STP 212

THERMODYNAMICS AND
ELECTROMAGNETISM
Lecturers: Mr Ashim I. O. , Mr Azeez J. & Mr Makinde O. S.
 COURSE OUTLINE
 First law of thermodynamics and its applications by Mr
Azeez
 Second law of thermodynamics and its applications by Mr
Azeez
 Magnetic Effect of Current and its applications by Mr
Makinde
 The Concept of electromagnetic induction and its
application by Mr ASHIM
 The principles of A. C. circuits and their application by Mr
ASHIM
Topic:
1. The first law of thermodynamics and its applications.
1.1 Introduction:
Thermodynamics deals with processes which cause energy changes as a result of heat flow to or from a system
and/or of work done on or by a system. A thermodynamic system consists of a fixed mass of mater, often or gas,
separated from its surroundings, perhaps by a cylinder and a piston. Heat engines such as petrol engine, a steam
turbine and a jet engine all contain thermodynamic systems designed to convert heat into mechanical work. Heat
pumps and refrigerators are thermodynamic devices for transferring heat from a cold body to a hotter one.
1.2 First law of thermodynamics:
The first law of thermodynamics is commonly called the law of conservation of energy. A move general form of
conservation of energy includes the effects of heat transfer and internal energy changes. This move general form is
called the first law of thermodynamics.
The first law of thermodynamics was stated for a cycle: the net heat transfer is equal to the net work done for a
system undergoing a cycle or
When a system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle then the net heat transfer is equal to the net work done for a
system undergoing a cycle or
When system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle then the net heat supplied to the system from the surroundings is
equal to the net work done by the system on its surroundings.
ჶdQ = ჶdw
Where ჶ represents the sum over a complete cycle and dQ and dw are respectively
infinitesimal quantity of heat and work done.
The statement above are various forms of the first law of thermodynamics. The first
law cannot be proved analytically, but experimental evidence has repeatedly confirmed
its validity.
Heat supplied to a gas (or a liquid or solid) may (i) raise its internal energy and (ii)
enable it to expand and thereby do external work by pushing back the atmosphere or, if
it is in a cylinder, by moving a piston against a force.
In general, the internal energy of a gas consists of two components.
a. Kinetic energy due to translational and vibrational motion of the molecules, all
of which depend only on the temperature.
b. Potential energy due to the intermolecular, i.e. the volume of the gas.
If dQ is the heat supplied to a mass of gas and if dw is the external work done by it then
the increase of internal energy du equals (dQ – dw) if energy is conserved.
du = dQ – dw
or
dQ = du + dw --- (1)
The equation (I) is the mathematical statement of the first law of thermodynamics and
1.3 Thermodynamic processes
(a) Isothermal Change
Isothermal changes refer to changes of pressure and volume of a
gas which occurs at constant temperature. In an isothermal
change heat is extracted from the system or supplied to it as the
pressure and volume vary at such a rate that the temperature
remains constant.
For a gas that approximates an ideal gas, the internal energy
depends only on the temperature and thus du = o for an
isothermal process; for such a process
dQ = du + dw (du = o)
dQ = dw
This means that increase in the quantity of heat energy to the system
increases the work done by the system. For an ideal gas, pv = a constant
for a constant temperature. Plotting the pressure of the gas against volume
for different temperatures give series of curves called isotherms, as shown
Fig 1.1: Isothermal Change
 (b) Adiabatic Change

An adiabatic change refers to the change in volume and temperature of a gas such
that there is no heat exchange between the gas and its surroundings. That is no
heat enters or leaves the gas so dQ = 0. Using first equation (I)
dQ = du + dw
0 = du + dw
or
du = - dw
This means that the change in internal energy of the system decreases, then work
is done by the system and this causes a drop in temperature, but when the internal
energy change increase, then work is done on the system and this causes a
temperature rise. Examples of processes for which there is no, or negligibly small,
Heat transfer, e.g. the compression of air in an automobile engine.
When a graph of pressure P is plotted against volume V, pv curves are obtained
which are steeper than the isotherms as shown in the figure below. The
relationship between P and V is of the form PV૪ = a constant where is a constant
for the gas.
 (d). Isobaric Process

Isobaric process is one in which the pressure remains constant, and of

the heat received by the gas, some becomes internal energy as the
temperature rises from T1 to T2; the rest is used to do work. Hence the
equation of the first law of thermodynamics
dQ = du + dw
Becomes cp dT = csdT + dw
where dQ = cpdt
And du = csdT and cp and cv are respectively molar specific
capacities and constant and volume.
The p-V curve for an isobaric process is shown in the figure 1.4:
dw = p(v2-v1)
∴ cpdT = cvdT + P(v2-v1)
 1.4 Work done by an expanding gas

