Heat engines

Heat engine is an engineering system that transforms heat into work. It is

characterized by:

1- It receives heat from a high-temperature source

(solar energy, oil furnace, nuclear reactor, etc.).
2- It converts part of this heat to work (usually in the
form of a rotating shaft).
3- It rejects the remaining waste heat to a low-
temperature sink (the atmosphere, rivers, etc.).
4- It operates on a cycle.

Heat engines involve a fluid which performs a cycle. This fluid is called
the working fluid.

The good example of the heat

engine is the steam power plant.
The various quantities shown
on this figure are as follows:
Qin = amount of heat supplied to
steam in boiler from a
high-temperature source
(furnace)
Qout = amount of heat rejected
from steam in condenser
to a low temperature sink
 (the atmosphere, a river, etc.). It is the rejected heat required to
complete the cycle.
Wout = amount of work delivered by steam as it expands in turbine
Win = amount of work required to compress water to boiler pressure

The net -work output of this power plant is simply the difference between
the total work output of the plant and the total work input:
Wnet = Wout - Win

The net-work, Wnet, can also be determined from the heat transfer data
(energy balance of the cycle) alone as follow:

The system as a whole can be analyzed as a closed system. Recall that for
a closed system undergoing a cycle, the change in internal energy U is
zero, and therefore the net-work output of the system is also equal to the
net heat transfer to the system:
Qnet – Wnet= Ucycle
(Qin - Qout) - Wne t= U=0
Wnet = Qin - Qout
Performance of Heat Engine

The performance of any device is the ratio of the desired output of this
device to the required input,

𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

If we apply this measure on the heat engine, it is called thermal

efficiency.

Thermal Efficiency of the heat engine:

For heat engine:
The desired output is the net-work, Wnet.
The required input is QH.
The ratio between them is a measure of the performance of
a heat engine and is called the thermal efficiency th.
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
th=
𝑄𝐻

Also, it can be expressed as:

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑄𝐻 −𝑄𝐿 𝑄𝐿
th= = =1−
𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐻
The Second Law of Thermodynamics:

Kelvin–Planck Statement

We have demonstrated that, even under ideal conditions, a heat engine

must reject some heat to a low-temperature reservoir in order to complete
the cycle. That is, no heat engine can convert all the heat it receives to
useful work. This limitation on the thermal efficiency of heat engines
forms the basis for the Kelvin–Planck statement of the second law of
thermodynamics, which is expressed as follows:

It is impossible for any device that operates on a

cycle to receive heat from a single reservoir and
produce a net amount of work.

That is, a heat engine must exchange heat with a low-

temperature sink as well as a high-temperature source
A heat engine that violates
to keep operating.
Kelvin–Planck statement
The Kelvin–Planck statement can also be expressed as:

No heat engine can have a thermal efficiency of

100 percent.

Note that the impossibility of having a 100 percent

efficient heat engine is not due to friction or other
dissipative effects. It is a limitation that applies to
both the idealized and the actual heat engines.

A heat engine that satisfies Kelvin–Planck

statement, is as shown, 𝑸𝑳 ≠ 𝟎 th< 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
Irreversibilities

The factors that cause a process to be irreversible (the process can not be
reversed without leaving any effect on surrounding) are called
irreversibilities. They include friction fast expansion and compression,
mixing of two fluids (especially gases), heat transfer across a finite
temperature difference, inelastic deformation of solids, and chemical
reactions. A reversible process (the process can be reversed without
leaving any effect on surrounding) involves none of these factors.

A process is called internally reversible if no irreversibilities occur

within the boundaries of the system during the process; process without
friction.

A process is called externally reversible if no irreversibilities occur

outside the system boundaries during the process; heat transfer between
a system and its surrounding is due to temperature difference is dT.

