IB Chemistry Revision Session

1: Stoichiometric relationships
IB SL/ HL Chemistry
Revision Session April 2019
1.1 Introduction to the particulate nature of
matter and chemical change
- A chemical element - denoted by chemical symbol
- Compounds
- Chemical equations
- Mixtures
- Homogeneous
- Heterogeneous
- Temperature - measure of
average KE of energy of a
substance
- KE = ½ mv^2
- Fluids - liquids and gases
- State symbols
- (l)
- (aq)
- G)
- (s)
- a-b - vibrational energy of
particles increases, and so does
temperature
- b-c - melting point - molecules

move away from their fixed
positions
- c-d - particles ain more kinetic

energy
- d-e - boiling point - inter-particle

forces break
1.2 The mole concept
- Avogadro’s constant - the mole - 6.022E-23 - number of

particles in one mole of a substance
- N = nL
- Relative atomic mass (Ar)
- Relative mass formula (Mr)
- Molar mass - mass of one more of a

subatance
The fountain of matter

- The empirical formula -
simplest whole-number ratio of
the elements in a compound
- Can be found
experimentally
- The molecular formula -
all atoms present in the
molecule
1.3 Reacting masses and volumes
- Chemical equations show reactants combining in a fixed molar ratio
- CH4 + 4O2 → CO2 + 2H2O Yields & Reactants

- 1 g CH4 (M = 16.05 g/mol) = 0.0623 mol - How to find the limiting reactant?
- Rato = 1CO2 : 1CH4 - Write the balanced equation and focus on the mole ratio
- 0.0623 mol CO2 (M = 44.01 g/mol) = 2.74 g of the reactants
- Convert any given masses to moles
The theoretical yield is the quantity of - Compare ratios of given reactants and equation reactants
product that can form from compete (putting them in the same order)
conversion of the limiting reactant.
- If given ratio is bigger than theoretical the denominator is
Experimental yield is the quantity of
product obtained experimentally. limiting
Percentage yield = experimental / - If given ratio is smaller than theoretical the numerator is
theoretical x 100 limiting
Avogadro's law
“Equal volumes of all gases, when measured at the same
temperature and pressure, contain an equal number of particles.”
- V propotional to n
- Molar volume - 1 mol (STP) = 22.7 dm^-3

- Number of moles of gas = volume / molar volume
Ideal gas
equation:
PV = nRT
- Concentration (mol / dm^3)
- Standard solutions
- Dilution
- ppm:
1.3 Reacting masses
and volumes
Volumetric analysis
2(12) Atomic structure
2.1 The nuclear atom
- Elements & Compounds

- J.J Thomsons model of the atom
- Plum pudding
- Ernest Rutherford:
- Fired alpha particles at sheet of
gold foil
- Expected them to go right
through
- Most went through but some
deflected
- Conclusion that atoms are
mainly empty space with
massive nuclei
2.1 The nuclear atom
Bohr model: - Isotopes are atoms of the same element

with different mass number
- Total mass= ∑(%abundance of
isotope)(mass of isotope)
- Results from a mass
spectrometer are
presented in the form of
a mass spectrum
- Ions
- Cation
- Positive
2.2 Electron configuration
The electromagnetic spectrum

ΔEelectron = Ephoton
Ephoton = hv
ΔEelectron = hv
- Higher energy states

converge
- Ionization energy
- The series
- Lyman
- Balmer
- Paschen
Pauli Exclusion Principle

- Aufbau principle states that electrons are placed into orbitals of lowest energy first
- Hund's rule states if more than orbital in a sub level is available, electrons will
occupy different orbitals with parallel spins
Ex: Kyrpton
1s22s22p63s23p63d104s2
4p6.
12.1 Electrons in atoms
12.1 Electrons in atoms
3: Periodicity
13: The Transition Elements (AHL)
IB SL/ HL Chemistry
Revision Session March 2019
3.1 The Periodic Table
● Elements are placed in order

of increasing atomic number,
Z.
● S-block: valence electron(s) in
the s-orbital
● P-block: valence electron(s) in
the p-orbital
● D-block: valence electron(s)
in the d-orbital
● F-block: valence electron(s) in
the f-orbital
● Non-metals: upper right-hand

side of the p-block
○ Exception: Hydrogen
● Metals are on the left-hand
side
● Group 1: Alkali metals
● Group 2: Alkali earth metals
● Group 17: Halogens
● Group 18: Noble gases
● F-block: Lanthanoids and
actinoids
Any questions regarding

3.1?
3.2 Periodic Trends
● Effective Nuclear Charge

○ Nuclear charge increases
by one across a period
○ Outer electrons are
shielded from the nucleus
and repelled by inner
electrons
○ Zeff increases across a
period and remains
approximately the same
down a group
3.2 Periodic Trends
● Atomic Radius
○ The atomic radius r is half
the distance between
neighbouring nuclei
○ Atomic radii increase
down a group and
decrease across a period
○ → adding electrons to the
same principal energy
level whilst increasing
protons
3.2 Periodic Trends
○ 3) The ionic radii decrease from
● Ionic Radius Groups 1 to 14 for the positive
○ 1) Positive ions are smaller ions.
than their parent atoms ○ 4) The ionic radii decrease from
○ 2) Negative ions are larger Groups 14 to 17 for the negative
than their parent atoms ions.
○ 5) The ionic radii increase down
a group
3.2 Periodic Trends
● Ionisation energies
○ Energy required to
remove one moles
electrons from one mole
of gaseous atoms in their
ground state.
○ Increase across a period
○ Decrease down a group
○ Dips: evidence for division
of energy levels into
sublevels
3.2 Periodic Trends
● Electron Affinity
○ First electron affinity
(ΔHθea) is the energy
change when one mole of
electrons is added to one
mole of gaseous atoms to
form one mole of gaseous
ions
○ Exothermic process
○ Group 17 has the highest
electron affinity
3.2 Periodic Trends
● Electronegativity
○ Electronegativity is the
ability of an atom to
attract electrons in a
covalent bonds. It’s
related to ionisation
energy as it’s also a
measure of the attraction
between the nucleus and
its outer electrons.
○ Increase across a period
3.2 Periodic Trends
● Melting points
○ Melting points depend on
type of bonding and
structure
○ Down Group 1 melting
points decrease
○ Down Group 17 melting
points increase
○ Melting points generally
rise across a period and
reach a maximum at
3.2 Periodic Trends
● Group 18: The Noble Gases

○ 1) They are colourless
○ 2) They are monoatomic:
they exist as single atoms
○ 3) They are very
unreactive- the least
reactive elements in the
periodic table
○ High ionisation energies
○ Explains behaviour of
other elements in other
3.2 Periodic Trends
● Group 1: The Alkali Metals

○ Reactivity increases down
a group
○ Produce hydrogen and a
metal hydroxide in water
○ Solution will be alkaline
3.2 Periodic Trends
● Group 17: The

Halogens
○ Halogens form
halides with group
1 metals
○ In a displacement
reaction, the more
reactive halogen
displaces the ions
of the less reactive
halogen from its
3.2 Periodic Trends
● Bonding of the Period 3
Oxides
○ The ionic character of a
compound depends on
the difference in
electronegativity between
its elements
○ Oxides of the non-metals
are covalent and acidic
○ Amphoteric oxides show
both acidic and basic
properties
3.2 Periodic Trends