Consider a mass of gas enclosed in a cylinder by a friction less piston

of cross section area A which is in equilibrium under the action of an
external force F acting to the left and a force due the pressure P of the
gas acting to the right as shown in the figure 1.5:
Since the pressure P = F/A where F = Force and A = area normal to
force. Consider the situation where the gas expand moving the piston
outwards through a distance dx which is so small that P remains
practically constant during the expansion. The external work done
dw by the gas against F will be
dw = F dx = PA dx
But Adx = dV, the change in volume of the gas
dw = Pdv
The total work done in w in a finite expansion from V1 to V2 is given

∫dw = ∫Pdv
by the continuous summation of dw, ie

W = ∫P dv
Work done by the gas on expanding is taken as positive, where as
when a gas is compressed, work is done on it. This work is negative.
 1.5 Work done on a gas during an isothermal process
Suppose a unit of gas undergoes an isothermal change from a volume V 1 to a
volume V2 at a constant pressure. Then the total work done by the gas W is equal to
the area under the p-v curve, and is given by
W = ∫Pdv
But PV = RT or P = RT/V
Substituting for P in the above expression for W, we get
W = ∫RT/V dv
= RT∫dv/V
= RT {log V}
= RT {logV2- logV1}
= RT log { V2/V1} for one mole of the gas
Also P1 V1 = P2 V2
V2 / V1 = P2 /P1
∴ W = RT log {V2 / V1 } = RT log {P2 /P1}
 1.6 Work done in an adiabatic process
The work done for a reversible adiabatic process is given by
W = ∫P dv --- (1)
Where the pressure and volume are related by the expression
PV૪ = constant --- (2)
where ૪ = CP/ CV, the ratio of the molar heat capacity at constant
pressure to that at constant volume.
from (2) P = C/ V૪ substituting in (1)
w = ∫C/V૪ dv = ∫C V-૪ dV = C {V-૪ + 1}
Substituting the upper and lower units, we arrived at
W = C { V-1-2 – V11-૪ } /1 ૪ 1- ૪
= C { V2 .V ૪ 2 – V1.-૪ } /1- ૪ , the constant C can be written as P2V2 ૪.
Hence, W = {P2 V2 ૪. V2 ૪ – P1 V1 V1-૪}/ 1 - ૪
W = {P2 V2 - P1 V1}1 – ૪
or since {RT2 - RT1}/ {1 – ૪} = {R (T2 - T2 )}/{1 – ૪},m,
 2 The second law of thermodynamics and its application.
2.1: Equation of state of an ideal gas
Experimental evidence provide the following information above an ideal gas.
First, when the gas in kept at a constant temperature its pressure is inversely
proportional to the volume (Boyeles law).
Second, when the pressure of the gas is kept constant, the volume is directly
proportional to the temperature (the law of Charles and Gay-Lussas).
These observations can be summarized by the following equation of state for an
ideal gas.
PV = nRT
In this experiment, called the ideal gas law, R is a constant for a specific gas that
can be determined from experiments, and T is the temperature in Kelvin.
Experiments on several gases show that, as the pressure approaches zero, the
quantity PV/nT approaches the same value of R for all gasses. For this reason R is
called the universal gas constant. R has a value equal to 8.13 Jmol-1 k-1
 2.2: Internal Energy of a Gas
The internal energy U of a substance is defined as the sum of the kinetic and
potential energy of its molecules. We do not include any k.e, (or p.e) which the gas
as a whole might have, through being in a container which is moving, or because of
the position of the gas container. In the case of the ideal gas of our simple kinetic
theory U is simply calculated as the number of molecule multiplied by their mean
translational k.e.
U = N (3/2 k T )
= 3/2nRT
If we heat the gas while its volume remains constant, the energy transferred by
heating DQ is equal to the gain in internal energy of the gas DU since no work is
done if there is no volume change. Therefore.
DQ = DU = 3/2nRdT
The above expression means that the internal energy of an ideal gas depends on the
absolute temperature
 2.3: Reversible Process
A process is reversible if at all stages its direction can be reversed by an
infinitesimally small change in direction of the supply of energy. That is a
reversible process is one in which every state between the initial and final states is
an equilibrium state. And that can be reversed in order to be followed exactly from
the final state back to the initial state of pressure, volume and temperature.
2.4: Irreversible Process
An irreversible process is one in which every state between the initial and final
states is not in equilibrium state, and can not be reversed from the final state to the
initial state. If any of the following features are observed in a process, it is
irreversible:
i. Frictional or viscous forces which convert mechanical energy into internal energy.
ii. Spontaneous changes, which must imply non equilibrium situations; these include.
1. Any heating process, i.e energy transfer because of finite temperature
differences
2. Processes in which bodies accelerate, as a result of unbalanced forces.
 2.5: Examples of Reversible Processes
An isothermal process is a reversible process. If we do work DW on some gas, and its
temperature and internal energy do not change, it heats its surroundings by an amount
DQ (= DW) at any stage this process can be reversed: If the surrounding heat the
gas, the gas does an amount of work on the surroundings.
An adiabatic process, also can be reversible. Now we need the material of the
containing cylinder to be a perfect thermal insulator: If we compress the gas, its
temperature will rise. This does not its matter, provided the temperature difference
between the gas and its surrounding does not energy to flow. If we do work DW on
the gas, its internal energy will increase by an amount DU (DU = DW), and any stage
this process can be reversed: the increased pressure of the gas can push the piston
back in the opposite direction.
So to obtain good approximations, in practice to reversibility, both isothermal and
adiabatic processes have to be performed slowly compared with the speeds of the
molecules.
 2.6: Heat Engines
The term heat engine include-internal combustion engines, steam engines, the
turbines that generate electricity in power stations, refrigerators. All heat engines
have a working substance. All heat engines must perform a cyclic process, i.e, they
must be able to repeat their operation for any number of cycles. The working
substance must therefore be returned to its original state at the end of each cycle.
In all heat engines the working substance is heated usually by contact with a source
which we call the hot reservoir, but sometimes through a direct injection of energy,
an in internal combustion engine; the working substance then expands and does
work. Most heat engines therefore convert internal energy into mechanical energy
(through some, e.g the refrigerator, reverse this process). The principle of a heat
engine therefore is to extract useful mechanical work from a machine and to replace
the energy lost by heating the machine. In this way certain amount of heat can be
converted into work.
 1st law of thermodynamics Q1 = W + Q2
2nd law of thermodynamics Q2 >0
Fig. 2.1: Principle of heat engine
Energy is extracted as heat from a high temperature reservoir = a source of energy
with a very thermal capacity so that a great dead of energy can be extracted without
changing the temperature noticeable – and some of it is converted into useful work.
The remaining energy is dumped into a low temperature reservoir.
The first law of thermodynamics implies that the amount of work done by the
engine cannot be greater than the heat drawn in from the hot reservoir. The second
law requires that the engines cannot be 100% efficient – which is the same as
saying that some energy must be dumped into the low – temperature reservoir.
 2.7: Carnot’s Ideal Heat Engine

