The Chemistry of Soil

The Chemistry of
Soil
Engr. Rhona C. Adajar
Soil Chemistry
Soil chemistry is the branch of soil science that deals
with the chemical composition, chemical properties,
and chemical reactions of soils.
Soil chemistry is concerned with the chemical

reactions and processes involving these phases. For
example, carbon dioxide in the air combined with
water acts to weather the inorganic solid phase.
Chemical reactions between the soil solids and the

soil solution influence both plant growth and water
quality.
Nature of Soil
Soil is the outermost layer of the earth’s crust.
Depending on where you are on Earth, the layer of soil
may be several inches thick or many feet deep.
Soil is a complex material that supports life. It may

take a thousand years for just 1 inch of soil to form.
Therefore, managing soil properly for the benefit of
future generations is critical.
Soils are heterogeneous mixtures of air, water,

inorganic and organic solids, and microorganisms (both
plant and animal in nature). No two soils are exactly
alike.
Soil reactions and processes occur over a wide range

Nature of Soil
Soil supports life in many ways. Its structure allows
oxygen, needed for adequate root growth, to enter.
Soil maintains temperatures satisfactory for plant

growth by absorbing heat from the sun and losing heat
to the atmosphere. Soil is a reservoir for water.
Organic matter in the soil provides plants with carbon.
Soil is a source of mineral nutrients for many forms of

life.
Composition of Soil
Soil is made of mineral matter, organic matter,
water, and air.
The solid mineral matter and organic matter

make up about 50 percent of the soil. The
average soil contains about 45 percent
mineral matter and about 5 percent organic
matter. These solids are not tightly packed.
Instead, there are spaces between the solid

particles called pore spaces. Pore spaces are
filled with either water or air. In good soil,
water makes up about 25 percent of the soil,
and air makes up about 25 percent of the soil.
Layers of Soil
Soils are named and classified based on their
horizons. The soil profile has four distinct
layers:
1) O horizon;
2) A horizon;
3) B horizon, or subsoil; and
4) C horizon, or soil base.
Layers of Soil
1) O horizon
The O horizon has freshly decomposing
organic matter—humus—at its surface,
with decomposed vegetation at its base.
Humus enriches the soil with nutrients

and enhances soil moisture retention.
Layers of Soil
2) A horizon
This layer is also called topsoil and it is the topmost layer of
the mineral soils.
That is the layer that you want to increase as it’s the layer
where seeds germinate, roots grow, and the soil organisms
live in!
It’s right below the O horizon and therefore still has bits and
pieces of humus (the organic component of soil, formed by the
decomposition of leaves and other plant material by soil
microorganism) in it. That’s why it still has quite a dark color.
If you compare the A horizon to the layers below, you’ll see

that the soil particles in that layer are smaller and finer.
Layers of Soil
3) B horizon
The B horizon is an accumulation of mostly fine

material that has moved downward, resulting in a
dense layer in the soil.
The B horizon or subsoil is, due to the leaching, very

rich in clay and minerals like iron or aluminium. As
they get oxidized, its color is usually reddish or
brown.
Plant roots might reach this layer but the chances

are not very high; thus the humus content is very
low.
In some soils, the B horizon contains nodules or a

layer of calcium carbonate.
Layers of Soil
4) C horizon
The C horizon, or soil base, includes the

parent material, plus the organic and
inorganic material that is broken down to
form soil.
The parent material may be either

created in its natural place, or transported
from elsewhere to its present location.
Beneath the C horizon lies bedrock.
Layers of Soil
E horizon:
That layer has a light color as it is high in sand and
silt.
There’s almost no clay and minerals in that layer as

they get washed into the horizons below. That’s why
it is called the eluviation (leaching) layer.
The soil particles are already bigger here than in the

A horizon but still smaller than those in the
underlying B horizon.
Due to plowing , this horizon often is mixed with the

A horizon.
Water and Air in Soil
Soil provides nutrients, water, oxygen
and heat to natural land areas.
Understanding the ability and capacity
of soil to support an ecosystem plays
an important role in land
management decisions
"Pore spaces in soil hold both water

and air," Ferrie says. "Therefore the
same things that affect water-holding
capacity affect air. When the ratio gets
out of whack, the crop has problems. If
soil becomes saturated with water,
there's no room for oxygen; if there's a
Inorganic Matter in Soil
Soil is a mixture of organic and inorganic
constituents. The inorganic components
come from the weathering of various rock
types.
While some soil has only one particle type,

the most fertile soil is a mixture of several
organic and inorganic components.
The inorganic material of soil is composed

of rock, which is broken down into small
particles of sand (0.1 to 2 mm), silt (0.002 to
0.1 mm), and clay (less than 0.002 mm)
Inorganic Sand
Sand is a medium to coarse-grained sediment that is

visible to the naked eye.
Sand particles range in size from 0.05 millimeters to 2.0

millimeters and consist of pieces of weathered rock, such
as quartz, magnetite or other mineral or shell fragments.
Sand in your garden soil will help promote good drainage

and aeration of the area. However, sand alone will not
retain significant amounts of moisture to support plant
growth.
In addition, sand does not contain nutrients that promote

