Chapter-4

Pulse and Digital Modulation Techniques

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 INTRODUCTION
 We will study how to encode analog waveforms into base
band digital signals. Digital signal is popular because of
the low cost and flexibility.
 Main goals:
• To study how analog waveforms can be converted to
digital waveforms, Pulse Code Modulation.
• To learn how to compute the spectrum for digital signals.
• Examine how the filtering of pulse signals affects our
ability to recover the digital information.

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Binary Bandpass Signaling techniques
 On–Off keying (OOK) [amplitude shift keying (ASK)] - Consists of keying (switching) a
carrier sinusoid on and off with a unipolar binary signal.

- Morse code radio transmission is an example of this technique.

- OOK was one of the first modulation techniques to be used and precedes analog
communication systems.

 Binary Phase-Shift Keying (BPSK) - Consists of shifting the phase of a sinusoidal carrier
0o or 180o with a unipolar binary signal.
- BPSK is equivalent to PM signaling with a digital waveform.

 Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK) - Consists of shifting the frequency of a sinusoidal carrier

from a mark frequency (binary 1) to a space frequency (binary 0), according to the baseband
digital signal.
- FSK is identical to modulating an FM carrier with a binary digital signal.

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Binary Bandpass Signaling techniques

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 On-Off Keying (OOK)
 Also known as Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Carrier OOK output

Cos(2fct) Acm(t)Cos(2fct)
Message
m(t)

 The complex envelope is

g t   Ac mt 
 The OOK signal is represented by
st   Ac mt cos  c t
 The PSD of this complex envelope is given by
Ac2   sin fTb  
2

g  f      f   Tb   
2 
  fTb  

So that s(t) has an average normalized power of Ac2

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 On-Off Keying (OOK)
1
Tb 
R
Message 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
Unipolar m(t)
Modulation
Bipolar m(t)
Modulation

s(t)
OOK signal

Tb – bit period ; R – bit rate

ECEg4116 Ambo University

 On-Off Keying (OOK)

 PSD of the bandpass waveform is given by

1
Pv ( f ) 
4
 
Pg  f  f c   Pg  f  f c 

 Null-to-Null bandwidth is BT 2 R and absolute bandwidth is BT 

 The Transmission bandwidth is BT 2 B

Where B is the baseband bandwidth

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 Detection of OOK
 Non-Coherent Detection

OOK in Envelope Binary output

Detector

 Coherent Detection with Low-pass

filter
Ac m(t ) cos 2 (2 f c t )

OOK in Binary output

LPF
s (t )  Ac m(t ) cos(2 f c t ) 1
Ac m(t )
2
cos(2 f c t )

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Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
Generation:
Message: m(t)
Carrier:Cos(2fct)
BPSK output
AcCos(2fct+Dpm(t))
-90
Phase shift
1
Tb 
R
Message 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
Unipolar m(t)
Modulation
Bipolar m(t)
Modulation

s(t)
BPSK output

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Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
 The BPSK signal is represented by
 
st   Ac cos  c t  D p mt 
let m(t ) 1

 A cosD mt cos  t  A sin D mt sin  t

c p c c p c

A cos D cos  t  A sin D mt sin  t

c p c c p c

pilot carrier term data term

 The level of the pilot carrier term is set by the value of the peak deviation
 The digital modulation index ‘h’ is given by
2 2∆θ – maximum peak-to-peak
h deviation during time Ts

 If Dp is small, then there is little power in data term & more in pilot term
 To maximize performance (minimum probability of error)

Optimum case :   D p 90 0 
2
BPSK signal : st   Ac mt sin  c t
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Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
 The complex envelope for this BPSK is given by
g t   jAc mt 
 The PSD for this complex envelope is given by
 sin fTb 
g  f   Ac2Tb  
 fTb 
 PSD of the bandpass waveform is given by
1
Pv ( f ) 
4
 
Pg  f  f c   Pg  f  f c 

Average normalized
power of s(t) : Ac2 2

Null-to-Null
BW
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PSD of optimum BPSK
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)