The French scientist Carnot took the first steps towards developing a scientific
theory heat engines. He imagined an ideal engine, not of any particular type, but
free from all imperfections such as friction, in which the working substance was
taken reversible through a cycle (called the Carnot cycle) consisting of two
Isothermal and two adiabatic processes as shown in the P-V graph Fig. 2.2.

Fig. 2.2: Principle of heat engine

Along AB the substance expands isothermally heat Q1 from a source
at temperature T1 and doing external work. Along BC, there is an
adiabatic expansion, more work is done by it and the temperature
ultimately falls to T2 . CD represents an isothermal compression
during which work is done on the substance and heat is rejected to a
sink at a temperature T2. Finally along DA adiabatic compression
occurs and more work is done on the substance. The net external
work W done by the substance during the cycle equals (Q1 – Q2) and
the efficiency of the engines. External work done in one cycle/ Heat
received from source = W/ Q1 = (Q1 – Q2 )/Q1. It can be shown that,
using an ideal gas as the working substance, a heat engine working in
a Carnot cycle obeys the relation. (Q1 – Q2 )/Q1 = (T1 – T2 )/T1
Where T1 and T2 are the temperature of source sink respectively.
Hence, Efficiency = (Q1 – Q2 )/Q1 =1 – Q2/ Q1 = (T1 – T2 )/T1 = 1–Q2/Q1
 Magnetic effect of current
An electric current can also produce magnetic effect. The term
‘magnetic effect of current’ mean that ‘a current flowing in a wire
produces a magnetic field around it’. In other words, electric current
can produce magnetism. The magnetic effect of current was
discovered by Oersted in 1820. Oersted found that a wire carrying a
current was able to deflect a compass needle. Now, the compass
needle is a tiny magnet which can be deflected only by a magnet field.
Since a current carrying wire was able to deflect a compass needle, it
was concluded that a current flowing in a wire always rise to a
magnetic field around it. The importance of magnetic effects of
current lies in the fact that it gives rise to mechanical forces. The
electric motor, electric generator, telephone and radio, all utilize the
magnetic effects of current. The magnetic effects of current is also
called electromagnetism which means electricity produces
magnetism.
The magnetic field lines around a straight conductor (straight wire)
carrying current are concentric circles whose centre lie on the wire.
When current in the wire flows in the upward direction, then the lines
of magnetic field are in the anticlockwise direction fig.1.0 (b). If the
direction of current in the wire is reversed fig.1.0 (a), the direction of
magnetic field lines also gets reversed.