3.2?
13.1 First-row d-block elements
● First-row d-block elements

show a ‘lull’ in periodic table
patterns
○ They are all relatively
similar to one another
● Small decrease in atomic radii
across the first d-block row
○ Small increase in effective
nuclear charge
experienced by outer 4s
electrons
● Physical properties
○ High electrical and thermal
conductivity
○ High melting point
○ Malleable
○ High tensile strength
○ Ductile
○ Iron, cobalt, & nickel are
ferromagnetic
● Chemical properties
○ Form a variety of coloured
● Zinc is not a transition metal

○ Does not have multiple
oxidation states (only +2)
○ Does not form coloured
compounds
● Scandium
○ Sc3+ is colourless in
aqueous solution (no d-
electrons)
○ Sc2+ (not common) exists
with a single d-electron
● Variable oxidation
states can be
explained through the
closeness of the 3d
and 4s orbitals in
energy
○ Successive
ionisation energies
increase more
gradually
● Complex ions are formed

when a central ion is
surrounded by molecules or
ions which possess a lone pair
of electrons
○ Surrounding species
(ligands) are attached via
a coordinate bond
○ Coordination number is
the number of coordinate
bonds from the ligands to
● Polydentate ligands are

ligands that have more than
one lone pair available to
form a coordinate bond
○ EDTA4- is a hexadentate
ligand
○ A chelate is a complex ion
containing at least one
polydentate ligand
● Heterogeneous catalysts
○ Different state of matter
than the reactants
○ 3d and 4s electrons
○ Fe in the Haber Process
● Homogeneous catalysts
○ Same state of matter as
the reactants
○ Variable oxidation states
○ Fe2+ in haemoglobin
● Diamagnetism is a property of all

materials and produces a very
weak opposition to an applied
magnetic field
● Paramagnetism produces
magnetisation proportional to the
applied field and in the same
direction.
● Ferromagnetism produces
magnetisations sometimes orders
of magnitude greater than the
13.1 First-Row d-block elements

13.1?
13.2 Coloured Complexes
● Coloured complexes result

from incomplete d-orbitals
● Transition metals appear
coloured because they absorb
visible light
● Transition metals absorb
visible light due to splitting in
the d orbital
○ Separation between
orbitals: ΔE
○ → ΔE = hv = hc/λ
● Ligand strength: stronger

ligands = bigger split =
higher energy light
● The identity of the central
metal ion: more protons =
bigger split.
● Oxidation state: higher
oxidation state = bigger split.

13.2?
13: Worked Example
13: Worked Example
13: Worked Example
4: Chemical Bonding and Structure
14: Chemical Bonding and Structure AHL
IB SL/ HL Chemistry
4.1 Ionic Bonding and Structure
● Ions are charged particles. ● Transition elements have

○ Loss of electrons (≥1) variable oxidation states
○ Cations = + ○ Small energy difference
○ Anions = - between the 3d and 4s
● Recall: The group number subshells
relates directly to the number
of valence electrons
● Metals generally become
cations
● Non-metals generally become
anions
● Exceptions to oxidation
states:
○ Lead, Pb, Group 14: Pb2+
○ Tin, Sn, Group 14: Sn4+ or
Sn2+
○ Silver, Ag: Ag+
○ Hydrogen, H: H- or H+
● Roman numerals:
○ eg, Cu+ → Copper (I)
Oxide
● Polyatomic Ions
● Ionic compounds form when ● Ionic bond: the electrostatic

oppositely charged ions attraction between oppositely
attract. charged ions.
● Ionisation: when electrons are ● Recall: there can never be a net
transferred between atoms loss or gain of electrons.
● Ionic lattice: ions surround

themselves by ions of the
opposite charge.
● Coordination number: the
number of ions that a given
ion is surrounded by in an
ionic lattice.
● Formula unit: The simplest
ratio (empirical formula) of
ions in an ionic lattice.
Physical Properties of Ionic

Compounds:
● High melting and boiling points

● Low volatility
● Solubility trends depend on the
similar chemical nature of the
solute and the solvent
● Bad conductors of electricity
unless molten or in solution
(aqueous)
Ionic Character:
● Recall: Electronegativity decreases down a group and increases across

a period.
● The strongest ionic bond will form between the most electronegative
and the least electronegative element
● We can use differences in electronegativity to look at ionic character
Type of Bond Difference in electronegativity of the two elements in
the compound
Pure Covalent < 0.4
Polar Covalent Between 0.4 and 1.8
Ionic > 1.8


4.1?
4.2 Covalent Bonding
● When two nonmetals react ● A covalent bond is the

together, each wants to electrostatic attraction between
achieve the electron a pair of electrons and positively
configuration of a noble gas charged nuclei
○ → They share an electron
pair
○ → It is concentrated in the
region between nuclei
and attracted to both
○ → It holds the atoms
together by electrostatic
● Molecules can form more than

one shared bond between them
Cl2 bond length
199pm
● Bonds are characterised by 2

things Br2 bond length
228pm
○ Bond Strength (Enthalpy)
○ Bond length
○ → As atomic radius
● Polarity is the result of unequal

sharing of electrons
○ Dipole
○ → δ + (less electronegative)
○ → δ - (more
electronegative)
○ → ↦ (dipole notation)
● In a covalent bond, the greater
the difference in the
electronegativity values of the
atoms, the more polar the

4.2?
4.3 Covalent Structures
● Dative/ coordinate bonds are

formed when both electrons in
a shared pair come from the
same atom.
● Their characteristics do not
differ from regular covalent
bonds.
● There are exceptions to the

octet rule. Small atoms such as
Beryllium (Be) and Boron (B)
form stable molecules in which
the central atom has less than
eight electrons in its valence
shell. This is known as an
incomplete octet.
● These molecules are said to be
electron deficient and have a
tendency to accept an electron
● VSEPR theory: Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion theory

● The total number of electron domains around the central atom
determines the geometrical arrangement
● Lone pairs have a higher concentration of charge because they are
not shared between two atoms, hence they cause more repulsion
○ lone pair - lone pair > lone pair - bonding pair > bonding pair -
bonding pair
Number of 2 3 3 4 4 4
electron
domains
Electron Linear Triangular Triangular Tetrahedral Tetrahedral Tetrahedral

Domain Planar Planar
Geometry
Number of 0 0 1 0 1 2
lone pairs
Number of 2 3 2 4 3 2
Bonded pairs
Molecular Linear Triangular Bent / V- Tetrahedral Trigonal Bent/ V-

Geometry Planar Shaped Pyramidal Shaped
Bond Angles 180° 120° ~ 117° / 109.5° ~ 107° 105°

< 120°
● Molecules with polar bonds are

not always polar
○ Symmetry
○ Equal polarity
○ → Both yes, then the
molecule is nonpolar
○ → Either one no, then the
molecule is polar
○ Net dipole moment
● In some molecules electrons

are delocalised. This means
they spread out and give
greater stability to the molecule
or ion.
● Resonance occurs when there
are multiple, equally valid Lewis
structures for a molecule
● O3
● [CO3]2-
● CH
Allotrope Graphite Diamond Fullerene Graphene