A process is called totally reversible, or simply reversible, if it involves

no irreversibilities within or outside the system boudaries. A totally
reversible process involves no heat transfer through a finite
temperature difference and no friction.
Conclusion: we can say that the reversible process is theoretical process
(ideal) cannot be performed actually since the above mentioned
irreversibilities cannot be avoided. So, all actual processes are
irreversible process.

Carnot Heat Engine

The heat engine that operates on Carnot cycle is called Carnot heat
engine or reversible heat engine.

The four reversible processes that make up the

Carnot cycle are as follows:

1- Reversible Isothermal Expansion, heat

addition (process 1-2)
2- Reversible Adiabatic Expansion (process 2-3)
3- Reversible Isothermal Compression, heat
rejection (process 3-4)
4- Reversible Adiabatic Compression (process 4-1)

Wnet = The area enclosed by the path of the cycle (area 1-2-3-4-1)

It is the work given by Carnot heat engine which also equals to QH-QL

Carnot heat engine is reversible (ideal) heat engine free from any
irreversibilities.
Carnot principles

Now, we have two systems; the first is irreversible (actual HE) and the
other is the reversible one (Carnot HE).

Comparing of the performance of the two systems can be obtained from

Carnot principles which are expressed and
shown as follows:

1- The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine

is always less than the efficiency of a
reversible one operating between the same
two reservoirs.
2- The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines
operating between the same two reservoirs
are the same.

Thermodynamic temperature scale

A temperature scale that is independent of the properties of the

substances that are used to measure temperature is called a
thermodynamic temperature scale. It is derived from the 2nd Carnot
principle:

𝑄𝐻 ∅(𝑇𝐻 ) 𝑇𝐻 (𝐾)
( ) = =
𝑄𝐿 𝑟𝑒𝑣 ∅(𝑇𝐿 ) 𝑇𝐿 (𝐾)

It is called Kelvin scale or absolute temperature scale.

𝑇(𝐾) = 𝑇(℃) + 273.15

The efficiency of Carnot heat engine
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑄𝐻 −𝑄𝐿 𝑄𝐿
For any heat engine, th= = =1−
𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐻

So, for rev. heat engine (Carnot HE),

𝑄
th rev = 1 − ( 𝐿 )
𝑄𝐻 𝑟𝑒𝑣

𝑇𝐿
th rev = 1 − #
𝑇𝐻

It is the highest efficiency a heat engine operating between the two

thermal energy reservoirs at temperatures T L and TH can have.

All irreversible (actual) heat engines operating

between these temperature limits (TL and TH) have
lower efficiencies. An actual heat engine cannot
reach this maximum theoretical efficiency value
because it is impossible to completely eliminate all
the irreversibilities associated with the actual cycle.

The thermal efficiencies of actual and reversible

heat engines operating between the same
temperature limits compare as follows:

1- If th < th rev, it is irreversible (actual) heat engine

2- If th = th rev, it is reversible (ideal) heat engine
3- If th > th rev, it is impossible heat engine
Case study

A Carnot heat engine, shown, receives 500 kJ of heat

per cycle from a high-temperature source at 652oC and
rejects heat to a low-temperature sink at 30oC.
Determine (a) the thermal efficiency of this Carnot
engine and (b) the amount of heat rejected to the sink
per cycle.

Solution

𝑇𝐿 (30+273)
th rev = 1 − = 1 − (652+273) = 0.672 = 67.2%
𝑇𝐻

For any rev. system,

𝑄 𝑇𝐿 (𝐾)
( 𝐿) =
𝑄𝐻 𝑟𝑒𝑣 𝑇𝐻 (𝐾)

(30 + 273)
𝑄𝐿 = (500) = 164 𝑘𝐽
(652 + 273)

The quality of energy

The energy that taken from high temperature

body is more qualified (has higher quality)
than the energy taken from low temperature
body
The fraction of energy that can be converted into work represents the
quality of energy.
Clausius inequality

𝛿𝑄
∮ ≤0
𝑇

That is, the cyclic integral of dQ/T is always less than or equal to zero.
This inequality is valid for all cycles, reversible or irreversible.