Power Spectral Density (PSD) of BPSK:

If Dp  /2
2
Pilot exists Ac2  sin(  ( f  f c ) / R ) 
 
8R   ( f  f c ) / R 

fc
2R = 2/Tb

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 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
 Discontinuous FSK :

Message: m(t)
Cos(2f1t)
Osc. f1 FSK output
AcCos(2f1t+1) or
Cos(2f2t) AcCos(2f2t+2)
Osc. f2

 The discontinuous-phase FSK signal is represented by

 Ac cos1t  1 , for t in the time interval when a binary '1' is sent

s t   Ac cos c t   t  
 Ac cos 2 t   2 , for t in the time interval when a binary '0' is sent

 t   1   c t for t during a binary ‘1’ signal

 t   1
 2 t   2   c t for t during a binary ‘0’ signal

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 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
 Continuous FSK :

Message: m(t) Frequency FSK output

Modulator
fc  t

Ac cos  2f c t  D f m  d  
  

 The Continuous-phase FSK signal is represented by

 t

st   Ac cos   c t  D f m  d 
  
or

st  Re g t e j ct 
where
g t   Ac e j t 
t
 t   D f m d for FSK

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Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

1
Tb 
R
Message 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
Unipolar m(t)
Modulation
Bipolar m(t)
Modulation

s(t)
FSK output
(Discontinuous)

FSK output s(t)

(Continuous)

Mark(binary 1) frequency: f1
Space(binary 0) frequency: f2

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 PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION
 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) is used to describe the
conversion of the analog signal to a pulse-type signal in
which the amplitude of the pulse denotes the analog
information.

 The purpose of PAM signaling is to provide another

waveform that looks like pulses, yet contains the information
that was present in the analog waveform.

 There are two classes of PAM signals:

• PAM that uses Natural Sampling (gating);
• PAM that uses Instantaneous Sampling to produce a flat-
top pulse.
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 Natural Sampling (Gating)

DEFINTION: If w(t) is an analog waveform bandlimited to B hertz, the PAM

signal that uses natural sampling (gating) is

ws(t) =w(t)s(t) Where

S(t) is a rectangular wave switching waveform and fs = 1/Ts ≥ 2B.

THEOREM: The spectrum for a naturally sampled PAM signal is:
 
sin( nd )
Ws ( f ) F[ws (t )]   cnW ( f  nf s ) d  W ( f  nf s )
n   n    nd
• Where fs= 1/Ts, ωs = 2π fs,
• the Duty Cycle of s(t) is d = τ/Ts ,
• W(f)= F[w(t)] is the spectrum of the original unsampled waveform,
• cn represents the Fourier series coefficients of the switching waveform.
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 Natural Sampling (Gating)
w(t)

s(t)

ws(t) =w(t)s(t)

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 Generating Natural Sampling

 The PAM wave form with natural sampling can be generated using
a CMOS circuit consisting of a clock and analog switch as shown.

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 Spectrum of Natural Sampling
 
sin( nd )
Ws ( f ) F[ws (t )]   cnW ( f  nf s ) d  W ( f  nf s )
n   n    nd

• The duty cycle of the switching

waveform is d = τ/Ts = 1/3.

• The sampling rate is fs = 4B.


sin( nd )
Ws ( f ) d 
n    nd
W ( f  nf s )

sin( nd )
d
 nd

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 Recovering Naturally Sampled PAM
 At the receiver, the original analog waveform, w(t), can be
recovered from the PAM signal, ws(t), by passing the PAM signal
through a low-pass filter where the cutoff frequency is: B <fcutoff <
fs -B

 If the analog signal is under sampled fs < 2B, the effect of spectral
overlapping is called Aliasing. This results in a recovered analog
signal that is distorted compared to the original waveform.

LPF Filter
B <fcutoff < fs -B
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 Demodulation of PAM Signal
 The analog waveform may be recovered from the PAM
signal by using product detection,

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 Instantaneous Sampling (Flat-Top PAM)
• This type of PAM signal
consists of instantaneous
samples.

• w(t) is sampled at t = kTs .

• The sample values w(kTs )

determine the amplitude of
the flat-top rectangular
pulses.

23
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 Instantaneous Sampling (Flat-Top PAM)
 DEFINITION: If w(t) is an analog waveform bandlimited to
B Hertz, the instantaneous sampled PAM signal is given by
  
 
ws (t )   w(kTs )h(t  kTs ) h(t )   w(kTs ) (t  kTs ) h(t )   w(t )   (t  kTs ) 
k   k    k   
– Where h(t) denotes the sampling-pulse shape and, for flat-top
sampling, the pulse shape is,

THEOREM: The spectrum for a flat-top PAM signal is:


1
Ws ( f )  H ( f )  W ( f  nf s )
Ts k  

 sin  f 
H ( f )   h(t )    
  f  24
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 The spectrum of the flat-top PAM
 Analog signal maybe recovered from the flat-top PAM signal by the use of a LPF.
LPF Response
Note that the recovered signal
has some distortions due to the
curvature of the H(f).
Distortions can be removed by
using a LPF having a response
1/H(f).

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 Some notes on PAM
• The flat-top PAM signal could be generated by using a
sample-and-hold type electronic circuit.
• There is some high frequency loss in the recovered analog
waveform due to filtering effect H(f) caused by the flat top
pulse shape.
• This can be compensated (Equalized) at the receiver by
making the transfer function of the LPF to 1/H(f)
• This is a very common practice called “EQUALIZATION”
• The pulse width τ is called the APERTURE since τ/Ts
determines the gain of the recovered analog signal

 Disadvantages of PAM
• PAM requires a very larger bandwidth than that of the original signal;
• The noise performance of the PAM system is not satisfying.

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 PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM)
 DEFINITION: Pulse code modulation (PCM) is essentially
analog-to-digital conversion of a special type where the
information contained in the instantaneous samples of an
analog signal is represented by digital words in a serial bit
stream.

 The advantages of PCM are:

• Relatively inexpensive digital circuitry may be used extensively.
• PCM signals derived from all types of analog sources may be
merged with data signals and transmitted over a common high-
speed digital communication system.
• In long-distance digital telephone systems requiring repeaters, a
clean PCM waveform can be regenerated at the output of each
repeater, where the input consists of a noisy PCM waveform.
• The noise performance of a digital system can be superior to that of
an analog system.
• The probability of error for the system output can be reduced even
further by the use of appropriate coding techniques.
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 Sampling, Quantizing, and Encoding
 The PCM signal is generated by carrying out three basic
operations:
1. Sampling
2. Quantizing
3. Encoding
1. Sampling operation generates a flat-top PAM signal.
2. Quantizing operation approximates the analog values by using a
finite number of levels. This operation is considered in 3 steps
a) Uniform Quantizer
b) Quantization Error
c) Quantized PAM signal output
3. PCM signal is obtained from the quantized PAM signal by
encoding each quantized sample value into a digital word.

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 Analog to Digital Conversion
 The Analog-to-digital Converter (ADC)
performs three functions:
– Sampling
Analog
Input
• Makes the signal discrete in time.
Signal • If the analog input has a
bandwidth of W Hz, then the
Sample minimum sample frequency
such that the signal can be
reconstructed without distortion.
ADC – Quantization
Quantize
111 • Makes the signal discrete in
amplitude.
110
101
100
011
010
• Round off to one of q discrete
Encode
001
000
levels.
– Encode
• Maps the quantized values to
digital words that are  bits long.
Digital Output  If the (Nyquist) Sampling Theorem is
Signal
111 111 001 010 011 111 011
satisfied, then only quantization
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introduces distortion to the system.
 Quantization
 The output of a sampler is still continuous in amplitude.
– Each sample can take on any value e.g. 3.752, 0.001, etc.
– The number of possible values is infinite.

 To transmit as a digital signal we must restrict the number of

possible values.