● Allotropes are different
forms of an element in Structure Each C Each C Each C Each C
the same physical atom atom atom atom
bonded to bonded to bonded to bonded to 3
state, such as Oxygen 3 others. 4 others. 3 others. others.
and Ozone, which both
Electrical Good Non- Semi- Very good
exist as gases. Conductor conductor conductor conductor conductor
Different bonding
Thermal Bad Efficient Bad Best thermal
within these structures Conductor conductor conductor conductor conductor
gives rise to distinct
forms with different Special Soft and Hardest Very light Thinnest
properties slippery substance and strong material
properties.
Graphi Diamon C60

te d Fullerene
Sheets
of
Graphen
e
● Silicone Dioxide, SiO2,

commonly known as silica or
quartz, also forms a giant
covalent structure based on
tetrahedral arrangement.
● Each Si atom is covalently
bonded to four O atoms, and
each O to two Si atoms.
● The formula SiO2 refers to the
ratio of atoms within the giant
molecule

4.3?
4.4 Intermolecular Forces
● Intermolecular forces are forces

that act between molecules, as
opposed to intramolecular
forces, which act within
molecules.
● London (dispersion) forces
○ No permanent dipole
○ → Temporary dipole
○ → Induced dipole
○ Weakest IMF
○ Strength increases with
● Dipole-dipole attractions
○ Permanent dipole
○ Neighbouring molecules
attract each other by
oppositely charged ends
○ Generally stronger than
LDF
● Van der Waal’s forces
○ Umbrella term
○ Entails dipole-dipole
attraction, London forces,
● Hydrogen Bonding
○ When H is bonded directly
to N, O, F
○ Strongest IMF
○ Water can form a
tetrahedral arrangement
○ Hydrogen bonding can also
occur within large
molecules, such as DNA
Non-polar Polar Molecules
molecules molecules with H-O,
H-N, or H-F
✓ ✓ ✓
London
Dispersion van der
Forces Waal’s
forces
✓ ✓
Dipole-dipole
attractions
✓
Hydrogen
Bonding
● The physical properties of

covalent compounds are largely
a result of their intermolecular
forces
● Melting and Boiling Points
○ Changing state by melting
or boiling separates
particles and their IMF.
Hence more IMF = higher
melting/boiling points.
○ Covalent molecules have
● Solubility
○ Non-polar substances are
generally able to dissolve in
non-polar solvents by the
formation of LDS between
solute and solvent
○ Polar substances are generally
able to dissolve in water
through dipole interactions and
hydrogen bonding
○ Solubility is reduced in larger
● Electrical Conductivity
○ Covalent compounds do not contain ions and are thus not able to
conduct electricity in the solid or liquid state. Some polar
covalent molecules, however, can conduct electricity, such as
HCl or graphite.

4.4?
4.5 Metallic Bonding
● Metals have few electrons in their

outer shell, generally have low first
ionisation energies, and tend to
react by losing their valence
electrons
● Hence, when no other element is
present, those outer electrons tend
to delocalise
● The metal atoms form a lattice of
positive ions surrounded by and
electrostatically attracted to a pool
● The strength of a metallic bond is 1+, 2+,

Group 1 Group 2
determined by:
○ The number of delocalised
electrons
○ The charge on the cation
○ The radius of the cation DOWN THE GROUP
● The greater the number of
delocalised electrons and the
smaller the cation, the greater
the binding force between them
● Strength decreases down a group
● Alloys are solid solutions of

metals with enhanced
properties, containing more
than one metal and held
together by metallic bonding
● Alloys are often more
chemically stable, stronger,
and more resistant to corrosion
● This is due to the layers in the
lattice not being able to slide
over each other as easily

4.5?
4: Worked Example
4: Worked Example
4: Worked Example
Which statement best explains why alloys tend to be less malleable

than pure metals?
A. The added metal has more valence electrons so increases the

amount of delocalisation
B. The added metal prevents the layers from being drawn out into a
wire
C. The added metal disturbs the lattice so the layers are less able to
slide over each other
D. The added metal acts as an impurity and so lowers the melting
point
4: Worked Example
1. State and explain which of propan-1-ol, CH3CH2CH2OH, and
methoxyethane, CH3OCH2CH3, is more volatile.
2. Propan-1-ol, CH3CH2CH2OH, and hexan-1-ol, CH3(CH2)4CH2OH, are

both alcohols. State and explain which compound is more soluble in
water.
3. Graphite is used as a lubricant and is an electrical conductor.
Diamond is hard and does not conduct electricity. Explain these
statements in terms of the structure and bonding of these allotropes
4: Worked Example
1. Methoxyethane, CH3OCH2CH3, is more volatile, because it does not have hydrogen
bonding (unlike the alcohol) and the strongest intermolecular attraction is dipole-
dipole.
2. Propan-1-ol, CH3CH2CH2OH, is more soluble in water, as the nonpolar carbon chain is

shorter.
3. Graphite forms a layer of hexagonal rings, and each C atom is bonded to three other C
atoms. Layers are held by weak attractive forces and so can slide over each other with
14.1 Further aspects of covalent bonding
● Some molecules contain a

central atom with an expanded
octet
● This is possible because the d
orbitals available in the
valence shell of these atoms
have energy values relatively
close to those of the p orbital,
so promotion is relatively easy
and will allow additional
electron pairs to form
● Molecular geometry
determines molecular polarity
● If there are no lone pairs and
all the atoms attached to the
central atom are the same, the
molecules are nonpolar
● If the atoms attached to the
central atom are not all the
same, there may or may not
be a net dipole depending on
the symmetry
● Recall that resonance occurs

when a molecule allows for
more than one valid Lewis
structure to be drawn
● In order to determine the most
stable structure we use the
concept of formal charge. It
treats covalent bonds as if they
were purely covalent with
equal electron distribution
Preferred structure
↴
● Low formal charge means that less
charge transfer has taken place in
forming a structure from its atoms
○ The preferred structure is the
one with the formal charge that
is equal to the overall charge of
the molecule
● If there are multiple lowest formal
Preferred structure
charges, the preferred structure is ↴
the one with the negative
number(s) assigned to the more
δ
● Ozone, O3, has two resonance +
structures and a bond angle of ~ 117°. δ-
Its resonance hybrid is pictured here. δ-
● Ozone is polar due to its formal

charges
● Ozone is an essential component of the
lower part of the stratosphere
● O ・ denotes a free radical that has an
unpaired electron and so is highly
reactive
● Oxygen contains stronger bonds than
● Ozone absorbs
radiation of
wavelengths in the
range 200 - 315 nm
○ UV-B and UV-C →
Damage to living
tissue
○ Source of heat in
the stratosphere
● Ozone’s ability to absorb UV

radiation also means that it
is unstable and reacts easily
with compounds found in
the stratosphere
○ Nitrogen oxides, NOx
○ Chlorofluorocarbons,
CFCs
○ → Produce highly
reactive free radicals
that catalyse the
● Chlorofluorocarbons were
widely used partially due to
low toxicity in the
troposphere
○ → When they enter the
stratosphere, the higher
UV radiation breaks
them down
○ → This releases Chlorine
free radicals
● The chlorine radicals
● A bond forms when two

atomic orbitals, each
containing one electron,
overlap to form a new
molecular orbital that is at
lower energy
● The sigma (σ) bond
○ All single covalent bonds
are sigma bonds
○ Sigma bonds form by
the overlap of orbitals
● The pi (π) bond

