Ch 2: Atoms, Molecules and

Ions
CHM 151
Early Atomic Theory
In the fifth century BC, Leucippus and Democritus argued that all matter was
composed of small, finite particles that they called atomos, a term derived
from the Greek word for “indivisible.”

They thought of atoms as moving particles that differed in shape and size, and
which could join together.

Later, Aristotle and others came to the conclusion that matter consisted of
various combinations of the four “elements”—fire, earth, air, and water—and
could be infinitely divided.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
English schoolteacher John Dalton helped to revolutionize chemistry with his hypothesis that the
behavior of matter could be explained using an atomic theory. First published in 1807,

1. Matter is composed of exceedingly small particles called atoms. An atom is the smallest unit of an
element that can participate in a chemical change.
2. An element consists of only one type of atom, which has a mass that is characteristic of the
element and is the same for all atoms of that element. A macroscopic sample of an element
contains an incredibly large number of atoms, all of which have identical chemical properties.
3. Atoms of one element differ in properties from atoms of all other elements.
4. A compound consists of atoms of two or more elements combined in a small, whole-number ratio.
In a given compound, the numbers of atoms of each of its elements are always present in the same
ratio
5. Atoms are neither created nor destroyed during a chemical change, but are instead rearranged to
yield substances that are different from those present before the change.
Law of Definite Proportions
States that “all samples of a pure compound contain the same elements in the
same proportion by mass”

AKA law of constant compositions

The numbers of atoms of the elements in a given compound always exist in the
same ratio

Although all samples of a particular compound have the same mass ratio, the
converse is not true in general. That is, samples that have the same mass
ratio are not necessarily the same substance.
Law of Multiple Proportions

States that “when two elements react to form more than one
compound, a fixed mass of one element will react with
masses of the other element in a ratio of small, whole
numbers”.
Atomic Theory after the Nineteenth Century
In the 1800s scientists began to explore whether atoms were
composed of smaller particles.

JJ Thomson used the cathode ray tube to determine that

atoms were made of smaller particles.

He proposed that those particles were negatively charged,

and the particles were called electrons.

Particles were found to be much smaller than atoms

Robert Millikan

In 1909, Millikan using his “Oil Drop”

experiment determined the charge of
the electron (1.6 x 10-19 C).
From this value the mass of the electron
was found (9.107 x 10-31 kg)
Plum Pudding Model

Thomson also predicted a positively charged part of

the atom.
His model, called the Plum Pudding Model described a
positively charged mass with
an equal amount of negative
charge in the form of electrons
embedded in it, since all atoms
are electrically neutral.
Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment
Ernest Rutherford used a beam of alpha particles and shot them
through Gold Foil.

From the results, he proposed the atom made of empty space,

presence of the nucleus, which contained the positive charge of
the atom.
Proton

Concentrated in the center of the atom

Positively charged
Inside the nucleus
Isotopes

Atoms of the same element

Different mass numbers
Half of the mass of the atom
Neutrons

Proposed by Chadwick in 1932

Uncharged particles (Neutral)
Same mass as a proton
Atomic Structure
The atom is very large in comparison to the nucleus.

For example, if the nucleus was a blueberry the atom

is the size of a football stadium.

Atomic mass unit (amu) used to describe the small

size of subatomic particles.

Based on the mass of carbon-12

The Dalton (Da) and the unified atomic mass unit (u)
Properties of Subatomic Particles

Name Location Charge (C) Unit Charge Mass (amu) Mass (g)

electron Outside -1.602 x 10-19 1- 0.00055 0.00091 x 10-24

nucleus

proton nucleus 1.602 x 10-19 1+ 1.00727 1.67262 x 10-24

neutron nucleus 0 0 1.00866 1.67493 x 10-24

Atomic Values
Atomic number (z) is the number of protons in an atom.

This determines the identity of the atom.

Mass number (A) is the sum of the protons and neutrons

in an atom.

Atoms are electrically neutral when proton number and

electron number are equal.

When not equal, the atom is called an ion.

Chemical Symbols
Abbreviation used to indicate an element or an atom
of an element.

Symbols contain one or two letters, but three-letter

symbols have been used

Only the first letter of a symbol is capitalized

Traditionally, the discoverer (or discoverers) of a new element
names the element. However, until the name is recognized by
the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC),
the recommended name of the new element is based on the
Isotopic Symbols

Can be written as “magnesium-24” or “Mg-

24.
Atomic Mass
The atomic mass of a single atom is approximately equal to its mass
number (a whole number).

However, the average masses of atoms of most elements are not

whole numbers because most elements exist naturally as mixtures
of two or more isotopes.

Average mass =Σi (fractional abundance × isotopic mass)i

Problem

A meteorite found in central Indiana contains traces

of the noble gas neon picked up from the solar
wind during the meteorite’s trip through the solar
system. Analysis of a sample of the gas showed
that it consisted of 91.84% 20Ne (mass 19.9924
amu), 0.47% 21Ne (mass 20.9940 amu), and 7.69%
22
Ne (mass 21.9914 amu). What is the average
mass of the neon in the solar wind?
Mass Spectrometer (MS)
The occurrence and natural abundances
of isotopes can be experimentally
determined using an instrument called
a mass spectrometer.

Analyzes and helps identify the

substances in a sample of material

Output is a graph of the samples mass-

to-charge ratios (a mass spectrum)
Chemical Formulas
Several types

Molecular formula a representation of a molecule that uses

chemical symbols to indicate the types of atoms followed by
subscripts to show the number of atoms of each type in the
molecule.

