Space link

Link power budget:

• The link-power budget calculation is very important in
satellite communication.
• The Link power budget calculations generally relate two
quantities, the transmission power and the receiver power.
• Link-power budget calculations also need the additional losses
and noise factor which is incorporated with the transmitted
and the received signals.
EQUIVALENT ISOTROPIC RADIATED POWER(EIRP):
• EIRP Is the measurement of radiated output power from an ideal
isotropic antenna in a single direction.

• It will be the maximum power emitted by the antenna in the direction

with highest antenna gain.

• EIRP also takes into account the losses in transmission line and
connectors and includes the gain of the antenna.

EIRP = G Ps Where, G is Gain of the transmitting antenna and G is

in decibels. Ps is Power of the sender (transmitter) and is calculated
in watts.
 [EIRP] = [G] + [Ps] dBW

• Example: A satellite downlink is at 12 GHz operate with a

transmit power of 6 W and an antenna gain of 48.2 dB.
Calculate the EIRP in dBW.

Solution:

[EIRP] = 10 log 6 + 48.2

= 56 dBW
 TRANSMISSION LOSSES
• As EIRP is the power input of one end to the power received
at the other, it is required to find the power received at the
other end.
• Some losses that occur in the transmitting – receiving process
are constant and their values can be predetermined.
• Other losses are dependent on the climatic conditions
including rain and snow fall.
• The constant losses are determined considering a clear sky
condition.
1.Free-Space Transmission Losses (FSL)
• This loss is due to the spreading of the signal in space. We
have the power flux density at the receiving antenna is given by
Ψm =G PS / 4 π r2

• The power that is delivered to a matched receiver is the

power flux density. It is multiplied by the effective aperture of
the receiving antenna. Hence, the received power is:
• Where r→ distance between transmitter and receiver G R→
power gain at the receiver
In decibels, the above equation becomes:

2. Feeder Losses (RFL)

• This loss occur if the connection between the satellite
receiver device and the receiver antenna is improper. Losses
here occur is connecting wave guides, filers and couplers
• The receiver feeder loss values are added to free space loss
3. Antenna Misalignment Losses (AML)
• To attain a good communication link, the earth station
antenna and the communicating satellite antenna must face
each other in such a way that the maximum gain is attained.
• Sometimes, misalignment(off-axis loss) can occur in two ways:
i)The off-axis loss at satellite is taken into account by designing
the link for operation on the actual satellite contour.
ii)The off-axis loss at the earth station is referred to as antenna
pointing loss. These losses are usually only a few tenths of a
decibel.
a) Satellite and Earth station’s antennas aligned
for maximum gain; b) Earth station is situated
at the given satellite’s footprint it’s antenna is
misaligned
• In addition to pointing losses, losses can occur due to the
misalignment of the polarization direction.
• These losses are generally small and it will be assumed that
the antenna misalignment loss includes pointing as well as
polarization losses value.
• The value of this loss can be estimated using statistical data
which are based on errors that are actually observed or a
large number of earth stations
 4. Fixed Atmospheric (AA) and Ionospheric
losses (PL)
• The gases present in the atmosphere absorb the signals. This
kind of loss is usually of a fraction of decibel in quantity.
• Along with the absorption losses, the ionosphere introduces a
good amount of depolarization of signal which results in loss
of signal.
 Link - Power Budget Equation
• The EIRP can be considered as the input power to a transmission link.
The power at the receiver can be considered as EIRP minus losses.
Losses = [FSL] + [RFL] + [AML] + [AA] + [PL]
• The received power :PR = [EIRP] + [GR] – [Losses] Where;
• [PR] → received power in dB.
• [EIRP] → equivalent isotropic radiated power in dBW.
• [GR] → isotropic power gain at the receiver and its value is in dB. [FSL]:
→ free-space transmission loss in dB.
• [RFL] → receiver feeder loss in dB.
• [AA] → Atmospheric absorption loss in dB. [AML] →Antenna
misalignment loss in dB. [PL] → depolarization loss in dB.
• Example: A satellite link operating at 14 GHz has receiver feeder losses
of 1.5 dB and a free-space loss of 207 dB. The atmospheric absorption
loss is 0.5 dB and the antenna pointing loss is 0.5 dB. Depolarization
losses may be neglected. Calculate the total link loss for a clear – sky
condition.
Losses = [FSL] + [RFL] + [AML] + [AA] + [PL]
= 207 + 1.5 + 0.5 + 0.5 + 0
• = 209.5 dB
•
[FSL] → free-space transmission loss in dB. [RFL] → receiver feeder loss
in dB.
• [AML] → Antenna misalignment loss in dB. [AA] → Atmospheric
absorption loss in dB. [PL] → depolarization loss in dB.
• SYSTEM NOISE
• Electrical noise present at the input
• The main source of noise in the satellite equipments is the
Thermal noise.
• Thermal noise is also generated in the lossy components of
the antenna and a thermal – like noise is picked – up by the
antenna as radiation.
• Power from a thermal noise source is given by:
PN = k TN BN
• TN →noise temperature BN is Noise Bandwidth k →Boltzman
Constant having the value 1.38 x 10-23 J/k
• The noise power per unit bandwidth is termed as noise power
spectral density denoted by No
• NO = PN /BN
or NO = k TN Joules
• Noise temperature is directly proportional to the physical
temperature but not always equal.
• Noise power per unit bandwidth is always constant
• Example: An antenna has noise temperature of 35 K and is
matched into a receiver which has a noise temperature of 100
K calculate: a) noise power density and b) the noise power for
a bandwidth of 36 MHz.
• Solution: a) NO = k TN
= 11.38 x 10-23x (35 + 100)
= 1.86 x 10-21 J
• b) PN = NO BN
• = 1.86 x 10-21x 36 x 106
• = 0.067 pW
 Antenna Noise:
• Antenna noise is classified as a) Sky noise, and b) Noise
originating from the antenna losses.
Sky Noise: it is a term used to describe microwave radiation
which is present throughout the universe and which appears to
originate from matter in any form at finite temperature.
• Such radiation covers wider spectrum
• Absorptive loss mechanism generates thermal noise, hence a
direct connection between loss and the effective noise
temperature.
• Rainfall introduces attenuation and thus it further degrades
transmission in two ways:
1) It attenuates the signal; 2) it introduces noise.
These losses are much worse at KU-band and C-band.
Antenna Losses: Satellite antennas are generally pointed towards
the earth and therefore they receive the full thermal radiation
from it.
• In this case the equivalent noise temperature of the antenna,
excluding the antennas losses is approximately 290 K
• Antenna losses add to the noise received as radiation and the
total antenna noise temperature is the sum of equivalent noise
temperatures of all these sources.
 Antenna Noise Temperature
• Antenna noise temperature is the temperature of a
theoretical resistor at the input of an ideal noise-free receiver
that would generate the same output noise power per unit
bandwidth as that at the antenna output at a specified
frequency
• Sources of Antenna noise temperature are:
a)Vast radiation b) Earth heating c)The sun
d)Electrical devices and e)The antenna itself
• The available power gain of the amplifier is denoted as G, and the noise power
output as Pno. Considering noise power per unit bandwidth which is noise energy
in joules is given by:
• No,ant = k Tant
• The output noise energy in No,out will be GNo,out plus the contribution made by the
amplifier.
• The summation of all the amplifier noise is referred to the input in terms of an
equivalent input noise temperature for the amplifier T e.
Hence output can be written as:
No,out= Gk (Tant + Te)
The total noise referred to the input is N o,out/ G
OR
No,in= k (Tant + Te)
 Amplifier in Cascade
• A cascade amplifier is any amplifier constructed from a series
of amplifiers, where each amplifier sends its output to the
input of the next amplifier.