○ Caused by the sideways
overlap of p orbitals
○ The electron density is
concentrated in two
regions, above and below
the plane of the bond axis
○ Double covalent bonds
contain one sigma and one
pi bond. Triple covalent
bonds contain one sigma

14.1?
14.2 Hybridisation
● The formation of covalent bonds

often starts with the excitation of
atoms. Eg, Carbon
○ Ground state electrons change
during bonding
○ Excitation occurs when an
electron is promoted within
the atom from the 2s to a
vacant 2p orbital
○ The atom now has four singly
occupied orbitals available for
14.2 Hybridisation
Different types of hybrid orbitals:
sp3: one s orbital + three p

orbitals
sp2: one s orbital + two p orbitals
sp: one s orbital + one p orbital

● Hybridisation is the process where atomic orbitals within an
atom mix to produce hybrid orbitals of intermediate energy
(degenerate orbitals). The atom is able to form stronger covalent
bonds using these hybrid orbitals.
14.2 Hybridisation
● sp3 hybridisation
○ The orbitals orientate
themselves at 109.5°,
forming a tetrahedron
○ Each hybrid orbital
overlaps with the
atomic orbital of
another atom,
forming four sigma
bonds
○ eg, methane, CH4 →
14.2 Hybridisation
● sp2 hybridisation
○ When a double bond is
formed, the atom
undergoes sp2 hybridisation
in order to leave one p-
orbital unhybridised to
allow for a regular pi bond
themselves at 120°,
forming a triangular planar
shape, and three sigma
14.2 Hybridisation
● sp hybridisation
○ When a triple bond is
formed, the atom
undergoes sp
hybridisation, leaving
two p orbitals
unhybridised for the
formation of two pi
bonds.
themselves at 180°,
14.2 Hybridisation

14.2?
14: Worked Example
14: Worked Example
14: Worked Example
14: Worked Example
5(15) Energetics and
thermochemistry
5.1 Measuring energy changes
- Energy is a measure of the ability to

do work
- Energy is conserved in chemical
reactions
- Heat - energy transfer
- The system
- Open
- Closed
- Isolated
- Surroundings
- Enthalpy (H) - a measure of the amount

of heat energy contained in a substance. It
is stored in the chemical bonds and
intermolecular forces as potential energy.
- Exothermic Reactions
- ΔH is negative
- Products are more energetically
stable
- Heat is given out by the system
- Endothermic Reactions
- ΔH is positive
- Reactants are more energetically
stable
- Energy transfer from system to
- Standard enthalpy changes

- The standard conditions:
- 100 kPa
- 1 mol/dm^3 for all solutions
- Standard states at 298 K
- Q = mcΔT
5.1 Measuring energy
changes
- Standard enthalpy of combustion
- Enthalpy changes of reaction in

solution
- Carrying out the reaction in an
isolated system
- Measure the temperature
change
- Account for error
- Calculate energy released
- Divide by moles of limiting
reaction
Any
questions?
5.2 Hess’s Law
Hess's law states that the enthalpy

change for any chemical reaction is
independent of the route, provided the
starting conditions and final conditions ,
and reactants and products, are the same.
5.2 Hess’s Law
- Standard enthalpy of formation ΔHf𝛳,

of a substance is the enthalpy
change that occurs when one mole
of the substance is formed from its
elements in their standard states.
- Breaking bonds is endothermic
- Making bonds is exothermic
- Average bond enthalpy
5.2 Hess’s Law
Any
questions?
5.3 Bond enthalpies
- Breaking bonds is an endothermic

process
- Bond enthalpy & average bond
enthalpy
- The average bond enthalpy is the
energy needed to break one mole of
bonds in gaseous molecules under
standard conditions averaged over
similar compounds.
- Making bonds is an exothermic
process
- Bond enthalpies can be used to
calculate the enthalpy changes of
reaction
5.3 Bond enthalpies
5.3 Bond Enthalpies
Any
questions?
15.1 Energy cycles
Definitions to know:
- First ionization energy - minimum energy required to remove one mole of

electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms - endothermic
- First electron affinity - enthalpy change when one mole of gaseous electrons is
added to one mole of gaseous atoms - exothermic
- The lattice enthalpy is the enthalpy change that occurs when one mole of a solid
ionic compound is separated into gaseous ions under standard conditions.
- Hydration enthalpy is the change in enthalpy associated with 1 mole of gaseous
ions dissolving in water to form a solution
- The enthalpy change of solution is the enthalpy change when one mole of
solute is dissolved in a solvent to infinite dilution under standard conditions.
- The enthalpy of atomization is the enthalpy change that occurs when one mole of gaseous
atoms is formed from the element in its standard state
15.1 Energy cycles
The Born-Haber cycle

15.1 Energy cycles
- Theoretical lattice enthalpies

can be calculated from the ionic
model
- Ionic model:
- Only interaction between
ions is due to electrostatic
forces between ions
- Increase in ionic radius -
decrease in attraction
- Increase in ionic charge -
increase in attraction
15.1 Energy cycles
- Enthalpies of solution
- The enthalpy change of hydration of
an ion is the enthalpy change that
occurs when one mole of gaseous
ions is dissolved to form an infinitely
dilute solution of one mole of
aqueous ions under standard
conditions of temperature and
pressure
- The enthalpy change of solution is
related to the lattice enthalpy and
the hydration enthalpies of the
constituent ions
15.1 Energy cycles
Please don't have any
Any
questions?
15.2 Entropy and spontaneity
- Entropy (S) refers to the distribution of

available energy among the particles.
- Second law of thermodynamics
states the total entropy of an isolated
system can never decrease over time
- Changing from an ordered state to a
more disordered increases entropy
15.2 Entropy and spontaneity
- Gibbs free energy is a measure of

the energy which is free to do useful
work rather than leave the system
- ΔG < 0 - spontaneous
- ΔG > 0 - non spontaneous
- At low temperature: ΔG = ΔH, all
exothermic reactions can occur at
low temperatures
- At high temperatures: ΔG = -TΔS, all
reactions which have positive ΔS
value are feasible at high
temperatures even if they're
endothermic.
- Gibbs free energy and equilibrium
6: Chemical Kinetics
16: Chemical Kinetics (AHL)
IB SL/ HL Chemistry
6.1 Collision Theory and Rates of Reaction
● The reaction mechanism is a

sequence of making and
breaking bonds
● Rate of a reaction: rate of
change in concentration per
unit time (s-1)
● Rate depends on how quickly
the concentration of product
or reactant changes with
respect to time
● Units molldm-3s-1
● Gradient of a curve is used to

measure rate
● Gradient is not constant
○ Concentration of reactants
is greatest at the start
○ Rate is greatest at the
start
● Initial Rate
○ Take the tangent of the
curve at t=0
● Techniques for measuring rate of

reaction
○ 1) Change in volume
○ 2) Change in mass
○ 3) Change in transmission of
light
○ 4) Change in concentration
measured using titration
○ 5) Change in concentration
measured using conductivity
○ 6) Non-continuous methods of
● Particles in a substance move randomly as a result of the kinetic