Inorganic Silt
Silt is a fine-grained sediment that you cannot see with

the naked eye. Silt is larger than clay and smaller than
sand and may feel gritty between your fingers. Silt
particles range from 0.002 millimeters to 0.05
millimeters.
Like sand, silt results from the weathering of rocks and

consists of grains of quartz, feldspar and other minerals.
Silt-rich soil will retain moisture for plant growth, but at

times, it can limit drainage and make the soil difficult to
till.
Silt itself does not contain plant nutrients; however,

Inorganic Clay
Clay is another fine-grained sediment that is smaller than silt. Clay particles are
smaller than 0.002 millimeters and result from significant weathering of rocks.
Minerals, such as feldspars, degrade over time to form clay. Like silt, clay-rich soil
will retain moisture for plant growth and may limit drainage in the area.
You can amend fine-grained soils with sand and organic matter to improve the
drainage quality of the area.
Unlike sand and silt, the aluminum-silicate minerals that degrade to clay will provide
important plant nutrients such as iron, calcium, magnesium and potassium.
Existing nutrients will cling to the clay soil particles and help to feed plant growth in
the root area.
Organic Matter in Soil
Organics in soil are due to the presence and decomposition of plant and animal matter
in the area.
Humus, a partially decomposed organic matter, is a common form of organics in

garden soil that will continue to decompose over time. While the percent of organic
matter in most topsoil is only 2 to 4 percent, it plays an important role in the garden.
Organic matter is good for promoting aeration, drainage and soil moisture retention in
the soil. The organic matter also reduces erosion and supplies plant nutrients such as
sulfur, phosphorous and nitrogen to the plant’s root zone.
The organics will also help to reduce the threat of plant disease in the garden by
promoting a healthy growing environment.
In soil, organic matter consists of
plant and animal material that is in
the process of decomposing.
When it has fully decomposed it is

called humus. This humus is
important for soil structure because it
holds individual mineral particles
together in clusters.
Soil Solution
Soil Solution
(the liquid phase of soil), water with dissolved

gases, minerals, and organic matter that
reaches the soil after passing through the
atmosphere and percolating through the soil
horizons.
The solution may be in a film, capillary, or
gravitational form, depending on the moisture
content of the soil. It participates in soil
formation, physicochemical and biochemical
reactions, the cycle of matter in soil, and plant
nutrition.
Its composition is determined by soil-forming
processes, vegetation, general climatic
Acid-Base and Ion-exchange
Reactions in soil
The mineral and organic portions of soils both exchange cations. Clay minerals
undergo this process because of the presence of negatively charged sites on the
minerals resulting from the substitution of an atom of lower oxidation number for one
of higher number(e.g.magnesium for aluminum).
Cation exchange in soil is the mechanism by which potassium, calcium,

