CHARACTER FORMATION 2

(Leadership, Decision Making, Management and

Administration)
Chapter I

Understanding
Self-leadership
What is Self- Concept?
- is how we perceive our behaviors,
abilities, and unique characteristics
- it is how someone thinks about,
evaluates or perceive themselves. To
be aware of one self.
- self concept tends to be more
malleable when we’re younger and
still going through the process of self
discovery and identity formation.
Self concept
Theories
LEWIS’ TWO ASPECT OF THE
DEVELOPMENT OF SELF CONCEPT.
Michael Lewis is a psychologist that
is known for his work on self concept and
self awareness. According to him the
development of concept of self has two
aspects:
1. The existential self
• It is the most basic part of the self-scheme or self-
concept; the sense of being separate and distinct from
others and the awareness of the constancy of the self.

2. The Categorical Self

• Having realized that he or she exists as separate
experiencing being, the child next becomes
aware that he or she is also an object in the
world. Like any other objects including people
have properties that can be experienced, eg. :
big, small, red, smooth and so on. So the child is
aware of himself or herself as an object.

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Rogers’ Three Parts of Self -
Concept

Carl Rogers (1902-2978)

- is widely regarded as one of the most
eminent thinkers in psychology. He is best known
for developing the psycho therapy method called
client-centered therapy and for being one of
the founders of humanistic psychology.

- According to Rogers, self concept is a

construct to describe the awareness of who we are
along with our perceptions of the world around us.
He believed self concept is composed of three
components; 6
1. IDEAL SELF
- Is the person you want to be. This person has attributes
or qualities you are either working toward or want to possess.
It’s who you envision yourself to be if you were exactly as you
wanted. It consist of our goals and ambitions in life is dynamic.

2. SELF IMAGE
- this pertains to how we see ourselves, which is
important to good psychological health. Self- image includes
the influence of our body image on inner personality. At a
simple level, we might perceive ourselves as a good or bad
person, beautiful or ugly. Self image affects how a person
thinks, feels and behaves in the world.
3. SELF ESTEEM
- Also known as Self worth, it comprises what we think
about ourselves. Rogers believed feelings of self worth developed
in early childhood and were formed from the interaction of the child
with the mother and father.

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The Fully Functioning Person
Rogers described an individual who is self actualizing as a fully
functioning person. It is an ideal and one that people do not ultimately
achieve, it is neither an end nor a completion of life’s journey; rather it is a
process of always becoming and changing (McLeod, 2014).
Here are the five Characteristics of a fully functioning person according to
Rogers (McLeod,2014):
1. Open to Experience – person accepts both positive and negative
emotions . Negative feelings are not denied, but worked through.
2. Existential Living – Person is in touch with different experiences as they
occur in life, avoiding prejudging and preconceptions. Being able to live and
fully appreciate the present, not always looking back to the past or forward
to the future (i.e., living for the moment).
3. Trust Feelings – Person pays attention and trust his own feelings,
instincts, and gut-reactions. People’s own decisions are the right
ones, and we should trust ourselves to make the right choices.
4. Creativity – creative thinking and risk-taking are features of a
person’s life. A person does not play safe at all the time. This
involves the ability to adjust and adjust and change and seek new 8
experiences.
SOCIAL COMPARISON THEORY

It was first proposed in 1954 by psychologist LEON FESTINGER, he

believed that people have an innate drive to evaluate themselves, often in
comparison to others. The social comparison process involves people coming
to own attitudes, abilities, and traits in comparison with others. There are two
kinds of social comparison.

1.Upward Social Comparison - It is when a person compares his/herself with

those who he/she believes are better than him/ her. These upward
comparisons often focus on the desire to improve the individual’s current
status or level of ability. One might compare his/herself to someone better off
and look for ways that he/she can achieve similar results.

2. Downward Social Comparison - It is when a person compares his/herself to

others who are worse off than him/her. Such downward comparisons are often
centered on making oneselves feel better about his/her abilities or traits. A
person might not be great at something, but at least he/she is better off than
someone else. 9
Multidimensional Self Concept

The multidimensional Self concept is developed by Bruce A Bracken. He

believed that self-concept was multidimensional, consisting of six
independent traits. These six aspects of self-concept that are critical to
the positive social and emotional adjustment of youth and adolescents.
These six traits are:

1. Academic- Individual's success or failure in school.

2. Affect-Person's awareness of emotional states.

3. Competence-Person's ability to meet basic needs.

4. Family-Person's relationship with his/her family unit.

5. Physical-Person's personal idea of how he/she looks, his/ her health,

physical condition, and overall appearance.