energy that they possess
● Temperature in Kelvin is proportional to the average kinetic energy
of the particles in a substance
● Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution
curve
○ The probability of a certain
value occuring plotted
against kinetic energy
○ Area under the curve: total
number of particles in the
sample
● How do reactions happen?
○ Kinetic energy of particles
causes them to collide
● Energy of Collision
○ Activation
Energy, Ea, is the
minimum value of
kinetic energy
which particles
must have before
they are able to
react
● Geometry of Collision
○ Orientation of
● 1) Temperature
○ Increasing temperature
increases average kinetic
energy of the particles
○ More particles collide
successfully
● 2) Concentration
○ Increasing concentration
increases rate of reaction
○ Frequency of (successful)
collisions increases
● 3) Particle Size
○ Decreasing particle size
increases rate of reaction
○ Heterogeneous reactions:
Surface area
● 4) Pressure
○ Reactions involving gases
○ Increasing pressure increases
concentration
○ Increases probability of
successful collisions
● 5) Catalyst
○ A catalyst is a substance that
increases the rate of a
chemical reaction without
itself undergoing permanent
chemical change.
○ Most catalysts work by
providing an alternate route
for the reaction pathway that
has a lower activation
energy.

6.1?
6:Worked Example
6:Worked Example
6:Worked Example
6:Worked Example
6:Worked Example
(i)
(ii) The minimum energy required for the reaction to proceed.
(iii) Increases the rate of reaction by lowering the activation energy.

16.1 Rate Expression and Reaction Mechanism
● The rate law for a reaction is derived

empirically
reaction rate ∝ [C60O3]
reaction rate = k [C60O3]
● k is the rate constant

● Orders of a reaction
○ The rate is proportional to the
product of the concentrations of
the reactants, each raised to a
● Units of k depend on the order of the reaction

● The value of k can be calculated from the rate expression when the
concentrations of reactants and the corresponding rate are known
● If a reactant has a
constant half-life, then
the reaction must be
first order with respect
to that reactant
● The shorter the value
of the half-life, the
faster the reaction
● Radioactive decay
reactions follow first-
order kinetics
● Initial rates method:

● Changing [A] → no effect
on rate → zero order with
respect to A
● Changing [A] → directly
proportional change to
rate → first order with
respect to A
● Changing [A] → square of
that change in rate → rate = k [A] [B]2
second order with respect
● Reaction mechanism:
sequence of steps of a
reaction
● Elementary steps: individual
steps in the reaction
mechanism
● Intermediates: products of a
single step that are used in a
subsequent step
● Molecularity: indicates the
number of reactant species
● The overall rate of reaction

is determined by the slowest
step in the sequence
○ Rate-determining step
● Products of the reaction can
only appear as fast as the
products of this elementary
step
● The rate expression for an
overall reaction is
determined by reaction

16.1?
16.2 Activation Energy
● The Arrhenius Equation:
● Take the natural logarithm of

both sides of the equation:
● Finding k given two

temperatures:
16.2 Activation Energy

16.2?
16: Worked Example
7: Equilibrium
17: The Equilibrium Law (AHL)
IB SL/ HL Chemistry
7.1 Equilibrium
● Physical Systems
○ Equilibrium: when the rate
of the forwards and the
reverse reaction are equal
→
● Chemical Systems
○ 2HI (g) ⇌ H2 (g) + I2 (g) ⤵️
7.1 Equilibrium
● Constant
concentrations ≠ equal
concentrations
● Equilibrium mixture:
the proportion of
reactants and products
at equilibrium
● Predominantly
Products: ‘lie to the
right’
● Predominantly
7.1 Equilibrium
● The equilibrium
constant Kc can be
predicted from a
reaction’s
stoichiometry
● The equilibrium
constant Kc has a fixed
value for a certain
reaction at a specified
temperature.
● Every reaction has its
7.1 Equilibrium
● The magnitude of Kc gives information on the extent of reaction

● If Kc ≫ 1, the reaction is considered to almost go to completion
● If Kc ≪ 1, the reaction is considered to hardly proceed
7.1 Equilibrium
● The reaction quotient, Q,

enables us to predict the Q > Kc ≡ Products are
direction of a reaction
● It is measured the same greater, so the reverse reaction is
way as Kc, except when
favoured
the reaction is not at
equilibrium Q = Kc ≡ The reaction is at
● It is a measure of the
relative amounts of equilibrium
reactants and products
present in a reaction at a Q < Kc ≡ Reactants are
7.1 Equilibrium
Change in Equation Expression of Kc Effect on Kc
Reversing the Inverts the 1/Kc or Kc-1

reaction expression
Doubling Squares expression Kc2
coefficients
Halving coefficients Root of expression √Kc
Adding reactions Multiplies Kc = Kc1 × Kc2 …..

expression
7.1 Equilibrium
● Le Châtelier’s Principle
states that a system at
equilibrium when
subjected to a change
will respond in such a
way as to minimise the
effect of that change.
● 1) Changes in
concentration
○ Does not affect Kc
○ The reaction will shift
7.1 Equilibrium
● 2) Changes in Pressure ● 3) Changes in Temperature

○ Does not affect Kc ○ If the temperature is increased,
○ There is only an the reaction will shift towards the
effect if all molecules endothermic (+ΔH) direction
are in the gaseous ○ This does affect the equilibrium
phase constant.
○ At increased
pressure, the
reaction will shift
towards the side
with the least
7.1 Equilibrium
● 4) Addition of a
catalyst
○ Adding a
catalyst does
not change the
position of
equilibrium
and the value
of Kc for that
reaction
○ It only lowers
7.1 Equilibrium
7.1 Equilibrium
● Haber Process
○ Reactants
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
and
Products
are all
Nitrogen + Hydrogen ⇌ Ammonia
gaseous
gas gas gas
○ There are
less
gaseous ΔH = -93 kJ/mol
moles in the
products
7.1 Equilibrium
● The Contact Process

○ i) Combustion of
sulphur to form
sulphur dioxide
○ ii) Oxidation of sulphur
dioxide to sulphur
trioxide
○ iii) Combination of
sulphur trioxide with
water to produce
sulphuric acid
7.1 Equilibrium

7.1?
7: Worked Example
7: Worked Example
7: Worked Example
Ethanol is manufactured by the hydration of ethene according to the

equation below.
C2H4 (g)+ H2O (g) ⇋ C2H5OH (g)
a) State the expression for the equilibrium constant, Kc , for this reaction.
b) Under certain conditions, the value of Kc for this reaction is 3.7 x 10-3.
When the temperature is increased the value is 4.9 x 10-4.
i) State what can be deduced about the position of equilibrium at the
higher temperature from these values of Kc .
ii) State what can be deduced about the sign of ΔH for the reaction,
explaining your choice.
7: Worked Example
a) [C2H5OH ] a) Use the general formula.
[C2H4]x[H2O]
i) It is shifted to the left. i) Q is less than Kc , therefore there

are more reactants.
ii) ΔH is negative. ii) The temperature was increased and
the reaction shifted towards the
reactants, meaning they must be
the endothermic side, so the
forwards reaction is exothermic.
b) - rate of reaction increased b) Recall Le Châtelier’s Principle
- increased collision frequency
- equilibrium shifted to right
- fewer moles of gas on the right
17.1 The Equilibrium Law
● RICE boxes consist of four 0.50 mol of I2 (g) and 0.50 mol of Br2 (g) are placed
in a closed flask. The following equilibrium is
elements:
established.
● 1) The Balanced Reaction
● 2) Initial Concentrations I2 (g) + Br2 (g) ⇋ 2IBr (g)
● 3) Change in The equilibrium mixture contains 0.80 mol of IBr

concentrations (g). What is the value of Kc?
● 4) Equilibrium
concentrations
● When Kc < 10-3, you can approximate:
○ [reactant]initial = [reactant]equilibrium
● Different reactions have

widely differing values of
Kc
● In some cases, such as the
ionisation of water, the
reaction barely takes
place, while in other
reactions, such as the
combustion of methane, it
almost goes to completion
● ΔGӨ = standard free energy change