 Quantization is the process of “rounding off” a sample

according to some rule.
– E.g. suppose we must round to the nearest tenth, then:
 3.752 --> 3.8 0.001 --> 0

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Illustration of the Quantization Error

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 Uniform Quantization
Dynamic Range: • Most ADC’s use uniform
(-8, 8)
quantizers.
Output sample
XQ
7
• The quantization levels of
5
a uniform quantizer are
3
equally spaced apart.
1

-8 -6 -4 -2 -1 2 4 6 8
• Uniform quantizers are
-3
Input sample X
optimal when the input
-5
distribution is uniform.
-7
When all values within the
Quantization Characteristic Dynamic Range of the
Example: Uniform  =3 bit quantizer quantizer are equally
q=8 and XQ = {1,3,5,7} likely.
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Quantization Example

Analogue signal

Sampling TIMING

Quantization levels.
Quantized to 5-levels

Quantization levels
Quantized 10-levels

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 PCM encoding example

Levels are encoded

using this table

Table: Quantization levels with belonging code words

M=8

Chart 2. Process of restoring a signal.

Chart 1. Quantization and digitalization of a signal. PCM encoded signal in binary form:
101 111 110 001 010 100 111 100 011 010 101
Signal is quantized in 11 time points & 8 quantization segments.
Total of 33 bits were used to encode a signal
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 Encoding
• The output of the quantizer is one of M possible signal
levels.
– If we want to use a binary transmission system, then we need to
map each quantized sample n into an n bit binary word.
M 2 , n log 2 ( M )

• Encoding is the process of representing each quantized

sample by an  bit code word.
– The mapping is one-to-one so there is no distortion introduced by
encoding.
– Some mappings are better than others.
• A Gray code gives the best end-to-end performance.
• The weakness of Gray codes is poor performance when the
sign bit (MSB) is received in error.
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 Gray Codes
• With gray codes adjacent samples differ only in one bit
position.
• Example (3 bit quantization):
XQ Natural coding Gray Coding
+7 111 110
+5 110 111
+3 101 101
+1 100 100
-1 011 000
-3 010 001
-5 001 011
-7 000 010
• With this gray code, a single bit error will result in an
amplitude error of only 2.
– Unless the MSB is in error.

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 Waveforms in a PCM system for M=8
M=8

(a) Quantizer Input output characteristics

(b) Analog Signal, PAM Signal, Quantized PAM Signal

M 2n n log 2 ( M )
M is the number of Quantization levels
(c) Error Signal n is the number of bits per sample

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(d) PCM Signal
PCM Transmission System

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 Practical PCM Circuits
• Three popular techniques are used to
implement the analog-to-digital converter
(ADC) encoding operation:
1. The counting or ramp, ( Maxim ICL7126 ADC)
2. Serial or successive approximation, (AD 570)
3. Parallel or flash encoders. ( CA3318)
• The objective of these circuits is to generate
the PCM word.
• Parallel digital output obtained (from one of the
above techniques) needs to be serialized
before sending over a 2-wire channel
• This is accomplished by parallel-to-serial
converters [Serial Input-Output (SIO) chip]
• UART,USRT and USART are examples for
SIO’s
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 Bandwidth of PCM Signals
• The spectrum of the PCM signal is not directly related to the spectrum of the
input signal.
• The bandwidth of (serial) binary PCM waveforms depends on the bit rate R
and the waveform pulse shape used to represent the data.
• The Bit Rate R is
R=nfs

Where n is the number of bits in the PCM word (M=2n) and fs is the sampling
rate.
• For no aliasing case (fs≥ 2B), the MINIMUM Bandwidth of PCM Bpcm(Min) is:

Bpcm(Min) = R/2 = nfs//2

The Minimum Bandwidth of nfs//2 is obtained only when sin(x)/x pulse is

used to generate the PCM waveform.

• For PCM waveform generated by rectangular pulses, the First-null

Bandwidth is:
40
Bpcm = R = nfs ECEg4116