(a) (b)
Figure 1.0 A simple electric circuit in which a straight copper wire is
placed parallel to and over a compass needle. The deflection in the
needle becomes opposite when the direction of the current is reversed.
Current carrying conductors and cardboard iron fillings
(1) Connect the copper wire vertically between the two points, as
shown in Fig. 2.0, in series with the battery, a plug and key.
(2) Sprinkle some iron filings uniformly on the cardboard. (3) Keep
the variable of the rheostat at a fixed position and note the current
through the ammeter.
(4) Close the key so that a current
flows through the wire. Ensure that
the copper wire placed between the
two points remains vertically
straight.
(5) Gently tap the cardboard a few
times. Observe the pattern of the
iron filings. You would find that the
iron filings align themselves Fig 2.0 Iron filling expt.
showing a pattern of concentric (Magnetic Effects of Currents)
circles around the copper wire.
Magnetic field flux density
Magnetic fux density, B, is the force, F, per unit length, , per unit
current, I, on a current carrying conductor at right angles to the
magnetic feld. It is otherwise known as the magnetic field strength.
The unit of measurement is the tesla (T)
……………..(1)
Therefore, force acting on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic
field is represented by eq. 1 ()
Examples
(1) Calculate the force per centimetre length of a straight wire placed
at right angles to a uniform magnetic field of magnetic flux density
0.12 T and carrying a current of 3.5 A.
Solution: According to eq.(1) F  BIl
F  0.12  3.5  0.01 (length  1.0 cm)
F  4.2  10–3 N
(2) A 4.0 cm long conductor carrying a current of 3.0 A is placed
in a uniform magnetic field of flux density 50 mT. In each of a, b and
c below, determine the size of the force acting on the conductor.
 Fig.3.0 (a) (b) (c)
Solution:
a F  BIl sin θ
F  0.050  3.0  0.04  sin 90°
F  6.0  10–3 N
b F  0.050  3.0  0.04  sin 30°
F  3.0  10–3 N
c F  0.050  3.0  0.04  sin 65°
F  5.44  10–3 N
5.4  10–3 N
 Expression for the force on a charged particle moving in a
magnetic field
When a moving charge enters a magnetic field such that field lines
are crossed, the charge finds itself under a force perpendicular to the
direction of motion that gives it a circular motion. If a charge enters
a field such that its motion direction is parallel to the field lines and
no field line is crossed, then the charge will not be affected by the
field and keeps going straight.
There is a relationship between the electric field and the force that a
charged particle felt is given in eq. 2.
F = qE …………………….(2)
Similarly, there is a relationship between a magnetic field and the
force a charged particle feels is given in eq. 3.
F= qvB ……………………(3)
where: F = force, q = charge on the particle, v = velocity, B = flux
density
If the downward field vector is (B), and the charge velocity crossing
the magnetic field to the right and at right angle is (v), the magnitude
of force (F) initially pushing the moving charge toward the board is
given by Fig.4.0 (b) : F = q v B.

If charge (q) is making an

angle θ with the magnetic field
lines, then (F) will have a
smaller value given by
Fig. 4.0 (b) : F = q v B sin θ.
Fig 4.0 (a) (b)

The unit for B is expressed in Tesla (T).

If (F) is in Newtons, (v) in m/s, and (q) in Coulombs, then, (B) will be
in Tesla.
One Tesla of magnetic field strength is the strength that can exert a
force of 1N on 1Coul. of electric charge that is moving at a speed of
1 m/s perpendicular to the magnetic field lines.
Example 1: A 14-μC charge enters from the left through a 65° angle
with respect to a downward magnetic field of strength 0.030 Tesla at a
speed of 1.8x105 m/s. Find the magnitude and direction of the initial
force on it as soon as it crosses a field line. Refer to Fig.1.

Solution: Referring to Fig. 1, it is clear that the charge will initially be

pushed toward the board. The magnitude of this initial push is
F = q v Bsin θ ; F = ( 14-μC )( 1.8x105 m/s)( 0.030 T) sin (65° )
= 0.069N.

Example 2: An electron enters a 0.013-T magnetic field normal to its

field lines and experiences a 3.8x10-15N force. Determine its speed.

Solution: F = q v B ; v = (F / qB) = ( 3.8x10-15N) / [(1.6x10-19C)

(0.013T)] = 1.8x106 m/s
 Cyclotron
Cyclotron is a device that accelerates charged particles for nuclear
experiments. A typical cyclotron (fig. 5.0) works on the basis of the
motion of charged particles in magnetic fields. When a particle of
mass M and charge q moving at velocity v is caught in a magnetic field
B, as we know, it takes a circular path of radius R given by
R = Mv / (qB) .