● R = the gas constant 8.31JK-1mol-1
● T = the absolute temperature, in Kelvin
● ln K = the natural logarithm of Kc
● Kc for rusting of iron: 10261

● Concentration does not
affect Kc because the
concentration changes
don’t affect the values of
the rate constants
● Adding a catalyst
increases the values of k
and k’ by the same factor
so Kc is not affected
● K increases as the

17.1?
8(18) Acids and Bases
8.1 Theories of acids and bases
- Lavoisier - oxygen + non-metal
- Arrhenius
- Acids: hydroxide + cations
- Bases: hydrogen ions + anions
- Brønsted-Lowey:
- A Bronsted-Lowry acid is a proton (H+)
donor
- A Bronsted-Lowry base is a proton (H+)
acceptor.
- The acid and base in a conjugate pair differ by
just one proton.
- An amphoteric substance is a substance than
can act as either an acid or base depending on
what it is reacting with.
- An amphiprotic substance is a substance that
can act as either a proton donor or a proton
8.1 Theories of acid and bases
Any
questions?
8.2 Properties of acids and bases
- Alkalis are bases that dissolve in water to form the

hydroxide ion OH-
1. Acid + metal -> salt + hydrogen
2. Acid + base -> salt + water
- Enthalpy of neutralization
1. Acid + carbonate -> salt + water + carbon dioxide

- Acids and bases can be distinguished using indicators
- Acid-base titrations are based on neutralization

reactions
Any
questions?
8.3 The pH scale
- Measuring pH
- Indicator
- pH meter
The ionization of water

8.3 The pH scale
Any
questions?
8.4 Strong and weak acids and bases
- The strength of an acid or base

depends on its extent of ionization
Distinguishing between strong and

weak:
1. Electrical conductivity
2. Rate of reaction
3. pH
8.4 Strong and weak acids and bases
Any
questions?
18.1 Lewis acids and bases
- A Lewis acid is a lone pair acceptor

- A Lewis base is a lone pair donor
- A nucleophile is an electron-rich species

that donates a lone pair to form a new
covalent bond in a reaction
- An electrophile is an electron deficient

species that accepts a lone pair from
another reactant to form a new
covalent bond.
18.1 Lewis acids and bases
Any
questions?
18.2 Calculations involving acids and bases
Acid dissociation constant (Ka)
Base dissociation constant (Kb)

Any
questions?
18.3 pH curves
18.3 pH curves
- Making buffer solutions:

- pH depends on:
- pKa or pKb
Factors influencing buffers
- Ratio of acid:salt or base:salt - Dilution
- Acid or base must have pKa or pKb - Temperature
values as close to pH or pOH of
buffer
- Mixing with salt
- Neutralization
18.3 pH curves
- Salt hydrolysis
- Salt of strong acid and strong

base - no hydrolysis
- pH approx. 7
- Salt of weak acid and strong
base - anion hydrolysis
- pH > 7
- Salt of strong acid and weak
base - cation hydrolysis
- pH < 7
- Salt of weak acid and weak
base - ¯\_( ツ )_/¯
18.3 pH curves
Strong acid and strong base Weak acid and

strong base
18.3 pH curves
Strong acid and weak base Weak acid and

weak base
18.3 pH curves
- Indicators signal the change in pH
18.3 pH curves
Any
questions?
8.5 Acid deposition
- Rainwater is naturally acidic due to

dissolved CO2. rain water with a pH <
5.6 is known as acid rain
- Wet acid deposition: rain, snow, sleet,

hail, fog, mist, dew
- Dry acid deposition: acidifying
particles, gases fall to ground as dust
and smoke, later dissolve in water to
form acids
8.5 Acid deposition
Sulfur oxidizes
Nitrogen oxides
8.5 Acid deposition
Effects of acid deposition - Plant life

- Materials - Leaching of Mg2+, Ca2+, and
- Marble & limestone K2+
- Release of Al3+
- Stomata
- Water
- Lowers pH
- Release of Al3+
- Metals (Iron & Aluminium) - Eutrophication
- Human health
- Inhaling of sulfate and nitrate
particles
- Irritation to eyes
- Leaching of toxic metal ions
8.5 Acid deposition
Responses to acid deposition - Reduction of NOx emissions

- Catalytic converters in vehicles
- Reduction of SO2 emission
- Pre Combustion methods
- Hydrodesulfurization - Lower temperature combustion
- Post-combustion methods
- Flue gas desulfurization - Other options
- Lowering demand for fossil fuels
- Restoration of ecosystems
damaged by acid rain
- Use of CaO or Ca(OH)2
8.5 Acid deposition
Any
questions?
9: Redox Processes
IB SL/ HL Chemistry
9.1 Oxidation and Reduction
● Half-equations show what

happens to each reactant
in terms of electrons
● Magnesium is gaining
electrons in both reactions
● Oxidation is the loss of
electrons, reduction is the
gain of electrons
○ Mnemonic: OIL RIG
● Oxidation state is a value

assigned to each atom in a
compound (apparent
charge)
○ The sign: ‘+’ means
the atom has lost
electron control, ‘-’
means it has gained
electron control
○ Its value: refers to the
number of electrons
● A redox reaction is a chemical

reaction in which changes in
the oxidation state occur.
Oxidation occurs when there is
an increase in oxidation state
of an element, reduction
occurs when there is a
decrease in oxidation state of
an element.
● IUPAC nomenclature uses
roman numerals to indicate
● In a redox reaction, the

substance that is reduced
is the oxidising agent and
the substance that is
oxidised is the reducing
agent
● More reactive metals are

stronger reducing agents
● The comparison of
different displacement
reactions is the origin of
the activity series:
● More reactive non-metals are

stronger oxidising agents
● The comparison of different
displacement reactions is the origin
of the activity series:
● The titration is based on a redox reaction between the two reactants

and finds the equivalence point where they have reacted by
transferring electrons
● Carried out in the same way as acid-base titrations, but sometimes
an indicator isn’t needed due to a colour change within the redox
reaction itself
● Te redox titration uses

KMnO4 in an acidic
solution as the oxidising
agent
● It’s accompanied by a
colour change from deep
purple to colourless
● The liberated iodine is
then titrated with sodium
thiosulphate using starch
as an indicator
● The biological oxygen

demand, or BOD, is the
quantity of oxygen
needed to oxidise
organic matter in a
sample of water over a
five-day period at a
specified temperature
● The Winkler method
calculates BOD from
sequences of steps and