𝛿𝑄
- For reversible cycles, ∮ =0
𝑇
𝛿𝑄
- For irreversible cycles, ∮ <0
𝑇
𝛿𝑄
- If ∮ > 0, the cycle will be impossible
𝑇

Application of Clausius inequality on the Heat engine:

𝛿𝑄 𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐿
For heat engine, ∮ = − (𝑄𝐻 is +ve because it is
𝑇 𝑇𝐻 𝑇𝐿

added to the system but QL is –ve because it is rejected

from the system)

Case study

A heat engine receives 600 kJ of heat from a high

temperature source at 1000 K during a cycle. It
converts 150 kJ of this heat to net-work and reject
the remaining 450 kJ to a low temperature sink at
300 K. Determine if this heat engine violates the
second law on the basis of (a) the Clauisius
inequality and (b) the Carnot principle.
Solution

(a) On the basis of Clauisius inequality:

𝛿𝑄 𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐿 600 450 𝑘𝐽
∮ = − = − = −0.9 <0
𝑇 𝑇𝐻 𝑇𝐿 1000 300 𝐾
𝛿𝑄
Since ∮ < 0, it is irreversible heat engine (actual). So, this heat does
𝑇
not violate 2nd law.

(b) On the basis of Carnot principle:

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 150
𝑡ℎ = = = 0.25
𝑄𝐻 600
𝑇𝐿 300
𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑣 = 1 − =1− = 0.7
𝑇𝐻 1000

Since 𝑡ℎ < 𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑣 , it is irreversible heat engine (actual). So, this heat
does not violate 2nd law.
 Entropy

The Clausius inequality represents the basis for the definition of a new
property called entropy. To prove that: For the cycle
shown,

2 1
∮ 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 𝑑𝑉 + ∫ 𝑑𝑉 = (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) + (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ) = 0
1 2

Also,
2 1
∮ 𝑑𝑈 = ∫ 𝑑𝑈 + ∫ 𝑑𝑈 = (𝑈2 − 𝑈1 ) + (𝑈1 − 𝑈2 ) = 0
1 2

And also, ∮ 𝑑𝐻 = 0. V, U and H are properties of the system. They are

point (state) functions. So, we can conclude that the cyclic integration of
any property equals zero.

But, there is other things which their cyclic integration not equals zero
such as work and heat,

∮ 𝛿𝑊 = 𝑊12 + 𝑊21 = 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑎 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 ≠ 0

Also, ∮ 𝛿𝑄 = 𝑄12 + 𝑄21 = 𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 ≠ 0

𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 , from the energy balance of the cycle

Work and heat are not properties, they are pass function, so the cyclic
integration of them not equal zero.

The main conclusion extracted here is: If the cyclic integration of a

quantity equals zero, this quantity is a property of the system.
From Clausius inequality,

𝛿𝑄
∮( ) =0
𝑇 𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑣
𝛿𝑄
This means that ( ) represents differential difference of new
𝑇 𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑣

property called entropy, S. So,

𝛿𝑄
𝑑𝑆 = ( ) 𝑘𝐽 ⁄𝐾
𝑇 𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑣

The entropy change of a system during process 1-2,

2
𝛿𝑄
∆𝑆 = ∫ ( ) 𝑘𝐽 ⁄𝐾
𝑇 𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑣
1

Per unit mass (intensive property),

2 𝛿𝑞
∆𝑠 = ∫1 ( ) 𝑘𝐽 ⁄𝑘𝑔. 𝐾
𝑇 𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑣

Consider 3 processes between the states 1, 2. The

Processes A and B, are internally reversible while the
process C is irreversible:

2 𝛿𝑄
- ∆𝑆𝐴 = ∫1 ( ) = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1
𝑇 𝐴
2 𝛿𝑄
- ∆𝑆𝐵 = ∫1 ( ) = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1
𝑇 𝐵
2 𝛿𝑄
- ∆𝑆𝐶 ≠ ∫1 ( ) since process C is irreversible. The instead,
𝑇 𝐶

we can say that,

∆𝑆𝐶 = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = ∆𝑆𝐵 = ∆𝑆𝐴

Therefore, the entropy change S between two
specified states is the same no matter what path,
reversible or irreversible, is followed during a
process as shown.