magnesium, and essential trace-level metals are made available to plants. When
nutrient metal ions are taken up by plant roots, hydrogen ion is exchanged for the
metal ions. This process, plus the leaching of calcium, magnesium, and other metal
ions from the soil by water containing carbonic acid, tends to make the soil
acidic:
Adjustment of Soil Acidity
Soil acidity can be corrected easily by When lime is added to soil, these
liming the soil, or adding basic materials compounds work to increase the soil's pH,
to neutralize the acid present. making soil less acidic and more alkaline.
The most commonly used liming material Even though lime includes calcium and
is agricultural limestone, the most magnesium, which are essential nutrients
economical and relatively easy to manage for healthy plant growth, it's not a
source. substitute for fertilizer.
The limestone is not very water-soluble, Farmers can improve the soil quality of
making it easy to handle. acid soils by liming to adjust pH to the
levels needed by the crop to be grown.
Benefits of liming include increased
nutrient availability, improved soil
structure.
Adjustment of Soil Acidity
Sorption in Soil
Sorption processes in soil is a general
Substances which can be retained by soil
term referring to the retention of material
particles include soil constituents, plant
on solid surfaces - can include adsorption,
nutrients, surfactants, antibiotics and
surface precipitation, and polymerization
toxic environmental pollutants present in
Adsorption reactions in soils are the soil solutions. These may be present as
processes by which solution constituents cations, anions and nonionic molecules.
become attached to the surfaces of soil
particles and are the means of satisfying
the forces of attraction that exists at the
surfaces.
Micronutrients in Soil
Micronutrients are essential elements
Of the 17 elements essential for plant
needed for crop growth that are required
growth, eight are micronutrients: boron
in relatively small quantities.
(B), chlorine (CI), copper (Cu), iron (Fe),
manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), zinc
Even though demands for micronutrients
(Zn) and nickel (Ni).
are small in quantity, these nutrients
directly affect crop growth and
The best long term way to keep your
development.
garden soil rich with the micronutrients it
needs is by adding organic compost.
One of the most important micronutrients
is B, supports the structural and functional
The living things that go into compost —
integrity of plant cell membranes. Boron-
grass clippings, leaves, plants trimmings,
deficiency symptoms first appear at the
table scraps — already contain various
growing points, and certain soil types are
amounts of micronutrients.
more prone to boron deficiencies.
Macronutrient in Soil
Macronutrients are essential for plant Nutrients that plants require in larger
growth and a good overall state of the amounts are called macronutrients. ...
plant. Oxygen is necessary for cellular
respiration; plants use oxygen to store
The primary macronutrients are Nitrogen energy in the form of ATP. Phosphorus (P),
(N), Phosphorus (P), and Potassium (K). another macromolecule, is necessary to
Nitrogen is essential for plant synthesize nucleic acids and
development, since it plays a fundamental phospholipids.
role in energy metabolism and protein
synthesis.
Macronutrients play a very important role

in plant growth and development. Their
functions range from being structural
units to redox-sensitive agents. Generally,
Soil Pollution
Soil pollution refers to anything that causes contamination of soil and
degrades the soil quality. It occurs when the pollutants causing the
pollution reduce the quality of the soil and convert the soil inhabitable
for microorganisms and macro organisms living in the soil.
Soil contamination or soil pollution can occur either because of human

activities or because of natural processes. However, mostly it is due to
human activities. The soil contamination can occur due to the presence
of chemicals such as pesticides, herbicides, ammonia, petroleum
hydrocarbons, lead, nitrate, mercury, naphthalene, etc in an excess
amount.
Soil Pollution
Soil pollution can be natural or due to human activity. However, it mostly
boils down to the activities of the human that causes the majority of soil
pollution such as heavy industries, or pesticides in agriculture.
Common contaminants in urban soils include pesticides, petroleum

products, radon, asbestos, lead, chromated copper arsenate and creosote.
In urban areas, soil contamination is largely caused by human activities
.
Soil Preservation and
Restoration
The Chemistry of
Soil
Engr. Rhona C. Adajar

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The Chemistry of

Soil chemistry is concerned with the chemical

Chemical reactions between the soil solids and the

Soil is a complex material that supports life. It may

Soils are heterogeneous mixtures of air, water,

Soil reactions and processes occur over a wide range

Soil maintains temperatures satisfactory for plant

Organic matter in the soil provides plants with carbon.

Soil is a source of mineral nutrients for many forms of

The solid mineral matter and organic matter

Instead, there are spaces between the solid

Humus enriches the soil with nutrients

If you compare the A horizon to the layers below, you’ll see

The B horizon is an accumulation of mostly fine

The B horizon or subsoil is, due to the leaching, very

Plant roots might reach this layer but the chances

In some soils, the B horizon contains nodules or a

The C horizon, or soil base, includes the

The parent material may be either

There’s almost no clay and minerals in that layer as

The soil particles are already bigger here than in the

Due to plowing , this horizon often is mixed with the

"Pore spaces in soil hold both water

While some soil has only one particle type,

The inorganic material of soil is composed

Sand is a medium to coarse-grained sediment that is

Sand particles range in size from 0.05 millimeters to 2.0

Sand in your garden soil will help promote good drainage

In addition, sand does not contain nutrients that promote

Silt is a fine-grained sediment that you cannot see with

Like sand, silt results from the weathering of rocks and

Silt-rich soil will retain moisture for plant growth, but at

Silt itself does not contain plant nutrients; however,

Humus, a partially decomposed organic matter, is a common form of organics in

When it has fully decomposed it is

(the liquid phase of soil), water with dissolved

Cation exchange in soil is the mechanism by which potassium, calcium,

Macronutrients play a very important role

Soil contamination or soil pollution can occur either because of human

Common contaminants in urban soils include pesticides, petroleum

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