9.1?
9.2 & 19.1 Electrochemical cells
- Half-cells generate electrode potential

- The more reactive the metal the more
negative the electrode potential
- Two connected half-cells make a

voltaic cell
- Electrons flow from anode to cathode
- Redcat, anox
- Salt bridge completes the circuit
- Anode - negative
- Cathode positive
- A salt bridge completes the circuit
- Cell
Diagram
convention:
Summary:
- Electrons flow from anode to cathode through the external
circuit
- Anions migrate from cathode to anode through salt bridge
- Cations migrate from anode to cathode through salt bridge
- Electromotive force - potential

generated between two half
cells
- Electrode potential (E)
- Standard hydrogen electrode is
assigned an electrode potential
value of 0V
- Conditions to measure standard
electrode potential:
- All solutions must have concentration of 1
mol dm-3
- All gases must be at pressure 100 kPa
- All substances must be pure
- Temperature is 298 K
- If half-cell does not include a solid metal,
platinum is used as the electrode
- Using the standard electrode potential

data:
- Ecell = Ered - Eox (*dont invert,
multiply or alter values)
- Ecell Is positive for all spontaneous
reactions
- Electrode potential and free energy (ΔG)
- When Ecell is positive, ΔG is

negative - reaction is spontaneous
- When Ecell is negative, ΔG is
positive - reaction is
nonspontaneous
- External source drives non-

spontaneous reactions
- Electrolyte is the solution
- Electrodes immersed in electrolyte
- Electric wires connect the electrodes
- Redox reactions occur at the

electrodes
- Cathode:
- Anode:
- Electrolysis of molten salts
- No solvents so only ions of salt are present
- Electrolysis of aqueous solutions
- At the cathode H2O reduced to H2
- At the anode, H2O can be oxidized to O2
- Considering a solute M+A= is in aqueous solution

- At the anode: A- or H2O can be oxidized
- At the cathode: M+ or H2O can be reduced
- Selective discharge:
- Relative E values of ions
- At cathode - less negative one
- At anode - less positive one
- Relative concentrations of the ions
- If [ion].25% its favoured
- Nature of the electrode
- If metal used is oxidizable, it will do that instead of
Factors affecting the amount of product in electrolysis:

- Current
- Duration of electrolysis
- Charge on ions
- Electroplating - using electrolysis to

deposit a layer of a metal on top of
another metal or conductive object
- An electrolyte containing the metal
ions to be deposited
- Cathode made of the object to be
plates
- Anode is same metal which is to be
coated
- Purposes:
- Decorative
- Corrosion control - rion with a layer of
zinc (galvanized tion) as zinc is
preferentially oxidized
- Improvement of function - e.g.
electroplating with chromium
Any
questions?
10: Organic Chemistry
20: Organic Chemistry (AHL)
IB SL/ HL Chemistry
10.1 Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry
● Homologous series
○ 1) Successive
members in a
homologous series
differ by a -CH2-
group
○ 2) Members can be
represented by the
same general
formula
○ 3) Gradation in
Stereochemical
● Structural isomers are

molecules that have the
same molecular formula
but different
arrangements of the ↑ Structural isomers of
C4H10 ➝
atoms
↑ Structural isomers of
● Primary carbon atom:

attached to the functional
group and also at least two
H atoms → Primary
molecules
● Secondary carbon atom:
group and also one H atom
and two alkyl groups
● Tertiary carbon atom:
● Kekulé’s proposed structure:
● Delocalisation causes
Modern benzene
electron density to be in model
donut shapes above and
below the plane of the ring
● Parts that influence the physical properties of an organic molecule:

○ The Hydrocarbon skeleton
○ The Functional Group

10.1?
10.2 Functional Group Chemistry
Complete combustion:
● Combustion of alkanes:
● Complete: CO2 and H2O
● Incomplete: CO and H2O
● Extreme O2 limitation: C and Incomplete combustion:
H2O
● Carbon monoxide: combines
irreversibly with In extreme O2 limitation:
haemoglobin in blood
● Unburned carbon:
contributes to global
● Substitution reactions of
alkanes:
● 1) Initiation (Cl2 → 2 Cl ・ by
photochemical homolytic
fission)
● 2) Propagation (uses and
produces radicals → chain
rxn)
● 3) Termination ↓
● Hydrogenation of alkenes:
● Nickel catalyst & 150°C
● Margarine industry: saturate
oils that contain unsaturated
hydrocarbon chains
● Addition of halogens:
● Produce dihalogeno
compounds
● Loss of colour of the original
reacting halogen
● Reactions like this happen at
● Addition of halogen halides:

● Produces halogenoalkanes
● Room temperature
● Reactivity increases down
Group 17 due to weaker H-X
bonds
● Addition of water
(hydration):
● conc. H2SO4 used as a
catalyst
● Intermediate is involved
● Polymerisation of alkenes:
● Alkenes readily undergo
addition reactions
○ They can join together to
form addition polymers
○ Single unit: monomer
● Structures are shown using a
repeating unit
● Other polymers: PVC
(polychloroethene), and PTFE
(polytetrafluoroethene), or
● Combustion of alcohols:
● Produce CO2 and H2O
● Energy released per mol
increases up the homologous
series
Oxidation of Alcohols:
● Potassium dichromate (VI) is a

common oxidising agent
○ Orange Cr (VI) is reduced
to green Cr (III)
○ Oxidising agent shown as
[O]
● Primary alcohols
○ Aldehyde ➝ Carboxylic
acid
○ eg, Ethanol ➝ Ethanal ➝
Oxidation of Alcohols:
● Secondary alcohols
○ Ketones
○ eg, Propan-2-ol ➝
Propanone
● Tertiary alcohols
○ No reaction
○ There is no hydrogen
attached to the carbon
to which the functional
group is attached
● Esterification reaction:
● Alcohol + carboxylic
acid ⇌ ester + water
● Nomenclature: prefix of
the alcohol + -yl & prefix
of the carboxylic acid +
-anoate
● Nucleophilic substitution of halogenoalkanes:

● Nucleophiles are species that are electron-rich and thus attracted to
parts of molecules that are electron-deficient
○ The halogen is replaced by the nucleophile in nucleophilic
substitution
● Benzene does not

readily undergo addition
reactions
● Electrophiles are species
that have a positive/
partial positive charge
and are electron
deficient
● This leads to
electrophilic substitution
reactions

10.2?
10: Worked Example
Two compounds, A and D, each have the formula C4H9Cl.
Compound A is reacted with dilute aqueous sodium hydroxide to produce compound B with a
formula of C4H10O. Compound B is then oxidised with acidified potassium manganate (VII) to
produce compound C with a formula of C4H8O. Compound C resists further oxidation by
acidified potassium manganate (VII).
Compound D is reacted with dilute aqueous sodium hydroxide to produce compound E with a
formula of C4H10O. Compound E does not react with acidified potassium manganate (VII).
Deduce the structural formulas for compounds A, B, C, D, and E.