Fig. 5.0: A typical cyclotron

Period of Rotation
Period (T), the time it takes for a charged particle to travel one circle or
2πR, can be calculated. From the definition of speed
v = 2πR / T, solving for T yields:
T = 2πR / v (*)
v may be found from the formula for radius of rotation
R = Mv /(qB). This yields: v = qBR / M. Substituting for v in (*),
yields:
T = 2πM / (qB)

Example 1: In a cyclotron, protons are to be accelerated. The strength

of the magnetic field is 0.024 Tesla. (a) Find the period of rotation of
the protons, (b) their frequency, (c) their final speed if the final radius
before hitting the target is 2.0m, and (d) their K.E. in Joules and eVs.
Solution: (a) T = 2πM / (qB) ; T = (2π x 1.672x10-27kg) / (1.6x10-19C)
(0.024T) = 2.7x10-6 s
(b) f = 1 / T ; f = 3.7x105 s-1 or f = 3.7x105 Hz.
(c) v = Rω ; v = R (2πf) ; v = (2.0m)(2π)(3.7x105s-1)
= 4.6x106 m/s
This speed (although very high) is still small enough compared to the
light speed ( 3.00x108 m/s ) that the relativistic effects can still be
neglected.
(d) K.E. = (1/2)Mv2 ; K.E. = (1/2)(1.672x10-27kg)(4.6x106m/s)2
= 1.8x10-14 J
K.E. = 1.8x10-14 J ( 1 eV / 1.6x10-19 J)
= 110,000eV = 110KeV = 0.11 MeV
 Mass Spectrometer
A sample is incinerated and ionised. The appropriately charged
particles (in this case negative) enter a field of known size. The voltage
is more, so the velocity can be worked out. The smaller charged
particle will be deflected more, or the one with the greater charge
(F = BqV). [This depends on the mass/charge ratio, deflecting more
charged, faster moving
and lighter ions more].
A detector is calibrated
so it knows the radius
– because it registers
where it is hit.
mvr =Bq.
Fig. 6.0: Mass Spectrometer.
So the mass can be calculated, and the element identified.
This is used by forensic scientists (e.g. Soil on suspects shoes matches
with soil at scene of crime) and by rovers investigating what other
planets are made up of etc.
Sometime another magnetic field is placed in the same region as the
electric field and perpendicular to the electric field. When the
particles go straight through that is because the electric force is
balanced by the magnetic force, so that q v B = q E
A television works using the same principle as a mass spectrometer.
A potential difference accelerates the electrons, and a magnetic field
bends them to hit different luminous regions on the screen. There are
two parts to a problem like this. (1) Accelerate the electrons across a
potential difference (like a capacitor). (2) bend them in a magnetic
field.
Example 1: A proton ( q = 1.6x10-19C, M = 1.67x10-27kg) is captured
in a 0.107-T magnetic field an spins along a circle of radius 4.5 cm.
Find its speed knowing that it moves perpendicular to the field lines.
Solution: R = (Mv) / (qB) ; solving for v: v = rqB / M ;
v = (0.045m)(1.6x10-19C )(0.107T) / 1.67x10-27kg
= 4.6x105 m/s
 Magnetic Field around a current carrying wire (fig. 7.0)
The field lines are denser near the wire. Where the field lines are
denser, the magnetic field is stronger. The magnitude is given by the
formula

I is the current in the wire. mo is the permeability

of free space. r is the distance from the wire.
B is the magnetic field.
Where
Fig 7.0
 Forces of attraction and repulsion between two parallel current
carrying conductors (fig.8.0).
The magnitude of F12 is: F12 = I2ℓ2B1 (1)
[where F12 is the force of B1 on I2 directed toward wire 1 (fig.8.0)]
The magnitude of F21 is: F21 = I1ℓ1B2 (2)
(where F21 is the force of B2 on I1
directed toward wire 2 as shown in
fig.8.0).
Since the two forces are toward each
other, the wires attract each other.
For opposite currents they repel.
Since B1 = μoI1/(2πd), and
B2 = μoI2/(2πd), (1) and (2)
F12 = μoI1I2ℓ2 /(2πd) and
F21 = μoI1I2ℓ1 /(2πd) or, in general,
force per unit length on each wire
becomes: F ℓ = μ I I (2πd) (3) Fig.8.0
 Ampere
Definition: If two infinite and parallel wires that are 1m apart carry the
same current and exert a force of 2x10-7N on every meter of each other,
the current in each is 1 Amp.
Current balance
The current balance is designed to measure the magnetic forces
between currents. It is fitted with a balanced array of thin metal rods
that serve as conducting wires. When connected to a power source,
current travels through the rods in a continuous path. One arm of the
circuit is balanced on knife-edge supports by counterweights. The
other arm is fixed in place. The path is arranged so that the upper arm
passes above and parallel to the fixed arm. By adjusting the
counterweights and balancing the system with known masses, we can
measure the magnitude of the magnetic forces between them.
 Behaviour of a current carrying coil in magnetic field.
The Motor Effect
When a current passes along a wire in a magnetic feld, a force
is exerted on the wire. This is called the motor effect. The force
on the wire depends on:
• The current in the wire and its direction
• Strength of the magnet
• Length of the wire
• Angle of the wire/current relative to the magnetic field
Lines
Principle and Working of Electric Motor
An electric motor is a device which converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy. A common motor works on direct current is called
DC motor.
When a rectangular coil carrying current is placed in a magnetic field,
a torque acts on the coil which rotates it continuously. When the coil
rotates, the shaft attached to it also rotates and thus it is able to do
mechanical work.
 Galvanometers
Galvanometers are instruments which are intended primarily to
indicate the existence of a current – steady or transient, in a circuit.
These may be capable of measuring the current, only under certain
circumstances, when calibrated.
The construction of galvanometers is based on the interaction between
coils carrying current and magnets. These may be in general divided
into two types as given below according to as the moving part is a
magnet or a coil.
Moving-magnet galvanometer: In this type of galvanometer, the
current is passed through a fixed coil which produces a magnetic field
under which a magnet moves.
Moving coil galvanometer: A galvanometer in which a current
carrying coil is placed in a magnetic field and is subject to a force, the
direction of which is normal both to the direction of current and the
direction of magnetic field. This leads to the motion of the coil.
Ballistic galvanometer (B.G.): A galvanometer in which an impulse
is applied to the coil of the galvanometer due to the passage of a
transient current or charge and the subsequent motion of the coil is
used to determine the magnitude of the impulse, and, hence the
quantity of charge to be measured.