Figure 13.2: a) An amplifier; b) An amplifier in

Cascade
• For the arrangement of amplifiers shown in fig. 13.2 b; the overall
gain can be considered as:
G = G 1 G2
• The noise energy of amplifier 2 referred to its own inputs is
kTe2.
• The noise input to amplifier 2 from the preceding stages is
G1 k (Tant + Te1)
hence the total noise energy referred to amplifier 2 input is:
No,2= G1k (Tant + Te1) +kTe2
•
• This noise energy may be referred to amplifier 1 input by
dividing by the available over gain of amplifier 1:
No,2= No,2 / G1
= k (Tant + Te1 + Te2 / G1)
• A system noise temperature may now be defined as TS by
No,1= k TS hence it will be seen that TS is given by
TS = Tant + Te1+ Te2 / G1
• For any number of stages this can be generalized as
 Noise Factor:
• An alternative way of representing amplifier noise is by the
means of its noise factor F.
• The input noise from a source is kT0 where To is the room
temperature and the output noise from the amplifier is:
No,out= FGkT0 where G is the available power gain of the
amplifier F is its noise factor.
• Let Te be the temperature of the amplifier and To is the room
temperature.
• The relationship between Noise factor and amplifier
temperature can be written as
Noise Temperature of Absorptive Networks
• An absorptive network is one which contains resistive
elements.
• Absorptive networks introduce losses by absorbing energy
from the signal and converting it into heat.
• Resistive attenuators, transmission lines and wave guides are
all examples of absorptive networks
• Natural phenomenon like rainfall, which absorbs energy from
radio signals passing through it can be considered as a form of
absorptive network.
• the absorptive networks contain resistance, they generate
thermal noise.
• Consider an absorptive network which has a power loss L.
• The power loss is simply the ratio of input power to output
power .
• Let the network be matched at both ends, to a terminating
resistor RT at one end and an antenna at the other as shown
• let the system be at some ambient temperature Tx. The noise
energy transferred from RT into the network is kTx.
• Let the network noise be represented at the output
terminals by an equivalent noise temperature TNW,o. Then the
noise energy radiated by the antenna is
• Because the antenna is matched to a resistive source at
temperature Tx, the available noise energy which is fed into
the antenna and radiated is Nrad = kTx.
• Substituting for Nrad in the above expression we can write
• If the lossy network should happen to be at room
temperature, that is, Tx = T0, then we can write
F=L