10: Worked Example Solution Explanation
What are we given? What can we deduce?
A: C4H9Cl A is a halogenoalkane, and so is D. C is oxidised

B: C4H10O = C4H9OH from the alcohol B but cannot be oxidised further.
C: C4H8O This means that B must be a secondary alcohol
D: C4H9Cl and C must be a ketone. Therefore A is a
secondary halogenoalkane.
E: ? → does not oxidise
D must also be a halogenoalkane from its given
A + NaOH → B
formula. With NaOH it must therefore undergo a
substitution reaction like A, and hence E must be
B → C (oxidation reaction)
an alcohol. Since the alcohol cannot be oxidised, it
must be a tertiary alcohol. So, D must be a tertiary
D + NaOH → E (does not oxidise
halogenoalkane.
further)
10: Worked Example Solution
A: B: C:
D: E:
O
C 3
20.1 Types of Organic Reactions
● Nucleophiles: electron
rich species
● Electrophiles: electron
deficient species
● SN = substitution
nucleophilic
● Polar C-X bond causes
carbon to be electron
deficient
● Bond breaks
heterolytically due to a
● Hydrogen atoms are small →

unstable transition state is
formed
○ Carbon is weakly
bonded to the
nucleophile and the
halogen
● SN2: substitution
nucleophilic bimolecular
● Inversion → SN2 is
stereospecific
● Alkyl groups cause steric

hindrance
● The halogenoalkane ionises
by breaking the C-X bond
● Carbocation intermediate
● Alkyl groups have a
positive inductive effect
● SN1: substitution
nucleophilic unimolecular
● The SN1 mechanism
favours protic solvents
● Factors that affect the rate

of nucleophilic substitution
reactions:
● 1) Effect of the mechanism
● 2) The influence of the
leaving group
○ (a) Polarity of the C-X
bond
○ (b) Strength of the C-X
bond
● 3) Choice of solvent
● Ethene & Bromine

● 1) Br is a non-polar
molecule → it becomes
polarised by electron
repulsion
● 2) the Br atom nearest the
double bond gains a δ+
charge and acts as the
electrophile. The bromine
molecule splits
heterolytically, forming Br 一
● Ethene & Hydrogen

Bromide
● Hydrogen Bromide
splits heterolytically,
into Br 一 and H+, which
is the electrophile
● The carbocation forms
and then reacts with
the Br 一 to form
bromoethane
● Unsymmetric addition:
● The electrophile attacks
the carbon with the most
stable carbocation (the one
with the most positive
inductive effects from the
alkyl groups)
● Markovnikov’s rule: the
electrophilic portion of the
reagent adds to the carbon
that is bonded to the
● Electrophilic substitution
reactions of benzene
● Loss of an H+ ion from the
intermediate leads to the
electrically neutral
substitution product as two
electrons from the C-H
bond move to regenerate
the aromatic ring. As a
result, the product is more
stable.
● The nitration of benzene is

the substitution of 一 H by
一 NO2 to form nitrobenzene,
C6H5NO2
● The electrophile, NO2+, is
generated by using a
nitrating mixture at 50°C
● NO2+ is a strong
electrophile and reacts with
the π electrons of the
● Reduction of carbonyl
compounds
● Use of lithium aluminium
hydride, LiAlH4 →
○ Conditions: heat with
LiAlH4 in dry ether.
● Use of sodium
borohydride, NaBH4 →
○ Conditions: heat with
NaBH4 (aq)

20.1?
20.2 Synthetic Routes
20.2 Synthetic Routes
● The series of discrete steps

involved in creating reactions
where the product of one is the
reactant of the next is known as a
synthetic route
● Retrosynthetic analysis:
backwards approach in which the
functional groups of target
molecules are studied and broken
down into progressively smaller
fragments- precursors.
20.2 Synthetic routes

20.2?
20.3 Stereoisomerism
● Stereoisomerism is a type of
isomerism that has
molecules with atoms
attached in the same order,
but which differ from each
other in their spatial
arrangement or three-
dimensional arrangement.
● Unlike structural isomers,
stereoisomers require three-
dimensional representation
● When there is some constraint

in a molecule that restricts the
free rotation of substituted
groups, they become fixed in
space relative to each other
● Cis refers to the isomer that
has the same groups on the
same side of the double bond
or ring, while trans is the
isomer that has the same
groups on opposite sides or
● E/Z isomerism is based on the

Cahn-Ingold-Prelog rules of
priority
● Rule 1: the atom with the
higher atomic number has
higher priority
● Rule 2: if the atoms are the
same, apply Rule 1 to the next
atom
● Z-isomer: priority groups on
the same side
● A carbon atom attached to

four different atoms or
groups is known as a chiral,
asymmetric, or as a
stereocentre
● Optical isomerism: the two
mirror images of this chiral
● Enantiomers: the two non-
superimposable forms
● A mixture containing equal
amounts of the two
● Diastereomers:
when
molecules have
different
configurations
at one or more,
but not all,
chiral centres
○ Not mirror
images
● The two enantiomers of a chiral compound rotate plane-polarised

light in equal and opposite directions.
● When a racemic mixture is

reacted with a single
enantiomer of another
chiral compound, the two
components of the mixture
react to produce different
products
● The manufacture of a
single enantiomer using a
chiral catalyst is known as
asymmetric synthesis

20.3?
20: Worked example
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1: Stoichiometric relationships

- b-c - melting point - molecules

- c-d - particles ain more kinetic

- d-e - boiling point - inter-particle

- Avogadro’s constant - the mole - 6.022E-23 - number of

- Molar mass - mass of one more of a

The fountain of matter

- CH4 + 4O2 → CO2 + 2H2O Yields & Reactants

- Molar volume - 1 mol (STP) = 22.7 dm^-3

- Concentration (mol / dm^3)

- Elements & Compounds

Bohr model: - Isotopes are atoms of the same element

The electromagnetic spectrum

- Higher energy states

Pauli Exclusion Principle

● Elements are placed in order

● Non-metals: upper right-hand

Any questions regarding

● Effective Nuclear Charge

● Group 18: The Noble Gases

● Group 1: The Alkali Metals

● Group 17: The

Any questions regarding

● First-row d-block elements

● Zinc is not a transition metal

● Complex ions are formed

● Polydentate ligands are

● Diamagnetism is a property of all

Any questions regarding

● Coloured complexes result

● Ligand strength: stronger

Any questions regarding

● Ions are charged particles. ● Transition elements have

● Ionic compounds form when ● Ionic bond: the electrostatic

● Ionic lattice: ions surround

Physical Properties of Ionic

● High melting and boiling points

● Recall: Electronegativity decreases down a group and increases across

Pure Covalent < 0.4

Polar Covalent Between 0.4 and 1.8

Ionic > 1.8

Any questions regarding

● When two nonmetals react ● A covalent bond is the

● Molecules can form more than

● Bonds are characterised by 2

● Polarity is the result of unequal

Any questions regarding

● Dative/ coordinate bonds are

● There are exceptions to the

● VSEPR theory: Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion theory

Electron Linear Triangular Triangular Tetrahedral Tetrahedral Tetrahedral

Molecular Linear Triangular Bent / V- Tetrahedral Trigonal Bent/ V-

Bond Angles 180° 120° ~ 117° / 109.5° ~ 107° 105°

● Molecules with polar bonds are

● In some molecules electrons

Allotrope Graphite Diamond Fullerene Graphene

Graphi Diamon C60

● Silicone Dioxide, SiO2,

Any questions regarding

● Intermolecular forces are forces