Moving-iron galvanometer: Moving-iron instruments are generally

used to measure alternating voltages and currents. In moving-iron
instruments the movable system consists of one or more pieces of
specially-shaped soft iron, which are so pivoted as to be acted upon
by the magnetic field produced by the current in coil.
Advantages
The instruments are suitable for use in AC and DC circuits.
The instruments are robust, owing to the simple construction of the
moving parts.
The stationary parts of the instruments are also simple.
Instrument is low cost compared to moving coil instrument.
Torque/weight ratio is high, thus less frictional error.
ELECTRIC FIELD

Electric field is a space surrounding a charge in which some force is

experienced. The field is considered to have something called electric flux
which is the product of electric field strength and area normal to it.
There are two types of charges which are Positive and negative charges.
They both constitutes what we referred to as an electron. The positive
charge is the proton while the negative is the electron.
Like Charges repel while unlike charges attract. All this have been
experimentally verified.
ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

POSITIVE CHARGE NEGATIVE CHARGE

LIKE AND UNLIKE CHARGES
Like Charges Unlike Charges
ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY
 The electric field intensity is defined as the force per unit charge. It is
denoted by E.

Where F = electric force and q = electric charge.

The electric field intensity or field is measured in NC-1 or Vm-1
The electric force F is given by the coulomb’s law which states that the
force of attraction or repulsion between the two electrically charged
particles is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of two
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
two charges.
ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY
(Contd
Where F = force 1)
of attraction or repulsion between the charges
q1q2 = magnitudes of charge 1 & 2
r = distance between two charges
k = constant whose value depends on medium in which charges
are placed.
but where;

Therefore: in a vacuum
in a medium
ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY
(Contd
Example 1; 2)
In the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, an electron (q = -e) cicles a proton
(q1 = e) in an orbit of radius The attraction of the proton for the electron
furnishes the centripetal force needed to hold the electron in orbit. Find (a) the
force of electrical attraction between the particles and (b)) the electrons speed.
(Electron mass = )
Solution:

(a) The force found in (a) is the centripetal force, hence;

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Magnetism could be produced from electricity which was discovered by
Oersted. The reverse effect of production of electricity by magnetism is
known as electromagnetic induction discovered by Michael Faraday in
1882. It was observed by faraday that an electromotive force is induced in
a circuit whenever there is a change in the magnetic flux linked with a
circuit. Faraday’s experimental set up below depicts the proof of
electromagnetic induction.
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
(contd
The deflection of1)
the galvanometer as shown in the diagram above
depends on whether the magnet’s North and South pole is moving towards
or away from the coil. Also the same effect is observed if the magnet is
stationary and the coil is moved towards or away from it.
The galvanometer shows no deflection when the magnet and coil are
stationary. This implies that there is an induced current when there is
relative motion between the magnet and the coil. Faraday found that there
is an induced emf whenever there is a change in the magnetic flux linked
with the coil.
The magnitude of this induced current is increased by;
i. The high magnetic strength of the magnet.
ii. The large number of turns in the coil.
iii. The large area of the coil.
iv. The speed with which the magnet is moved to and from the end of the
coil or with which the coil is turned if the magnet is stationary.
v. By the use of a very soft iron placed inside the coil as a core.
LAWS of ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION
There are two laws governing electromagnetic induction;
i. Faraday’s law
ii. Lenz’s law
The Faraday’s law states that when the magnetic flux reaching a circuit is
changing an e.m.f. is induced in the circuit and the magnitude of the
induced e.m.f is directly proportional to the time rate of change of the
magnetic flux lining the circuit.

