By

Dr.S.Saju M.E.Ph.D.,
Associate Professor
Dept.of Biomedical Engg.
KIT-Kalaignarkarunanidhi Institute of Technology
o Anatomy: the word anatomy is derived from a Greek word “Anatome” meaning to cut up. It is

the study of structures that make up the body and how those structures relate with each other.

o The study of anatomy includes many sub specialties. These are Gross anatomy, Microscopic

anatomy, Developmental anatomy and Embryology.

o Gross anatomy studies body structure with out microscope. Systemic anatomy studies functional
relationships of organs within a system whereas Regional anatomy studies body part regionally.
Both systemic and regional approaches may be used to study gross anatomy.
o Microscopic anatomy (Histology) requires the use of microscope to study tissues that form the
various organs of the body.
o Physiology: the word physiology derived from a Greek word for study of nature. It is the study
of how the body and its part work or function Hence, Anatomy and physiology are studied
together to give students a full appreciation and understanding of human body.
 HOMEOSTASIS
o When structure and function are coordinated the body achieves a relative stability of its internal

environment called homeostasis / staying the same. Although the external environmental changes

constantly, the internal environment of a healthy body remains the same with in normal limits.

o Under normal conditions, homeostasis is maintained by adaptive mechanisms ranging from

control center in the brain to chemical substances called hormones that are secreted by various

organs directly into the blood streams. Some of the functions controlled by homeostasis

mechanisms are blood pressure, body temperature, breathing and heart rate.
Level of structural organization of theo body
The human body has different structural

levels of

organization, starting with atoms molecules

and compounds and increasing in size and

complexity to cells, tissues, organs and the

systems that make up the complete organism

o Atoms molecules and compounds: - At its
simplest level, the body is composed of
atoms. The most common elements in living
organism are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen phosphorus and sulfur.

Atoms → Molecule → Compounds

Cell: The smallest independent units of life. All life depends on the many chemical activities

of cells. Some of the basic functions of cell are: growth, metabolism, irritability and

reproduction.

Tissue: tissue is made up of many similar cells that perform a specific function. The various

tissues of the body are divided in to four groups. These are epithelial, connective, nervous and
Epithelial tissue: - Found in the outer layer of skin, lining of organs, blood and lymph vessels and
muscle tissue.
body cavities.

Connective tissue: - Connects and supports most part of the body. They constitute most part of

skin, bone and tendons.

Muscle tissue: - Produces movement through its ability to contract. This constitutes skeletal,

smooth and cardiac muscles.

Nerve tissue: - Found in the brain, spinal cord and nerves. It responds to various types of stimuli
Organ: - Is an integrated collection of two or more kinds of issue that works together to perform
specific function. For
example: Stomach is made of all type of tissues.
System: Is a group of organs that work together to perform major function. For example:
Respiratory system contains several organs.
Organism level: - The various organs of the body form the entire organism.

Anatomical Position

Anatomical positions are universally accepted as the starting points for positional
references to the body. In anatomical position the subject is standing erect and facing the
observer,the feet are together, and the arms are hanging at the sides with the palms facing
forward.
Body parts Regions
The body can generally be described to have areas of:
Axial body part: - It is the part of the body near the axis of the body. This includes head, neck,
thorax (chest), abdomen,and pelvis.
Appendicular body part: - It is the part of the body out of the axis line. This includes the upper and
lower extremities. It is customary to subdivide the abdominal area into nine regions or more easily in
to four quadrants.
Body planes and sections
Body planes are imaginary surfaces or planes lines that divide the body in to sections. This helps
for further identification of specific areas.