6. Social-Individual's ability to interact with others. Self Leadership

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Self-leadership

- is the practice of intentionally influencing one's personal

thinking, feeling and actions towards his/her personal objective/s." It is
the practice of understanding who you are, identifying your desired
experiences, and intentionally guiding yourself toward them. It spans
the determination of what we do, why we do it, and how we do it. It is a
comprehensive process of influence that involves specific behavioral
and cognitive strategies.

These strategies are designed to help an individual address not only

what he/she needs to do, but also why, and how he/she should do it." It
highlights the importance of both intrinsic motivation and effective
cognitive processes (Neck, Manz, and Houghton, 2016).

The term self-leadership first emerged from organizational

management literature by Charles C. Manz (1983), who later defined it
as a comprehensive self-influence perspective that concerns leading
oneself toward performance of naturally motivating tasks as well as
managing oneself to do work that must be done but is not naturally 11
motivating.
SELF LEADERSHIP THEORIES

Social Learning Theory and Social Cognitive Theory

Both Social Learning Theory and Social Cognitive Theory were developed by
Albert Bandura. Albert Bandura (1925- 2021) is an influential social
cognitive psychologist who is best known for his social learning theory, the
concept of self-efficacy, and his famous Bobo doll experiments."

Social Learning Theory emphasizes the importance of observing, modelling,

and imitating the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others.
Social learning theory considers how both environmental and cognitive
factors interact to influence human learning and behavior. It explains how
people can influence their own cognition motivation, and behavior."

Bandura (1977) believes that humans are active information processors and
think about the relationship between their behavior and its consequences.
Observational learning could not occur unless cognitive processes were at
work. These mental factors mediate in the learning process to determine
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Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) acknowledges the triadic interaction
between our thoughts, behavior, and socio-political environment.
There are three major constructs in SCT that interact to influence
behavior

1. Personal Factors- Pertains to age, cognitions, previous experience

with the behavior, etc.

2. Environmental Factors- Refers to access to resources, safety,

support from family/friends, etc.

3. Aspects of the Behavior - refers to the vigor of the behavior,

outcomes achieved as a result of practicing the behavior, competence
with the behavior, etc.

Self-leadership explains how self leaders think and how they behave
according to cognitive, motivational, and behavioral strategies (Norris,
2018).
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Self Efficacy Theory

Self Efficacy Theory is another concept developed by Alle Bandura, Self-

Efficacy is a person's particular set of beliefs that determine how well one
can execute a plan of action in prospective situations (Bandura, 1977) in
other words, self-efficacy is a person's belief ability to succeed in a
particular situation

An individual's beliefs in his/her efficacy are developed by four main sources

of influence:

1. Mastery Experiences- are the most influential source of efficacy

information because they provide the most authentic evidence of whether
one can muster whatever it takes to succeed. Success builds a robust belief
in one's personal efficacy. Failures undermine it, especially if failures occur
before a sense of efficacy is firmly established.
Believing that one is capable of achieving tasks they set out for themselves
is necessary because part of the struggle of getting better at anything or 14
learning something new is making sure the person believes they are capable
2. Vicarious Experiences
Vicarious experiences involve observing other people successfully
completing a task. According to Bandura (1977) Seeing people similar
to oneself succeed by sustained effort raises observers' beliefs that
they too possess the capabilities to master comparable activities to
succeed.
Social role models including older siblings, older friends, camp
counselors, parents, aunts and uncles, grandparents, teachers,
coaches, and employers. If a person has positive role models in their
life, especially those who display a healthy level of self-efficacy, then
that individual is more likely to absorb at least a few of those positive
beliefs about the self (Garrido, 2020).

3. Social Persuasion
Social persuasion involves encouragement and discouragement
pertaining to an individual's performance or ability to perform by the
society. Receiving positive verbal feedback while undertaking complex
task persuades a person to believe that they have the skills and 15
capabilities to succeed. Verbal persuasion works on any age, but the
4. Emotional and Physiological States

The emotional, physical, and psychological well-being of a

person can influence how they feel about their personal
abilities in a particular situation. According to Bandura (1977) it
is not the sheer intensity of emotional and physical reactions
that is important but rather how they are perceived and
interpreted.