Where E = emf, d = magnetic flux, t = time, N = number of turns and

, (A = area of coil, B = magnetic induction and is the angle between the
normal to the area and the magnetic field)
LENZ’S LAW
Lenz’s law states that the direction of the induced current flows in such a
direction as to oppose the source giving rise to it.
APPLICATION OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Eletric generator(AC Dynamo) are machines that converts mechanical
energy to electrical energy. It is essentially made up of a parameter magnet,
rectangular coil or armature, slip rings and carbon brushes. It’s a simple
generator that produces an ac voltage as shown in figure (a). Thus, the work
required to rotate the coil is the source of the electrical energy supplied by
the generator. Therefore, for any generator,
(Input mechanical energy) = (Output electrical energy) + (Friction and heat
loss)
Also, the wires of the coil cut the field lines, and an emf

Where N is the number of loops on the coil

f is the frequency of its rotation
SIMPLE ELECTRIC GENERATOR
APPLICATION OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
(Contd 1)
Electric motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. A simple DC
motor (It runs on a constant voltage) is shown in figure (c). The current through
the armature coil interacts with the magnetic field to cause a torque.

Where is the angle between the field lines and the perpendicular to the plane of
the coil
I is the current.
Net P.D scross armature = (Line voltage) – (back emf)
Armature current =

Mechanical Power (P) = (armature current)(back emf)

SIMPLE ELECTRIC MOTOR

𝐹𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒(𝑐 )
APPLICATION OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
(Contd
Example:
2)
How fast must a 1000 loop coil (each with 20cm2 area) turn in the earths
magnetic field of 0.70G to generate a voltage that has a maximum
value(i.e an amplitude) of 0.50V? Assuming T.
Solution;

Because has a maximum of value of unity, the amplitude of the voltage is .

Therefore;
SELF INDUCTANCE
Any circuit in which there is varying current has induced in it an emf, because of the
variation in its own magnetic field. Such an emf is called a self-induced
electromotive force. Suppose a circuit has N turns of wire and that a flux passes
through each turn, the number of flux linkages (N) per unit current is called the self
inductance L of the circuit.

The self inductance L of a circuit depends on its

(a) size
(b) (b) shape
(c) (c) number of turns
(d) (d) magnetic properties of the material in which the magnetic field exists.
Self inductance of a coil is also defined as the self induced emf per unit time rate of
change of current.

L is measured in Henry, which is defined as the inductance of a coil in which an emf

of 1volts is induced when a current changes at the rate of 1 ampere per second
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
 When two coils are linked, the changing current in one-coil induces an
emf in the second coil. This is called mutual inductance M. The emf
induced in coil b, Eb by changing current in coil is given as:

If LA and LB are the self-inductances of coil A and B respectively then

The mutual induction of current between two circuits will occur in all cases
where the current in any coil or even single wire is changed and a
secondary coil or closed single wire is always present in the neighbourhood.
The effect is always present though it will only be significant if coils of
several turns which are close together are used especially if they are linked
by ferromagnetic core.
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE (Contd 1)
If IA is the current flowing in the primary circuit, the number of magnetic
flux lines linked with the secondary is mean, where M depends on the
geometry of the system.
If any ferromagnetic material is used, the latter greatly increase M an then
the flux linkage is not necessarily proportional to the current IA
M is the same irrespective of which of the two coils is considered to be
primary, i.e flux linkage in coil B due to current IA in coil A is the same as
the flux linkage in A due to the same current in coil B.
M is called mutual inductance or coefficient of mutual inductance.

Mutual inductance is defined as the ration of induced emf to the time rate
of change of current in a coil.
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE (Contd 2)

𝐹𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒 ( 𝑑 ) 𝑀𝐽𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠

TRANSFORMER
A transformer is an electric instrument used to step up or step down ac
voltages. It consists of two coils of insulated wire wound on a primary coil,
which is greater in turns than those in the secondary, for a step down
transformer and for a step up transformer, the number of turns in the
secondary coil is greater than in the primary coil. The figure shown below
represent schematic diagram of a step up and step down transformer
If the primary coil is connected to a source there will be flux around it. This
changing magnetic flux is linked to the secondary coil and gives rise to
induced emf in the coil which is proportional to the number of turns in the
coil.

For an ideal transformer, input power = output power

OR

Where is called the turn ratio.

