ‘Magic Bullet Theory’ or ‘Hypodermic
Needle Theory’
It implied that mass media had a direct, immediate, uniform and powerful
effect on its audience/large group of people by shooting or injecting them
with appropriate messages designed to trigger a desired response.
As the name ‘Bullet’ theory suggests, the messages are like magic bullets
that are shot directly into the receiver.
 FA C T O R S C O N T R I B U T E D
TO THIS STRONG
EFFECTS

The fast rise and popularisation of radio and

television
The emergence of the persuasion industry;
advertisements, propaganda
Focus on the impact of motion pictures.
 Isolated
individuals
constituting a mass

Both images (a bullet and a needle) used to express

this theory suggest a powerful and direct flow of
information from the sender to the receiver.
The graphical representation suggests that;
• Message is a bullet (Fired from the media gun into
the viewer’s head)
• Hypodermic needle model suggests that the media
messages are injected straight into a passive
audience, which is, immediately influenced by the
message.
The Classic example:

In 30 October, 1938, Orson Welles (Mercury Theatre Group) broadcasted their radio
edition of H.G. Wells’ ‘War of the Worlds’.

On the eve of Halloween, radio programming was interpreted with a ‘news bulletin’ for
the first time; ‘Martian had begun an invasion on Earth in Grover’s Mill, New Jersey’.

Approx. 12 million people in United States heard the broadcast and about 1 million
believed that a serious alien invasion was underway. It disrupted the mass households:
• Interrupted religious services
• Traffic jams
• Clogged communication systems
• People fled their city homes to seek shelter in more rural areas
• Raided grocery stores
• Began to ration food

This project become known as the Panic Broadcast and changed broadcast history, social
psychology, and civil defense and set a standard of provocative entertainment.

This theory works by injecting the message directly into the bloodstream of the public,
attempting to create a uniform thinking.
 Advantages Disadvantag
es
People are seen as passive • Media is a
and have a lot media material dangerous means
‘shot’ at them.
of communicating
an idea because the
People end up thinking what
receiver or
they are told because there is
audience is
no other source of information. powerless to resist
Media can shape audience the impact of the
perception. message.
• There is no escape
from the effect of
the message.
This theory was not accurate for the election studies
(The People’s Choice, 1944 Paul Lazarsfeld, Bernand
Berelson and Hazel Gaudet):

For example: The project was conducted during the

election of Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1940 to determine
voting patterns and the relationship between the media
and political behaviour. The majority of people remain
untouched by the propaganda, the campaign was not so
powerful to persuade the helpless audience uniformly and
directly.

This leads to the increase in more interactive forms of

media:
• Internet
• Radio call-in shows
 TWO -STEP THEORY

Due to the failure of the ‘The People’s Choice’ election campaign,

two-step flow of communication was introduced.
The researchers find empirical support for the direct influence of
media messages on voting intentions.
If a person who have more power than others, has a opinion,
others will agree with them and people will form their opinions
based on opinion leaders.
Example: A cool kid has an opinion, he will force it upon the nerdy
kid to make him inferior.
 The informal and personal contacts are more significant
than exposure to radio or newspaper as sources of
influence on voting behaviour.
 Katz and Lazarsfeld developed the two step flow theory
of mass communication.
 According to the theory:
The information from the media moves in two distinct
stages: Individuals
(Opinion Leaders)
who play close
attention to the
mass media and its
messages.