Sagittal plane: -divides the body into right and left half.
Mid sagittal plane: - divides body into equal left and right halves.
Frontal plane: - divides the body into asymmetrical anterior and posterior sections.
Transverse plane: - divides the body into upper and lower body section.
Body Cavities
The cavities of the body house the internal
organs, which commonly referred to as the viscera.
The two main body cavities are the larger ventral
(anterior) and the smaller, dorsal (posterior)
body cavity.
o The ventral body cavity constitutes the thoracic
cavity and the abdomino-pelvic body cavity.
o The Thoracic cavity houses lung and heart. It is
protected by the rib cage & associated
musculature and the sternum anteriorly. It consists
of the right and left pleural cavities and
mediastinum (the portion of tissues and organs
that separates the left and right lung).
o Abdomino-pelvic Cavity extends from the
diaphragm inferior to the floor of the pelvis. It is
o Abdominal cavity contains the stomach, intestine, liver, spleen and gallbladder.
o The pelvic cavity contains urinary bladder, rectum, and portions of the reproductive
organs.
o The dorsal body cavity: it constitutes the cephalic cavity containing brain and the
vertebral canal containing the spinal cord.
II. CELL ANATOMY
Cell is the basic living structural and
functional unit of the body.
Cytology: - It is a branch of science
concerned with a study of cells
Cell Theory explains about
a) All living organisms are composed of
cell and cell products.
b) Cell is the basic unit of structure &
function of all living organisms.
c) All cells come from the division of pre
existing cell.
d) An organism as a whole can be
understood through the collective
activities & interactions of its cells.
Cell organelles perform specific functions within a cell, such as:
•Energy production: Mitochondria are rod-shaped organelles that produce chemical energy in the
form of ATP.
•Storage: The nucleus stores genetic information.
•Protein production: Ribosomes assemble proteins.
•Lipid production: The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) produces lipids.
•Detoxification: The SER also detoxifies.
•Digestion: Lysosomes store digestive enzymes that break down organic substances.
•Synthesis: Cell organelles synthesize substances like proteins, lipids, and starch.
•Secretion: Cell organelles secrete hormones and enzymes.
•Other organelles include:
•Golgi bodies: A membrane-bound organelle
•Plastids: A membrane-bound organelle
•Chloroplasts: Double membrane-bound organelles that trap light energy for photosynthesis
•Organelles are like the departments and workers in a factory, with each one having a specific job
Mitosis is a
process of cell
division that
produces two
identical daughter
cells from a single
cell. It's a
fundamental
process for life,
and is necessary
for growth,
development, and
repair of the body
Divide the cell in to four principal parts: -
Plasma (cell) membrane: it is the outer lining, limiting membrane separating the cell
internal parts from extra cellular materials & external environment.
Cytoplasm: cytoplasm is the substance that surrounds organelles and is located between
the nucleus and plasma membrane.
Organelles: these are permanent structures with characteristic morphology that are highly
specialized in specific cellular activity.
Inclusions: they are the secretions and storage products of cells.
Extra cellular materials are also referred to as the matrix, which are substances external to
the cell surface.
 Plasma Membrane

Plasma membrane is a thin outer membrane, which maintains the integrity of the cell. It keeps
the cell and its contents separate and distinct from the surrounding. It is a double layered
measuring about 4.5 nm and made of phospholipids, cholesterol, glyco-lipid, & carbohydrate
(oligosaccharides).
Functions:
The bi-layer is- self-sealing. If a needle is injected and pulled out, it automatically seals
1. Separate the cytoplasm inside a cell from extra cellular fluid.
2. Separate cell from one another
3. Provide an abundant surface on which chemical reaction can occur.
4. Regulate the passage of materials in to and out of cells. It also let some things in and
keeps others out. The quality selective permeability
 MOVEMENT ACROSS-CELL MEMBRANE
Movements a cross membrane takes place in two ways.
o These are passive and active movements. Passive movement uses energy whereas
active movement consumes energy in the form of ATP

Passive movement: includes

a. Simple diffusion, the random movements of molecules from area of high
concentration to the area of low concentration. Example air in alveoli of lung
b. Facilitated diffusion, larger molecules, which are not soluble in lipid need protein
channel to pass through the plasma membrane. No direct energy needed.
Example: - Amino acid passes through the cell membrane.
c. Osmosis, a special type of diffusion referring to the passage of water through a
selectively permeable membrane from an area of high water concentration to lower
water concentration.
d. Filtration, small molecules pass through selectively permeable membrane in response
to force of pressure. Example: - filtration in the kidney in the process of urine
formation.
Active movements across membranes
Substances move through a selectively permeable membrane from areas of low concentration
on side of a membrane to an area of higher concentration on the other side. This is against
concentration gradient. Therefore, it requires energy.
a) Active Transport: till equilibrium substances could more by passive movement. But if
equilibrium reached and still more molecules are needed, they must be pumped through the
membrane against concentration gradient.
This process requires the use of ATP. One example of such processes is Sodium – potassium
pump and calcium pump. In this process all follows similar process. These are molecules bind to
carrier protein, molecule- carrier complex pass through the membrane, assisted by an enzyme &
ATP and carrier protein returns to its original shape & repeat the process
b) Endocytosis, pocketing in by plasma membrane. It includes: Pinocytoss – cell drinking
Receptor – mediated Endocytosis- Endocytosis with the help of receptor. Phagocytosis- cell
eating.
c) Exocytosis, opposite to Endocytosis, to remove out undigested particles.