Special Case: Internally reversible isothermal processes

Firstly, to determine ∆𝑆 using the

2 𝛿𝑄
equation ∆𝑆 = ∫1 , the process
𝑇
must be int. rev.
2
𝛿𝑄
∆𝑆 = ∫ ( )
𝑇 𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑣
1

For isothermal process (T=constant)

2
1
∆𝑆 = ∫(𝛿𝑄 )𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑣
𝑇𝑜
1

±𝑄12
∆𝑆 = 𝑘𝐽 ⁄𝐾
𝑇𝑜

Where To is the constant temperature of the system and ±𝑄12 is the heat
transfer for the internally reversible process 1-2, its sign (+ or -) depends
on the heat is added or rejected from the system. It will be + if the heat
added and –ve if the heat is rejected.

So, we can say that: Heat transfer to a system increases the entropy of a
system, whereas heat transfer from a system decreases it. In fact, losing
heat is the only way the entropy of a system can be decreased.
Important note

The above equation is useful for determining ∆𝑆 for bodies that their
temperatures always are constant, these bodies
are:

−𝑄𝐻
- Source ∆𝑆𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 =
𝑇𝐻

𝑄𝐿
- Sink ∆𝑆𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘 =
𝑇𝐿

±𝑄
- Surrounding ∆𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 =
𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟

In thermodynamics, we proved that for any process, the change of

entropy is given by:

𝛿𝑄
∆𝑆 ≥ ∫ #
𝑇
The equality sign is for internally reversible process and more than for
irreversible process

The above equation can be rewritten as:

2
𝛿𝑄
∆𝑆 = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = ∫ + 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛
1 𝑇
2 𝛿𝑄
- 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 0, for internally rev. process since ∆𝑆 in this case = ∫1
𝑇

- 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 > 0, for irrev. Process

So, 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 is called the entropy generation due to irreversibility.

2 𝛿𝑄
∫1 𝑇
is the entropy transfer with heat. It has the same sign convention as

heat. So, it may be

• +ve if heat is added to the system

• -ve if heat is rejected from the system
• zero if the process is adiabatic (Q=0)

∆𝑺 for isolated system

𝛿𝑄
For isolated system (no heat and mass transfer), ∫ =0
𝑇

2 𝛿𝑄
∆𝑆 = ∫ + 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛
1 𝑇
∆𝑆𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 ≥ 0

If we take isolated system consists of a system and

its surrounding as shown:

∆𝑆𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = ∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠 + ∆𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 = ∆𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 ≥ 0 #

The equality holds for reversible processes and the more than for
irreversible ones.
Since any actual process is irreversible, we can conclude for actual
processes, ∆𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 (𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠) = 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 > 0 and some entropy is
generated, and therefore the entropy of the universe, which can be
considered to be an isolated system, is continuously increasing.

The increase of entropy principle

It can be summarized as follows:

> 0 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠

∆𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠 + ∆𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 = 𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 {= 0 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
< 0 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
Case study

For the shown heat engine that receives 600 kJ of

heat from a high temperature source at 1000 K during
a cycle, converts 150 kJ of this heat to net-work and
rejects the remaining 450 kJ to a low temperature
sink at 300 K., determine if it violate 2nd law on the
basis of:

A. Carnot principles
B. Clausius inequality
C. Total generation of entropy

Solution

(c) On the basis of Total generation of entropy:

𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 = ∆𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠 + ∆𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟

∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠 = ∆𝑆𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 0 #

∆𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 = ∆𝑆𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 + ∆𝑆𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘

𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐿
∆𝑆𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 = − , ∆𝑆𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘 =
𝑇𝐻 𝑇𝐿

Then
𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐿 600 450 𝑘𝐽
𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 = ∆𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑜 − + =− + = +0.9
𝑇𝐻 𝑇𝐿 1000 300 𝐾

𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛 > 0

This heat engine is irreversible, does not violate the 2 nd law.