Public: Opinion
Leaders pass on
their own
interpretations in
addition to the
actual media
content to the
selected audience.
 Opinion leaders are quite influential in changing the
attitudes and behaviours of the public and are quite
similar to those who influence.
 The term ‘Personal Influence ’ was coined to refer to the
process of intervening between the media’s direct
message and the audience’s reaction to the message.
 ADVANTAGES
 This theory has improved our understanding of how mass
media influence decision-making.
It refined the ability to predict the influence of media
messages on audience behaviour.
It even explains why certain media campaigns may have
failed to alter the audience attitude and behaviour.
 DISADVANTAGES
• It diminishes the original and the direct
influence of mass media
• Its effects are evident only in political
studies that were conducted decades ago
when there was no television influence
• This theory is not applicable to the
contemporary political scene.
• Two-step flow theory gave way to the
multi-step flow theory of mass
communication or diffusion of innovation
theory.
 MULTISTEP THEORY
Further studies on opinion leaders led to the modification and re-
conceptualisation of the two-step flow concept into multi-step flow
because of the multi-directional influence of opinion leaders.
 The influence was seen to be upwards or backwards towards the
media sources, when they sought to tell the gatekeepers (newspaper
editors, news editors, radio, TV, producers etc.) how and when to
share insights with other opinion leaders.
 It has relay-points in the information reaching a member of the
audience is either direct or second hand, third hand, fourth hand etc.
It involves interpersonal communication and later
through mass media – the sequential flow of message is
made through various media and networks in an effective
manner.
The variables which contribute in these steps are:
• The source
• Quality
• Exposure or availability of mass media
• Extent of audience exposure to communicating agencies
• Nature and content of the message
• Importance of the message to the receivers or audiences
 COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY
Cognition (Cognitive means the mental
action or process of acquiring knowledge
and understanding through thoughts,
experiences and the senses.)
Dissonance means lack of agreement or
harmony between people or things.
Psychologist Leon Festinger proposed a theory of cognitive
dissonance centred on how people try to reach internal
consistency.
He suggested that people have an inner need to ensure that
their beliefs and behaviours are consistent.
Inconsistent or conflicting beliefs lead to disharmony,
which people strive to avoid.
Cognitive dissonance can be seen as an antecedent condition
which leads to activity oriented toward dissonance reduction.
Example: just as hunger leads toward activity oriented toward
hunger reduction.
The degree of dissonance people experience can depend on a few
different factors, including:
• how highly we value a particular belief and
• the degree to which our beliefs are inconsistent.

The overall strength of the dissonance can also be influenced by

several factors.
• Cognitions that are more personal, such as beliefs about the
self, tend to result in greater dissonance.
• The importance of the cognitions also plays a role. Things that
involve beliefs that are highly valued typically result in stronger
dissonance.
• The ratio between dissonant thoughts and consonant thoughts
can also play a role in how strong the feelings of dissonance are.
• The greater the strength of the dissonance, the more pressure
is there to relieve the feelings of discomfort.
• Cognitive dissonance can often have a powerful influence on our
behaviors and actions.
More Examples

In his 1957 book A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, Festinger offers one example
of how an individual might deal with dissonance related to a health behavior.
Individuals who smoke might continue to do so, even though they know it is bad
for their health. Why would someone continue engaging in behavior they know is
unhealthy? According to Festinger, a person might decide that they value
smoking more than his or her health, deeming the behavior "worth it" in terms of
risks versus rewards.
Another way to deal with this dissonance is to minimize the potential drawbacks.
The smoker might convince himself that the negative health effects have been
overstated. He might also assuage his health concerns by telling himself that he
cannot avoid every possible risk out there.
Finally, Festinger suggested that the smoker might try to convince himself that if
he does stop smoking then he will gain weight, which also presents health risks.
By using such explanations, the smoker is able to reduce the dissonance and
continue the behavior.

How to Reduce Cognitive Dissonance

According to Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance, people try to
seek consistency in their thoughts, beliefs, and opinions as when there
are conflicts between cognitions, people will take steps to reduce the
dissonance and feelings of discomfort. Therefore, there are three key
strategies to reduce or minimize cognitive dissonance:

Focus on more supportive beliefs that outweigh the dissonant
belief or behavior.
For example, people who learn that greenhouse emissions result in global
warming might experience feelings of dissonance if they drive a gas-
guzzling vehicle. In order to reduce this dissonance, they might seek out
new information that disputes the connection between greenhouse gasses
and global warming. This new information might serve to reduce the
discomfort and dissonance that the person experiences.
Reduce the importance of conflicting belief.
For example, a man who cares about his health might be disturbed to learn
that sitting for long periods of time during the day are linked to a shortened
lifespan. Since he has to work all day in an office and spends a great deal of
time sitting, it is difficult to change his behavior in order to reduce his
feelings of dissonance. In order to deal with the feelings of discomfort, he
might instead find some way to justify his behavior by believing that his other
healthy behaviors make up for his largely sedentary lifestyle.
Change the conflicting belief so that it is consistent with other beliefs
or behaviors.
Changing the conflicting cognition is one of the most effective ways of dealing
with dissonance, but it is also one of the most difficult. Particularly in the case
of deeply held values and beliefs, change can be exceedingly difficult.
 U S E S A N D G R AT I F I C AT I O N
T H E O RY
This theory explains how people use media for their need and gratification . It
deals with the effect on people by the media.

This theory can be said to have a user/audience-centered approach and

deals with how and why people adopt specific media to satisfy their needs .
The theory emphasizes a limited effect position; that is, the media have a limited effect on
their audiences because audiences are able to exercise control over their media.
Uses and Gratifications theorists explain why people choose and use certain media forms.