People who have a high sense of efficacy are likely to view their
state of affective arousal as an energizing facilitator of
performance, whereas those who are beset by self-doubts
regard their arousal as a debilitator. By learning how to manage
anxiety and enhance mood when experiencing challenging
situations, individuals can improve their sense of self efficacy
(Garrido, 2020). 16
Self-Control Theory

Self-control theory, proposed by Michael Gottfredson and Travis

Hirschi in A General Theory of Crime (1990), is a widely researched
perspective in criminology focusing on individual differences in
attention to the consequences of one's actions as a general cause of
delinquency, crime, and analogous behaviors." Self-control refers to
the ability to forgo immediate or near-term pleasures that have some
negative consequences and to the ability to act in favor of longer-term
interests. It serves as an executive function necessary for individual
goal attainment. It is a cognitive process for self-regulating behavior in
pursuit of personal goals. This advanced executive process allows us
to inhibit ourselves from impulsive responses in behavior, favoring
more appropriate, context-specific behavior."

Gottfredson and Hirschi argue that those who learn early in life to
exercise self-control will have much less involvement in delinquency,
crime, and other problem behaviors such as substance abuse,
accidents, and employment problems; later in life. Those who develop
high levels of self-control in childhood will be less likely to be 17
delinquent as adolescents and less likely to be arrested or convicted
Self-Determination Theory

Self-Determination Theory links personality, human motivation,

and optimal functioning. It posits that there are two main types of
motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) and that both are powerful
forces in shaping who we are and how we behave." According to
Deci and Ryan the two main types of motivations are:

1. Extrinsic Motivation is a drive to behave in certain ways

based on external sources and it results in external rewards. It
includes grading systems, employee evaluations, awards and
accolades, and the respect and admiration of others.

2. Intrinsic Motivation is a drive that comes from within. There

are internal drives that inspire us to behave in certain ways,
including our core values, our interests, and our personal sense of
morality. 18
Other types of motivations includes:

Autonomous motivation includes motivation that comes from internal

sources and includes motivation from extrinsic sources for individuals
who identify with an activity's value and how it aligns with their sense of
self.

Controlled motivation consists of:

1. External regulation is a type of motivation where an individual acts

out of the desire for external rewards or fear of punishment.

2. Introjected regulation is motivation from "partially internalized

activities and values" such as avoiding shame, seeking approval, and
protecting the ego.

An individual that is driven by autonomous motivation, may feel self-

directed and autonomous; when the individual is driven by controlled
motivation, they may feel pressure to behave in a certain way, and thus, 19
experience little to no autonomy (Deci, and Ryan, 2008)
Self Determination Continuum

The Self determination continuum ranges from non self determined to

self determined based on motivation. At the left end of the continuum
(See figure 1) is amotivation. It is where an individual is completely
non- autonomous, has no drive to speak of, and is struggling to have
any of their needs met (Ackerman, 2022),

In the middle, are several levels of extrinsic motivation (Ackerman.

2022):

1.External regulation, in which motivation is exclusively external

and regulated by compliance, conformity, and external rewards and
punishments.
2. Introjected regulation, in which the motivation is somewhat
external and is driven by self-control, efforts to protect the ego, and
internal rewards and punishments.
3. Identified regulation, the motivation is somewhat internal and
based on conscious values and that which is personally important to
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the individual.
THREE BASIC NEEDS

According to the Self Determination Theory, people are driven by

three innate and universal psychological needs, and that personal well
being is a direct function of the satisfaction of these basic
psychological needs:

1. Autonomy- It is the need to control the course of their lives. People

have a need to feel that they are the masters of their own destiny and
that they have at least some control over their lives; most importantly,
people have a need to feel that they are in control of their own
behavior.

2. Competence- It is the need to be effective in dealing with the

environment. This refers to a person's achievements, knowledge, and
skills; people have a need to build their competence and develop
mastery over tasks that are important to them.

3. Relatedness- also called Connection. It is the need to have a close,

affectionate relationship with others. People need to have a sense of 21
belonging and connectedness with others; each of us needs other
Deci and Ryan believe that individual differences in personality result from
the varying degrees to which each need has been satisfied or thwarted
(Deci and Ryan, 2008).

The two main aspects on which individuals differ include causality

orientations" and aspirations or life goals. The three causality orientations
are:

1. Autonomous- all three basic needs are satisfied.

2. Controlled-competence and relatedness are somewhat satisfied but

autonomy is not.

3. Impersonal- none of the three needs are satisfied.

Aspirations or life goals are what people use to guide their own behavior.
They generally fall into one of the two categories of motivation mentioned
earlier, intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic life goals include affiliation,
generativity, and personal development. While extrinsic life goals are
wealth, fame, and attractiveness (Deci and Ryan 2008). 22
Significance of Self-leadership

Self-leadership is important because it helps an individual accomplish

his/her professional goals and to be a good leader to others. Good
leaders must have the ability to lead by example. It allows a leader to
influence others to take action so that the goals of the organization are
met.