Third law of thermodynamics

It is the law that determines the conditions of the zero value of entropy; it
states that "The entropy of a pure crystalline substance (substance
with perfect order) at absolute zero temperature is zero"

The entropy can be considered as a measure of degree of molecular

disorder, the degree of molecular randomness. So, we can say that the
entropy of the solid phase is lowest and highest in gas phase.
 Diagrams involving entropy

T-S diagram

Consider an internally rev. process that is drawn on the T-S diagram as

shown. From the second law,

𝛿𝑄
𝑑𝑆 = ( )
𝑇 𝑖𝑛𝑡.𝑟𝑒𝑣

Re arrange the equation

𝛿𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑡.𝑟𝑒𝑣 = 𝑇. 𝑑𝑆

𝛿𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑡.𝑟𝑒𝑣 corresponds to a differential area element

(𝑇. 𝑑𝑆)on a T-S diagram as shown in the figure. By
integration the above equation,

2
𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑡.𝑟𝑒𝑣 = ∫ 𝑇. 𝑑𝑆 𝑘𝐽
1

which corresponds to the area under the process curve on a T-S diagram.

Per unit mass:

2
𝑞𝑖𝑛𝑡.𝑟𝑒𝑣 = ∫ 𝑇. 𝑑𝑠 𝑘𝐽 ⁄𝑘𝑔
1

Therefore, we conclude that the area under the process curve on a T-S
diagram represents heat transfer during an internally reversible
process.
Special processes:

1- Int. rev. isothermal process (T= c)

In this case, the above equation yields,

2
𝑞𝑖𝑛𝑡.𝑟𝑒𝑣 = 𝑇 ∫1 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑇(𝑠2 − 𝑠1) = 𝑇∆𝑠 = ± according to heat added or
rejected

2- Int. rev. adiabatic process

From 2nd law,

𝛿𝑞
∆𝑠 = ∫ + 𝑠𝑔𝑒𝑛
𝑇

Int. rev. process means 𝑠𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 0 Expansion process

Adiabatic process means 𝑞 = 0

∆𝑠 = 0

𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = 0

𝑠2 = 𝑠1

𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. Compression process

It is called isentropic process. An isentropic process on a T-s diagram is
easily recognized as a vertical-line segment as shown.

The T-S Diagram of the Carnot Cycle

Show the Carnot cycle on a T-S diagram and indicate the areas that
represent the heat supplied QH, heat rejected QL, and the net-work output
Wnet,out on this diagram.

Recall that the Carnot cycle is made up of two reversible isothermal,

T=constant, (heat addition and heat rejection) processes and two
isentropic, s = constant, (expansion and compression) processes. These
four processes form a rectangle on a T-S
diagram, as shown.

On a T-S diagram, the area under the process

curve represents the heat transfer for that
process. Thus the area A12B represents QH, the
area A43B represents QL, and the difference
between these two (the area in color) represents
Qnet which in turn equal the net-work according
to the 1st law

Wnet= Qnet =QH - QL

Therefore, the area enclosed by the path of a cycle (area 1234) on a T-S
diagram represents the net-work. Recall that the area enclosed by the path
of a cycle also represents the net work on a P-V diagram.
T-S diagram for pure substance

The behavior of the T-s diagram is the

same as T-v diagram. The pure substance
(water and refrigerant) has 3 possible
phases, pure liquid (compressed), saturated
liquid- vapor mixture and pure vapor
(superheated).

The 2nd figure shows constant pressure

lines (which also constant temperature in
the mixture region) and constant volume
lines.