Even for communication (say interpersonal) people refer to the media for the topic they
discuss with themselves. They gain more knowledge by using media for reference.
This theory is contradictory to the magic bullet theory which states the audience is passive.
There are several needs and gratification for people, they
are categorized into five categories:
1. Cognitive needs

 People use media for acquiring knowledge, information etc.,

Only certain people have different needs to acquire, but
among the audience only some of them have intellectual
needs.
 E.g. watching a quiz programs on TV, could be in order to
acquire knowledge and information to satisfy the need.

Search on internet could be an example of gaining more

knowledge and by using the medium justifying your
gratification.
 2. Affective needs:

 It includes all kinds of emotions, pleasure etc. that

people use different mediums to satisfy their
emotional needs.
 The best example is people watch serials and if
there is any emotional or sad scene means people
used to cry.
 3. Personal Integrative needs:

 This is basically the self-esteem need. People use

media to reassure their status, to gain credibility
and stabilize themselves.
 So people watch TV and assure themselves that
they have a status in society for e.g. people get to
improve their status by watching media
advertisements like jewelry ad , furniture’s ad and
buy products, so the people change their life style
and media helps them to do so.
 4. Social Integrative needs:

 It encompasses the need to socialize with family, friends

and relations in the society. For social interaction, now a
days people do not seems to have social gathering in
weekend, instead they do such social interaction using
media like the social networking sites like my space,
Facebook etc. to satisfy their need.
 Another example is you may not watch the particular
serial regularly but because your friend watching, you
also start watching so that you have common topics for
discussion.
5. Stress Relieving needs:
 People sometimes use the media as a means of escapism and to relieve from tension.

 For e.g. People tend to relax watching TV, listening to radio and for satisfying their need
for entertainment there by relaxing from all the tension, people watch films, films on TV
etc
 Note: The needs are individual in nature, and how u satisfies the need is individualistic.

 E.g.: That’s why some watch news to relax and some get more tension by watching news,
Program is same but people use it for different needs.
 Taking TV today, most people watch reality shows because
• It is more realistic
• For entertainment
• Interesting
• New concepts (different from other programs)
• In a way you can participate
• Controversy, people crying
• Sensationalism

The above reason is why we watch and how we use not because it’s popular.
 CULTIVATION THEORY
The cultivation theory was proposed by a communications professor, George
Gerbner in 1960's. It is one of the core theories of media effects.
Cultivation theory suggests that exposure to media slightly "cultivates"
viewers' perceptions of reality.
Gerbner and Gross "Television is a medium of the socialization of most
people into standardized roles and behaviors.
According to the theory, people who watch television frequently are more likely to

be influenced by the messages from the world of television. The influence could go to
such an extent that their world view and perceptions start reflecting what they
repeatedly see and hear on television.
Television is, therefore, considered to contribute independently to the way
people perceive social reality.
Cultivation theory examines the long-term effects
of TV.
"The primary proposition of cultivation theory states
that the more time people spend 'living' in the
television world, the more likely they are to believe
social reality is parallel with reality portrayed on
television.
The images and ideological messages transmitted
through popular television media heavily influence
perceptions of the real world.
Assumptions
• Cultivation theory holds three core
assumptions.
• The first assumption highlights the medium, the
second, the audience, and the final assumption
deals with the function of the medium on
audiences and their ability to react to it.
• Television is fundamentally different from
other forms of mass media.
• Television shapes the way individuals within
society think and relate to each other.
• Television's effects are varied.
 NORMATIVE
THEORIES
Media theory refers to the complex of social-political-philosophical
principles which organize ideas about the relationship between
media and society.
‘Normative theory’ is concerned with what the media ought to be
doing in society rather than what they actually do.
In general, the dominant ideas about the obligations of mass media
will be consistent with other values and arrangements in a given
society. In the western liberal tradition, this refers to matters such
as freedom, equality before the law, social solidarity and cohesion,
cultural diversity, active participation and social responsibility.
Therefore, normative theory of the press is now in
a considerable state of uncertainty because of
changes in the media and the rise of new media
forms, we can still identify certain broad traditions
of thought about the rights and responsibilities of
media in society and the degree to which `society'
may rightly intervene to protect the public interest.
The main relevant variants can be described as
follows:
 AUTHORITARIAN
Authoritarian theory (which applies to early pre-democratic
forms of society and also to present- day undemocratic or
autocratic social systems).
In this view, all media and public communication are subject to
the supervision of the ruling authority and expression or
opinion which might undermine the established social and
political order.
This `theory' contravenes rights of freedom of expression, it can
be invoked under extreme conditions.
Authoritarian theory describe that all forms of communications are
under the control of the governing elite or authorities or influential
bureaucrats.
Authoritarians are necessary to control the media to protect and
prevent the people from the national threats through any form
communication (information or news).
The press is an instrument to enhance the ruler’s power in the
country rather than any threats. The authorities have all rights to
permit any media and control it by providing license to the media
and make certain censorship.
If any media violate the government policies against license, then
the authority has all right to cancel the license and revoke it. The
government have all right to restrict any sensitive issues from press
to maintain peace and security in the nation.
Censorship:
Censorship is a suppression of any communication which may
consider as harmful to the people, King, government and its
nation. Especially these censorship methods are much familiar
in press which against the freedom of speech and freedom of
expression. In some other cases, the censorship helps to
protect the rulers and authorities from sensitive issues.
There are different types of censors like
• Political censor
• Moral censor
• Religious censor
• Military censor
• Corporate censor
L I B E RTA R I A N (OPEN TO NEW IDEAS)