Structural formula structural formula for a compound gives the

same information as its molecular formula (the types and
numbers of atoms in the molecule) but also shows how the
atoms are connected in the molecule

Ball and stick model shows the geometric arrangement of the

atoms with atomic sizes not to scale
Coefficients vs Subscripts
It is important to note that a subscript following a symbol and a
number in front of a symbol do not represent the same thing; for
example, H2 and 2H represent distinctly different species. H2 is a
molecular formula; it represents a diatomic molecule of hydrogen,
consisting of two atoms of the element that are chemically bonded
together. The expression 2H, on the other hand, indicates two
separate hydrogen atoms that are not combined as a unit.
Problem

Molecules of glucose (blood sugar)

contain 6 carbon atoms, 12
hydrogen atoms, and 6 oxygen
atoms. What are the molecular
and empirical formulas of
glucose?
Structural Differences in Compounds

Compounds with the same molecular

formula may have different atom-to-
atom bonding and therefore different
structures
Isomers—compounds with the same
chemical formula but different molecular
structures
Isometric Differences

Types of isomers

Structural isomers compounds in which the

molecules differ in how the atoms are
connected to each other

Spatial isomers the relative orientations of the

atoms in space can be different
Empirical Formula vs Molecular Formula

Empirical formula describe the composition of

compounds by indicating the types of atoms
present and the simplest whole-number ratio of
the number of atoms (or ions) in the compound.

Molecular formula shows the exact number of each

element in the compound.
Periodic Table

Dimitri Mendeleev (1869) and Lothar Meyer (1870)

independently recognized periodic relationships
between the properties of elements.

Mendeleev also predicted properties of elements not

known during his time.

Designed the periodic table we currently use (with

few changes).
Periodicity
Periodic law is as follows: “the properties of the
elements are periodic functions of their atomic
numbers.”

Periodic table arranges the elements in increasing

order of their atomic numbers

Atoms are grouped with similar properties in the

same vertical columns, called groups.

Seven horizontal rows, called periods or series, and

Classifications

Metals, nonmetals, metalloids

Main-group elements (or representative

elements) in the columns labeled 1, 2, and 13–18;

The transition metals in the columns labeled 3–12;

and inner transition metals in the two rows at
the bottom of the table (the top-row elements are
called lanthanides and the bottom-row elements
are actinides.
Group Names
Group 1A is the alkali metals, and they all have
similar chemical properties.

Group 2 (the second column) are called alkaline earth

metals, with similar properties.

Other groups with specific names are the pnictogens

(group 15), chalcogens (group 16), halogens
(group 17), and the noble gases (group 18, also
known as inert gases).
Problems
Atoms of each of the following elements are essential
for life. Give the group name for the following
elements:

(a) chlorine
(b) calcium
(c) sodium
(d) sulfur
Ionic Compounds

Formed from the electrostatic attraction of the ions

for one another.

Remember, metals form positively charged ions and

nonmetals form negatively charged ions.
Ions

When ions form from one atom they are called

monatomic ions.

Polyatomic ions are electrically charged molecules

(a group of bonded atoms with an overall charge).

Oxyanions are polyatomic ions that contain one or

more oxygen atoms.
Polyatomic Ions

Must learn them (formula, name, charge)

-ate more oxygen
-ite less oxygen
Per- more than -ate
Hypo- less than -ite
Ionic bonds vs Covalent Bonds

Ionic

Result from the transfer of electrons

Electrostatic

Metal + Nonmetal

Covalent bonds

Occur when electrons are shared

Writing Ionic Formulas

Must balance the oxidation numbers.

What was lost by the metal must be gained by the

nonmetal.

For example, given sodium cation, Na+, and the

sulfide anion, S2−, the formula would be Na2S.
Molecular Compounds

Result from the sharing of electrons

Under normal conditions, molecular compounds often

exist as gases, low-boiling liquids, and low-melting
solids, although many important exceptions exist.
Nomenclature

Nomenclature, a collection of rules for naming things

Kinds

Binary

More than 2 atoms

Naming Ionic Compounds

Binary:

Name of the cation (the name of the metal)

Name of the anion (change ending to the suffix –

ide).

Polyatomics:

Name the positive part.

Ionics with Transition Metals

Name the metal.

Use a parenthesis to tell the oxidation number of the

metal ion in Roman numerals.

Name the anion (using -ide if binary, or the

polyatomic name.)
Problems
Name the following ionic compounds, which contain a metal that can
have more than one ionic charge:

(a) Fe2S3

(b) CuSe

(c) GaN

(d) CrCl3

(e) Ti2(SO4)3
Number Prefix

1 Mono-
Molecular Naming
2 Di-
Binary
3 Tri-
Name the first element,
4 Tetra-

5 Penta- Name the second element changing

6 Hexa-
ending to -ide

7 Hepta- Add prefix to tell the number.

8 Octa-
Do not add mono- to the first element.
9 Nona-

10 Deca-
Problem
Name the following covalent compounds:

(a) SF6

(b) N2O3

(c) Cl2O7

(d) P4O6
Naming Binary Acids
If the compound is a binary acid

(comprised of hydrogen and one other nonmetallic element):

1. The word “hydrogen” is changed to the prefix hydro-

2. The other nonmetallic element name is modified by adding the suffix

-ic

3. The word “acid” is added as a second word

Problem
Name the following acids.

HF

HCl

HBr

HI

H2S

H2Se
Naming Oxyacids
To name

oxyacids:

1. Omit “hydrogen”

2. Start with the root name of the anion

3. Replace –ate with –ic, or –ite with –ous

4. Add “acid”
Problems
Name the following acids.

HC2H3O2

HNO3

HNO2

HClO4

H2CO3

H2SO4