TRANSFORMER (Contd 1)

Fundamentals of a basic transformer

TRANSFORMER LOSSES & USES
i. Copper or heat loss:- Energy is lost in the form of heat. This is reduced by using
copper for the winding and choices of the diameter are taken into consideration.
ii. Hysteresis loss:- This happens in the transformer core, since the core is taken
through a cycle of magnetization during each ac cycle. The loss is dependent on the
area of the hysteresis loop. This loss is reduced by using an alloy of silicon and iron for
core laminations so that a very small area of hysteresis loop is obtained. Large area of
coil is used.
iii. Eddy current loss:- Magnetic flux induces current in the core, referred to as eddy
currents, thereby heating up the core. This loss is minimized by increasing the
resistance of the core by the lamination of the iron core.
iv. Magnetic leakage:- The magnetic flux produced by the current in the cores is not
confined to the laminated parts and as such, there is magnetic leakage, which
increases with the current in the coil and load on the transformer. It is reduced by
efficient core design.
USES OF TRANSFORMER
i. Used in stepping up or down an alternating voltage.
ii. Used in electronic circuit in high fidelity sound production.
iii. Used with ignition coils.
iv. Used in very large transmissions of alternating voltages or currents
ALTERNATING CIRCUITS(AC)
An alternating current produced by a typical generator has a graph much
like that for a voltage shown in figure (f). Its instantaneous value is I and its
amplitude is io.
ALTERNATING CIRCUITS(AC)
(Contd 1)
The induced electromotive force is found to be of the form

Where; E is the instantaneous electromotive force

is the maximum of peak electromotive force

However, the all general expression for alternating current and voltage are;

Where; I = instantaneous current

= peak or maximum current
= Phase angle
E = instantaneous electromotive force
= peak or maximum emf
= angular speed related to frequency of alteration by
ALTERNATING CIRCUITS(AC)
(Contd
Root 2)
Mean Square (r.m.s) Values
The values of an alternating current (and emf) varies from one instant to
the next and the problem arises of what value we should take to measure
it. But the average value over a complete cycle is zero. Hence, root mean
square values of current and voltage are used in AC circuits.

Example; A voltage is applied across a 20.0Ω resistor. What will an AC

ammeter in series with resistor rea?
Solution:
Rms voltage across the resistor is
Hence;
FORMS OF OHM’S LAW IN AC
CIRCUIT
Suppose that sinusoidal current of frequency f with rms value I flow through
a pure resistor R, or a pure inductor L, or a pure capacitor C. Then an ac
voltmeter placed across the element in question will read an rms voltage V
as follows;
 FOR PURE RESISTOR:
 FOR PURE INDUCTOR:
Where is called the inductive reactance. Its unit is ohms when L is in
henries and f is in hertz
 FOR PURE CAPACITOR:
Where is called the capacitive reactance. Its unit is ohms when C is in
farads.
PHASE ANGLE
When an AC voltage is applied to pure resistance, the voltage across the
resistance and the current through it attain their maximum values at the
same instant and their zero values at the same instant : the voltage and
current are said to be in-phase.
When an ac voltage is applied to a pure inductance, the voltage across the
inductance reaches its maximum value one-quarter cycle ahead of the
current, i.e when the current is zero. The back emf of the inductance
causes the current through the inductance to lag behind the voltage by
one-quarter cycle(90o), and the two are 90o out-of-phase
When an ac voltage is applied to a pure capacitor, the voltage across it lags
90o behind the current flowing through it. Current must flow before the
voltage across(and charge on) the capacitor can build up. Un a more
complicated situations involving combinations of R, L, and C, the voltage
and current are usually (but not always) out-of-phase. The angle by which
the voltage lags or lead the current is called phase angle.
IMPEDANCE AND PHASORS
The Impedance(Z) of a series circuit containing resistance, inductance
and capacitance is given by
with Z in ohms but if a voltage is applied to such a series circuit, then a
form of Ohm’s Law relates V to the current I through it;

The Phase angle between V and I is given by

Phasors is a quantity that behaves, in many regards, like a vector. Phasors

are used to describe series RLC circuits because the above expression for
the impedance can be associated with the Pythagorean theorem for a right
angle triangle.
A similar relation applies to the voltages across the elements in the series
circuit. As shown in Figure (g)
IMPEDANCE AND PHASORS Contd
(1)

𝐹𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒( 𝑔)
RESONANCE and POWERLOSS
It occurs in a series R-L-C circuit when XL = XC. Under this condition Z = R
is minimum so that I is maximum for a given value of V. Equating XL to XC,
we find for the resonant (or natural) frequency of the circuit.

Suppose an AC voltage V is impressed across an impedance of any type. It

gives rise to a current I through the impedance, and the phase angle
between V and I is . The power loss in the impedance is given by;

Where quantity cos is called the power factor. It is unity for a pure resistor.
But it is zero for a pure inductor or capacitor (no power loss occurs in a
pure inductor or capacitor).
 EXAMPLES AND SOLUTIONS
1

2
THANK YOU