Liberalism means information is knowledge and knowledge is power.

Libertarianism is free from any authority or any control or censorship.
The libertarianism is an idea of individualism which is not harmful to
another.
The theory which is originally came from libertarian thoughts from 16th
century in Europe. The libertarian theorists are against the authoritarian
thoughts.
International trade and urbanization undermine the power of a rural
aristocracy which leads various social movements raise includes the
Protestants reformation, that demands individual’s freedom and their own
lives and free thoughts.
Libertarian theory sees people are enough to find and judge good ideas
from bad.
The theory says people are rational and their rational thoughts lead
them to find out what are good and bad.
The press should not restrict anything even a negative content may give
knowledge and can make better decision whilst worst situation.
The libertarian thoughts are exactly against or opposite to the
authoritarian theory
Example:
• Wiki leaks website published all sorts of confidential or restricted files in
public space and especially classified documents. These articles are
providing brief knowledge about the government and its activities which
helps people to identify what is happening in the society and its gives great
choices to elect a better president in future.
• Sometimes these documents may work against the government and its
authority that is why most of the country is not willing to allow libertarian
thoughts because it may affect their power and kingdom.
 STRENGTH WEAKNE
Freedom of press will give more •
SS
Theory excessively
freedom to media to reveal the real positive about media’s
thing happening in the society willing to meet
without any censorship or any responsibilities which
authority blockades. may leads people into
Is reliable with U.S media traditions. negative aspects.
It gives more values for individuals
• Ignores need for
to express their thoughts in media.
reasonable control of
media.
Is too positive about individual
• Ignores dilemmas
ethics and rationality.
posed by conflicting
freedoms.
 SOVIET-COMMUNIST
After the 1917th revolution, the Soviet Union was restructured with
new political system based on the Marxist-Leninist principles.
So the Soviet originates a theory from Marxist, Leninist and Stalinist
thoughts, with mixture of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel ideology is
called “Soviet Media Theory” is also known as “The Communist
Media Theory”. The same theory was developed and followed by Adolf
Hitler’s Nazi in Germany and Benito Mussolini in Italy.
The newly formed communist party shows much interest in the media
which serves to the working class in the country and their welfares.
Soviet media theory is imitative of Leninist principles which based on the
Carl Marx and Engel’s ideology.
The government undertake or controls the total media and communication
to serve working classes and their interest.
 Theory says the state have absolute power to control any media for the
benefits of people. They put an end to the private ownership of the press and
other media. The government media provide positive thoughts to create a
strong socialized society as well as providing information, education,
entertainment, motivation and mobilization. The theory describes that the
whole purpose of the mass media is to educate the greater masses of
working class or workers. Here, the public was encouraged to give feedback
which would able to create interests towards the media.
Soviet media theory, the whole control of the media is under the leader of
the nation.
Soviet media theory is a two way communication at the same
time the whole media is controlled or works under the leadership.
Private ownership is not allowed which leads the press without
any restriction and it can serve people without any authoritative
blockades.
Soviet media theory allows some restriction based on the nation
interest rather than personal.
Under communist theories like soviet media theory, the
journalist or press should support the leadership rather than a
watchdog.
If the leadership is wrong the whole nation will suffer a lot.
SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY

In mid 20th century most of the developing countries and

third world nations have used this social responsibility theory
of press which is associated with “the Commission of the
Freedom of Press” in United States at 1949.
Social responsibility theory (found more in Europe and
countries under European influence) is a modified version of
free press theory placing greater emphasis upon the
accountability of the media (especially broadcasting) to society.
Social responsibility theory allows free press without any censorship but
at the same time the content of the press should be discussed in public
panel and media should accept any obligation from public interference or
professional self regulations or both.
The theory lies between both authoritarian theory and libertarian theory
because it gives total media freedom in one hand but the external controls
in other hand.
The theory helped in creating professionalism in media by setting up a
high level of accuracy, truth, and information. The commission of press
council also included some tasks based on social responsibility of media,
which are as follows:
• Formulate the code of conduct for the press.
• Improve the standards of journalism.
• Safeguarding the interests of journalism and journalist.
• Criticise and make some penalty for violating the code of conduct.
 DEVELOPMENTAL

Development media theory (applying in countries

at lower levels of economic development and with
limited resources) takes various forms but
essentially proposes that media freedom, while
desirable, should be subordinated (of necessity) to
the requirements of economic, social and political
development.
This propounded by Dennis McQuail (1987) canvasses media support for an
existing government and its efforts to bring about socio-economic development.
It argues that until a nation is well established and its economic development
well underway, media must be supportive rather than critical of government,
but assist them in implementing their policies.
The media is seen to fulfill particular social and political duties; hence media
freedom while desirable should be subordinated to national integration, socio-
economic modernization, promotion of literacy and cultural creativity.
In the overall interest of development, the state has the right to intervene in
media operations by the use of censorship devices, especially when the
activities of the press are not in consonance with the development objectives of
the government. Mass media should accord priority to politically, geographically
and culturally contiguous developing countries in their coverage as part of the
holistic strategy for less developed societies.
 D E M O C R AT I C PA R T I C I PAT I O N

The idea of Democratic participant Theory was started by grass-root

level media in 1960s.
It emerged because of the dissatisfaction with other theories such as
Libertarian theory, social responsibility theory, etc.
The democratic-participant theory believes there is democratic and
professional hegemony ( (of countries) The position of being the
strongest and most powerful and therefore able to control others, it is
the political, economic, or military predominance or control of one state
over others) in the media today and the media is totally commercial.
The theory is believed to conserve and revive local cultures by
promoting the right to information (global and local), right to express
(feedback), right to use new technologies (means of communication),
freedom to local data, freedom to take part in social action, etc.
In the process, it expects the government to provide funds,
trainings and subsidies after identification if they have financial or
technical difficulties.
The democratic-participant theory is more relevant in liberal
democratic developed countries than developing and least developed
countries because the countries in transition from underdevelopment
and non-democracy are alleged to lack the infrastructures and
professional skills needed for free media in democracy.
 M A J O R F E AT U R E S O F D E M O C R AT I C -
PA R T I C I PA N T T H E O R Y O F M A S S C O M M U N I C A T I O N

Encourages horizontal and bottom up approach in media

Supports democracy, existing political rule, national socio-economic development

efforts and to implement policies
Media has supportive rather than critical role

Government controls some aspects if media does not act as it should by the process of
registration, licensing, censorship, by preparing guidelines for media, monitoring, etc.
Self regulation of media is also encouraged

More applicable to new media

Development of creativity and innovation in small media

Replacement of media from big media houses to small media

Participation and interaction of media and audience (as both are from the same group
of population)
Different communities, groups and organizations possessing their own media
 S T R E N G T H S O F D E M O C R AT I C -
PA R T I C I PA N T T H E O R Y O F M A S S
C O M M U N I C AT I O N

The audience can participate and get alternatives if not satisfied with one media.

The theory is stricter than libertarian and social responsibility which makes it
more responsible towards the needs of the audience.
The community can work for themselves as social action.

The theory is not very authoritative unless the press hinders the work of the
government.
There are the concepts of equality, inclusion and equal access which makes it
eliminate marginalization.
Democracy becomes strong with the application of this theory.

Small media gets the chance to work for local people.

 W E A K N E S S E S O F D E M O C R AT I C -
PA R T I C I PA N T T H E O R Y O F M A S S
C O M M U N I C AT I O N

Criticizing the government is not considered to be

productive role of media.
Local level media might lack professionalism and
skills.
The small local media might not be able to compete
with media giants.
 E X A M P L E S O F D E M O C R A T I C - PA R T I C I PA N T
T H E O RY O F M A SS C O M M U N I C AT I O N

The present concepts of community newspapers,

community radios and televisions.
The trend of social action through social media and
language programs through phone apps.
Underground and alternative press are examples
of this theory.