• The overall system noise temperature with a cable loss ‘L’ for
the given system is given by the equation
• The above examples illustrate the important point that the
LNA must be placed ahead of the cable, which is why one sees
amplifiers mounted right at the dish in satellite receiver
systems.
Carrier to noise ratio:
• This ratio is denoted as C/N and is calculated in decibels.
ie , C/N = [PR] – [PN]
C/N→ carrier to noise ratio PR → Receiver Power
PN → Noise Power
• The resultant C/N can be calculated by:
[C/N] = [EIRP] – [GR] – [LOSSES] – [k] – [TS] – [BN]
• To complete the calculations, we need to consider the gain is to temperature ratio
also. It is commonly denoted ad G/T.
Hence [G/T] = [GR] – [TS]
Thus, the C/N equation could be written as:
[C/N] = [EIRP] + [G/T] - [LOSSES] – [k] – [B N]
• The ratio of carrier to noise power density PR / PN can be the
quantity that is actually required.
Since PN = k TNBN
[C/N] = [C / NO BN]
= [C / NO] – [BN]
[C/No] = [C / N] +[BN]
• [C/N] is true power ration in units of decibels, and [BN] is in
decibels relative to one hertz or dBHz. Thus the units for [C/No]
are dBHz.
• Applying this value to the above equation, we get:
• [C/N0] = [EIRP] + [G/T] - [LOSSES] – [k]
 The Uplink
• The uplink of a satellite circuit is where the earth station is
transmitting the data to the space craft and the space craft is
receiving it.
• The carrier to noise ratio for uplink is given by
[C/N0]U = [EIRP]U + [G/T]U - [LOSSES]U – [k]
The Downlink
• The downlink of a satellite circuit is where the space craft is
transmitting the data to the earth station and the earth station is
receiving it.
• The carrier to noise ratio for downlink is given by
[C/N0]D = [EIRP]D + [G/T]D - [LOSSES]D – [k]
 Combined uplink and downlink C/N ratio
• The complete satellite circuit consists of an uplink and a
downlink.
• Noise will be introduced on the uplink at the satellite receiver
input. Denoting the noise power per unit bandwidth by PNU and
the average carrier at the same point by PRU,
the carrier– to – noise ratio on the uplink is:
(C/N0) u = (PRU / PNU)
• The carrier power at the end of the space link is PR, which is also
the received carrier power for the downlink. This is equal to ϒ
times the carrier power input to earth station input.
• It includes the satellite transponder and transmits antenna
gains, the downlink losses, and the earth station receive
antenna gain and feeder losses.
• The noise at the satellite input also appears at the earth
station input multiplied by ϒ and in addition, the earth station
introduces its own noise which is denoted as PND. Thus the
end – of – link noise is ϒ PNU + PND.
• The C/N0ratio for the downlink alone is PR / PND and the
combined C/N0ratio at the ground receiver is PR(ϒ PNU + PND).
• The power flow diagram is shown in figure
• The combined carrier – to – noise ratio can be determined in
terms of the individual link values.
• Denoting the combined carrier – to – noise values by N0 / C,
the uplink value by (N0 / C)Uand the downlink value by
(N0 / C)D then,
N0 / C = PN / PR
= (ϒ PNU + PND)/ PR
= (ϒ PNU/ PR) + (PND/ PR)
= (ϒ PNU/ ϒ PR) + (PND/ PR)
N0 / C = (N0 / C)U+ (N0 / C)D
• The above derived equation is the combine value of C/N0 , the
reciprocals of individual values must be added to obtain the
N0 / C ratio and then reciprocal of this taken to get C/N0.
•
• Effects of rain
• Up to this point, calculations have been made for clear-sky
conditions, meaning the absence of weather-related
phenomena which might affect the signal strength.
• In the C band and the Ku band, rainfall is the most significant
cause of signal fading. Rainfall results in attenuation of radio
waves by scattering and by absorption of energy from the wave.
• Rain attenuation increases with increasing frequency and is
worse in the Ku band compared with the C band.
• Rain attenuation for horizontal polarization is considerably
greater than for vertical polarization
Uplink rain-fade margin:
• Rainfall results in attenuation of the signal and an increase in
noise temperature, degrading the [C/No] at the satellite .
• The increase in noise is not a major factor for uplink because
the satellite antenna is pointed towards a ‘hot ‘ earth.
• This temperature is added to the receiver noise temperature
which tend to mask additional noise induced by the rain
attenuation.
• It is important that some form of uplink power control is
necessary to compensate for rain fades.
• The power output from the satellite may be monitored by a
by each earth station, and the power output from any given
earth station may be increased if required to compensate for
rain fading.
Downlink rain-fade margin:
• Rainfall introduces attenuation by absorption and scattering
of signal energy, and the absorptive attenuation introduces
noise.
• The effective noise temperature of the rain is given by
• where Ta is the effective absorber temperature
• Let [A] dB represent the rain attenuation caused by
absorption. The corresponding power loss ratio is A = 10[A]/10
• The total sky-noise temperature is the clear-sky temperature
TCS plus the rain temperature given by