Self Leadership is important as a foundation for personal, team,

business, and strategic leadership; and it serves as a starting point to
any organizational or leadership development program. It helps a leader
to think effectively, behave congruently, and relate empathetically
(Bryant and Kazan, 2012, р. 2).

In addition to helping an individual achieve your his/her personal goals

for their life and career, benefits of self-leadership include:

1. Makes a person more efficient and productive An individual with

strong self-leadership skills also has the ability to manage their time
effectively and to stay organized in their work. This often results in the 23
company benefiting from increased productivity and high-quality work.
2. Keeps a person motivated and accountable
3. Builds stronger relationships with co-workers

4. Inspires others to follow a person's lead

Development of Self-Leadership
Self-leadership can be understood as the process of identifying your
desired experiences and intentionally directing and motivating yourself
toward them (Manz, 1986). Developing self-leadership skills therefore
requires understanding the concept itself and its elements, developing
self-knowledge, cultivating self-monitoring habits, and deliberate
practice.

Understanding the concept

Self-leadership determines what we do, why we do it, and how. It involves
self-knowledge, goal setting, and self- management processes. Self-
knowledge implies insight into our values, strengths, personality, talents,
skills, and passions. Based on our self-knowledge, in particular our
values, we can identify our desired experiences and set goals around 24
them. Self-management can be understood as strategies to facilitate
Developing self-knowledge
Understanding your personality traits provides insights into your
tendencies to think and act in certain situations. Moreover, if
you know your values, you understand what matters most to
you not in the sense of a particular outcome, but rather in the
sense of how you want to live (Neuhaus, 2012). Understanding
your values empowers you to make better decisions and
implement them more effectively.

Understanding and identifying desired experiences

Having a solid understanding of yourself equips you to articulate

goals about experiences that truly matter to you. It enables you
to pursue them in a way that is easy and enjoyable and leaves
you with a sense of meaning and purpose. This means that your
motivation will be stronger and longer lasting, your chances of
achieving your goal will be greater, and you are more likely to 25
feel truly satisfied once you do so (Neuhaus, 2012). and
Cultivating self-monitoring habits

To fulfill the roles of both the leader and the one being led,
one requires the ability of metacognition. During
metacognition, the thinker takes a diffused perspective of
themselves as though they were observing themselves from a
distance. This allows them to monitor themselves and
evaluate their actual performance against their desired goal
performance. It enables them to manage themselves which is
a process necessary throughout the self-leadership journey
(Neuhaus, 2012).

Deliberate Practice

Like any other skills, the more these strategies and behaviors
are practiced, the more they will be cultivated. The key
aspect of developing self-leadership skills lies in continuous
monitoring, evaluation, and adaptation of the relevant 26
Simple Ways to Lead Yourself
There are three categories in improving Self Leadership: cognitive behavioral,
and motivational strategies. Here are some of the strategies that can help you
lead yourself and improve your self leadership (Neuhaus, 2012).
1. Cognitive Strategies
Cognitive self-leadership strategies enable you to identify ways to implement
goal behaviors and efficiently find solutions to overcome obstacles and
setbacks. This includes (Neuhaus, 2012):
 Establishing a connection between your values and self-leadership:
 Identifying your strengths and weaknesses;
 Identifying desired experiences;
 Challenging limiting beliefs;
 Identifying cognitive dissonance and attempts to eliminate it;
 Practicing ongoing positivity;
 Visualizing goal behavior;
 Cultivating the ability to make good decisions;
 Identifying and managing emotional triggers;
 Developing a growth mindset; and 27
 Setting clear intentions.
2. Behavioral Strategies
Behavioral self-leadership strategies allow you to implement
the relevant plethora of management actions required to
pursue your desired outcome. This includes (Neuhaus, 2012):

 Cultivating self-efficacy;
 Building habits;
 Harnessing environmental resources;
 Setting and optimizing goals;
 Establishing goal plans;
 Self-cueing:
 Frequently reviewing progress; and
 Establishing accountability from yourself and others.

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3. Motivational strategies
Motivational strategies facilitate a continuous drive toward
goal behaviors and sufficient capacity for them. This
includes (Neuhaus, 2012):

 Identifying internally rewarding actions to pursue your

goals;
 Maximizing autonomy, competence, and sense of
relatedness for your goals;
 Managing willpower;
 Cultivating a process focus;
 Identifying and celebrating wins; and
 Cultivating grit.

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thank you