Cytoplasm
o Cytoplasm is a matrix or ground substance in which various cellular components are found.
It is thick semi transparent, elastic fluid containing suspended particles and a series of
minute tubules and filaments that form cytoskeleton. Water constitutes 75-90% of the
cytoplasm. It also contains solid components, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and inorganic
substances. The inorganic components exist as solutions because they are soluble in
water. The majority of organic substances however are found as colloids. Colloids are
particles that remain suspended in the surrounding medium.
Organelles
Organelles are specialized portion of the cell with a characteristic shape that assume specific
role in growth, maintenance, repair and control.
a) Nucleus, Oval in shape and is the largest structure in the cell. Contain the hereditary factor
in the cell. Hence it controls cell activity & structure. Most cell contain single nucleus but some
like matured Red Blood cell do not contain. However Muscle cell contain several nucleuses.
The nucleus separated from other cell structure by double membrane called nuclear
membrane. Pores over the nuclear membrane allow the nucleus to communicate with the
cytoplasm. In the nucleus a jelly like fluid that fill the
nucleus is karylymph (neucleoplasm), which contain the genetic material called chromosome.
Nucleus also contain dark, somewhat spherical, non-membrane bound mass called nucleolus.
It contains DNA, RNA and protein, which assist in the construction of ribosome.
b) Ribosome, tiny granules, composed of Ribosomal RNA (rRNA). They are site of protein
synthesis
C) Endoplasmic reticulum is a double membrane channel. It is continuous with the nuclear
membrane. It involved in intracellular exchange of material with the cytoplasm. Various products
are transported from one portion of the cell to another via the endoplasmic reticulum. So it is
considered as intracellular transportation. It is also storage for synthesized molecules. Together
with the Golgi complex it serves as synthesis & packaging center. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is
divided in to two. These are, granular E.R. Containing granule and involving in synthesis of protein
and agranular E.R. that synthesize lipid & involves in detoxification.
d) Golgi Complex, near to the nucleus. It consist 4-8 membranous sacs. It process, sort, pack &
deliver protein to various parts of the cell.
e) Mitochondria, a small, spherical, rod shaped or filamentous structure. It generates energy.
Each mitochondria posses two membrane, one is smooth (upper) membrane and the other is
arranged with series
of folds called cristae. The central cavity of a mitochondrion enclosed by the inner membrane is
the
f) Lysosomes appear as membrane enclosed spheres. They are formed from Golgi
complexes & have single membrane. They contain powerful digestive (hydrolytic enzyme
capable of breaking down many kinds of molecules. The lysosomal enzyme believed to be
synthesized in the granular endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi complex.
g) The cyto-skeleton, the cytoplasm has a complex internal structure consisting of a
series of exceedingly small microfilaments, microtubule & intermediate filaments together
referred to as the cyto-skeleton.
h) Centrosme, a dense area of cytoplasm generally spherical and located near the
nucleus it contain centrioles. It also contains DNA that controls their replication.
Centrosmes are made of microtubules, which seam drinking straws. They are Involved in
the movement of chromosome during cell division.

i) Cilia/flagella, thread like appendages, which are made of microtubules. When they are
beating forms rhythmic movement. They are found in female reproductive organ and upper
respiratory tube.
Cell inclusion
Large and diverse group of chemicals, which are produced by cells, are cell inclusions. It is
mainly organic and includes melanin, glycogen & Lipids
Cells out of control/cancer
Normal human body cells usually divide at a controlled rate required to replace the dying ones
and for growth. Cancer cells are different. They lack the controlling mechanism. Cancer occurs
when cells grows and divide at abnormal rate & then spread beyond the original site. Some of
the risk factors for cancer occurrence are radiation, chemicals,extreme pressure and hormonal
therapy.
CELL
MEMBRANE
Four sub-types of bone cells in the human skeletal Five sub-types of human white blood
system: cells in the human immune system
 Osteocytes (maintain bone tissues) : monocyte, eosinophil, basophil, lymphocyte
 Osteoblast (form bone matrix) , neutrophil
 Osteogenic cells (stem cell)
 Osteoclasts (reabsorb bone)
 TISSUES
There are 4 different types of tissues in our body.
Nervous tissue is found in the brain, spinal cord and nerves.
Muscular tissue such as cardiac, smooth, and skeletal muscle
Epithelial tissue lines the GI tract organs and other hollow organs and is found on the skin surface (epidermis ).
Connective tissue such as fat and other soft padding tissue , bone, and tendon
.
HUMAN SKELETON SYSTEM-
CONCEPT MAP
DIVISION OF SKELETON
SKELETAL AND MUSCULAR SYSTEM O
F HUMANS
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM