1.e Chemical Formulae, Equations and Calculations (1)

Lesson
One
https://www.slideshare.net/algrant/kindness-2506699
Learning
Objectives:
To write word
equations and
balanced chemical
equations
(including state
symbols
2 2
QU’S DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY AND EARTH SCIENCES CELEBRATES
INTERNATIONAL YEAR OF THE PERIODIC TABLE 2019
This year commemorates the 150

th
anniversary of the establishment of the
Periodic Table of Elements by Dmitri
Mendeleev.
Dr. Khalid Al-Saad Al-Kuwari, Head of the
Department of Chemistry and Earth
Sciences in QU, highlighted the
importance of the periodic table and the
great impact it has had on advancing the
fields of chemistry, physics, biology and
material sciences. Dr. Khalid talked about
the periodic table’s role and significance
as a crucial pillar for scientific
knowledge.
Coefficients
s Su
uc t bsc
d r ipt
Pro s
Ba uatio
ts
Eq
an
lan n
ac t
ced
Keywords:
Re
Chemistry
in Qatar
What is a chemical equation?
• Chemical equation - Describes a chemical change.
• Parts of an equation:
• Reactant - The
chemical(s) you start
Reactants and with before the
Products reaction.
Product
• Written on left side
Reactant
of equation.
• Product - The new
H2 + 0.5 O2 H2O chemical(s) formed
by the reaction.
• Right side of
equation.
Reaction symbol
What Chemical Equations
Show
• The reactants used.
• The products formed.
• The arrow means ‘react to form’ and reaction
proceeds from left to right).
• The states of the reactants and products
(solid= s/ gas = g/ liquid = l/ aqueous= aq it has
water). Reactants Products
2Mg (s) + O2(g)

Eg: 2MgO (s)
State symbols
10
(e) Chemical formulae, equations and calculations
1.25 write word equations and balanced chemical equations (including state
symbols):
Chemical equation
An equation can be written in words – a word
equation.
sodium + chlorine  sodium chloride
An equation can also be written with symbols and

formulae instead of words – a chemical equation.
2Na + Cl2  2NaCl
Subscripts and
Coefficients
• Subscript - shows how many
atoms of an element are in a
molecule.
• EX: H2O
• 2 atoms of hydrogen (H)
• 1 atom of oxygen (O)
• Coefficient - shows how many
molecules there are of a
particular chemical.
• EX: 3 H2O
• Means there are 3 water molecules.
Chemical Equation
Law of
Conservation of
Mass
• In a chemical reaction, matter is neither created nor destroyed.
• In other words, the number and type of atoms going INTO a reaction must be the
same as the number and type of atoms coming OUT.
• If an equation obeys the Law of Conservation, it is balanced.
An Unbalanced
Equation
CH4 + O2  CO2 + H2O

Reactant Side Product Side
1 carbon 1 carbon
atom atom
4 hydrogen 2 hydrogen
atoms atoms
2 oxygen 3 oxygen
atoms atoms
A Balanced Equation
CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O
Reactant Side Product Side
1 carbon atom 1 carbon atom

4 hydrogen 4 hydrogen
atoms atoms
4 oxygen atoms 4 oxygen atoms
RULES OF THE GAME
1. Matter cannot be created or destroyed.
2. Subscripts cannot be added, removed, or changed.
3. You can only change coefficients.
4. Coefficients can only go in front of chemical
formulas...NEVER in the middle of a formula.
A few extra tips:

Try balancing big formulas first; save free elements for
last.
Balancing
Equations
Balance the following equation by adjusting
coefficients. N + 3 H  2NH
2 2 3
reactants products
N 2 21
H 6
2 63
Balancing
Equations
Balance the following equation by adjusting
coefficients.
2 KClO3  2KCl + 3O2
reactants products
K 1
2 12
Cl 1
2 1
2
O 3
6 2
6
2 4 3
Balance the following reactions:
HOMEWORK:
Lesson
Two
Exercises
CHEMICAL
EQUATIONS
Guess What?!
Yesssss it is the
time to enrich our
Scientific Islamic
Knowledge
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LyIGsPf
MwFc
Marking the Homework:
1. Look at the equations below. You need to balance each one so that there are the same number of
atoms on each side.
a. H2(g) + O2(g) -> H2O (l)
b. CH4(g) + O2(g) -> CO2(g) + H2O (l)
c. Zn(s) + HCl(aq) -> ZnCl2(s) + H2(g)
d. CO2(g) + H2O (l) -> C6H12O6(s) + O2(g)
e. C2H6(g) + O2(g) -> CO2(g) + H2O (l)
f. AgNO3(aq) + CaCl2 (aq) -> Ca(NO3)2(aq) + AgCl

1. Look at the equations below. You need to balance each one so that there are the same number of
atoms on each side.
a. 2 H2(g) + O2(g) -> 2 H2O (l)
b. CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) -> CO2(g) + 2 H2O (l)
c. Zn(s) + 2 HCl(aq) -> ZnCl2(s) + H2(g)
d. 6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O (l) -> C6H12O6(s) + 6 O2(g)
e. 2 C2H6(g) + 7 O2(g) -> 4 CO2(g) + 6 H2O (l)
f. 2 AgNO3(aq) + CaCl2 (aq) -> Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2 AgCl

Let us practice
more:
Lesson Three
Learning
Objective:
To calculate relative formula

masses (including relative
molecular masses) (Mr) from
relative atomic masses (Ar)
Keywords
Relative Chemical
Products
Formula Mass Equation
Word
Unit
Equation
Subscript Reactants
What is a chemical equation?
• Chemical equation - Describes a chemical change.
• Parts of an equation:
List some observations from a chemical change.
Reactant Product
H2 + 0.5 O2 H2O
Reaction symbol
Chemical equation
An equation can be written in words – a word equation.
sodium + chlorine  sodium chloride
An equation can also be written with symbols and formulae instead

of words – a chemical equation.
2Na + Cl2  2NaCl
Subscripts and Coefficients
Subscript - shows how many atoms of an element are in a

molecule.
• EX: H2O
• 2 atoms of hydrogen (H)
• 1 atom of oxygen (O)
Example: A Chemical Reaction
2H2 + O2  2H2O
Relative Atomic Masses
The periodic table does not show mass numbers, but relative
atomic masses.
Relative Atomic Masses
The periodic table does not show mass numbers, but relative
atomic masses.
Relative Formula Mass

The relative formula mass (Mr), sometimes written RFM,
is the sum of the Relative Atomic Masses of all the atoms in the substance’s
formula.
The units of relative formula mass are g/mol.
(We’ll see why later)

e.g. The formula for water is H2O. What is its Mr ?
Add the Relative Atomic Masses (Ar or RAM) of the atoms

involved:
From periodic table

RAM of H=1 and RAM of O=16
but we have 2 x H and 1 x O
So RFM = (2 x 1) + (1 x 16)
therefore, the relative formula mass of H2O = 18 g/mol

Practice:
Work out the Relative Formula Mass, Mr, of:
Hydrochloric acid HCl
Methane CH4
Carbon disulphide CS2
Copper sulphate CuSO4
Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2
Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4
Answers:
Work out the Relative Formula Mass, Mr, of:

Hydrochloric acid HCl 36.5 g/mol
Methane CH4 16 g/mol
76 g/mol
Carbon disulphide CS2
160 g/mol
Copper sulphate CuSO4
58 g/mol
Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 132 g/mol
Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4
1.26 calculate relative formula masses (including relative molecular
masses) (Mr) from relative atomic masses (Ar)
1.26 calculate relative formula masses (including relative molecular
masses) (Mr) from relative atomic masses (Ar)
HOMEWORK
Lesson
Four
Number
of Moles
Chemistry
Year 9
Learning Objectives:
To know that the mole (mol) is the unit for the
amount of a substance
To understand how to carry out calculations
involving amount of substance, relative atomic
mass (Ar) and relative formula mass (Mr)
Keywords:
Moles
Molar Mass
Avogadro’s Number
Let’s know more about
muslim great minds
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LyIG
sPfMwFc
Before we
start, let
us recall
“Relative
Formula
Mass”
The relative formula mass (Mr), sometimes written

RFM,
is the sum of the Relative Atomic Masses of all the
atoms in the substance’s formula.
The units of relative formula mass are g/mol.
(We’ll see why later)

e.g. The formula for water is H2O. What is its Mr ?
Add the Relative Atomic Masses (Ar or RAM) of the atoms

involved:
From periodic table

RAM of H=1 and RAM of O=16
but we have 2 x H and 1 x O
So RFM = (2 x 1) + (1 x 16)
therefore, the relative formula mass of H2O = 18 g/mol

HOMEWORK
CORRECTION
1.26 calculate relative formula masses (including relative
molecular masses) (Mr) from relative atomic masses (Ar)
What does
"Mole" mean
in Chemistry
When you hear the word
“Mole” you might think
about a small hairy
animal or just a big dark
spot on your body.
But in chemistry the
mole is a completely
different thing.
WHAT IS THE MOLE?
Mole is the unit representing
the amount of atoms, ions, or
molecules.
One Mole is the amount of a

substance that contains 6
x 1023 particles (Atoms,
Molecules or Formulae) of the
substance (6 x 1023 is known
as the Avogadro Number).
Examples:
Atoms Molecules Formulae

• 1 mole of • 1 mole of • 1 mole of
Sodium (Na) Hydrogen (H2) Sodium
contains 6 x contains 6 x Chloride (NaCl)
1023 Atoms of 1023 Molecule contains 6 x
Sodium s of Hydrogen 1023 Formula
e of Sodium
Chloride
The Mole
Each mole of any substance has 6.023x10^23 of that substance.
One mole of any substance contains exactly the same AMOUNT

of that substance as one mole of any OTHER substance.
The relative formula mass of a substance, weighed out in grams,

is
known as one mole of that substance.
This means that the units of relative atomic mass, and relative
formula mass, are grams per mole: g/mol.
e.g. 18g/mol of water (H2O) contains exactly the same number of

molecules as 2g /mol of hydrogen (H2) or 32g/mol of oxygen (O2).
Mole Calculations
Converting between mass and moles:
mass (g) = moles of substance x relative formula mass
moles (n) = mass of substance (g)

relative formula
mass
One mole of different elements
Practice: What is the mass of:
How many moles are there in: 0.1 moles of copper oxide
4g of hydrogen (H2) (CuO)
36g of carbon atoms (C) 2 moles of water
160g of ozone (O3) 10 moles of ammonia (NH3)
0.2 moles of ethane (C2H6)
How many moles are there in:
4g of hydrogen (H2) 2
36g of carbon atoms (C) 3
160g of ozone (O3) 3.33..
What is the mass of:

0.1 moles of copper oxide (CuO) 8g
2 moles of water 36g
10 moles of ammonia (NH3) 170g
0.2 moles of ethane (C2H6) 6g
1.34C understand how to carry out calculations involving amount of substance,
volume and concentration (in mol/dm3) of solution
Using Avogadro’s number 602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 atoms

Avogadro’s number is used to convert between moles of a substance and the actual number of
particles (atoms, molecules, ions etc.)
Symbol: NA Value: 6.0 x 1023
“number of…” = “moles of…” x NA

e.g. How many molecules are there in 90g of water?
Step 1: convert mass of water to moles of water
moles of H2O = mass of H20 ÷ Mr of H2O = 90/18 = 5.0 moles
Step 2: multiply moles by NA to get number of particles (molecules in this case)

molecules = moles x NA = 5.0 x 6.0x1023 = 3.0 x 1024 molecules
e.g. A buckyball contains 60 carbon atoms. What does it weigh ?
Step 1: use NA to work out how many moles of C60 one molecule represents
moles of C60 = molecules of C60 ÷ NA = 1 ÷ 6.0x1023 = 1.67 x10-24 moles
Step 2: convert moles to mass Mr of C60 = 60 x 12 = 720 g/mol

HOMEWORK
Lesson Five
Calculating
Reacting
Masses
Chemistr
y
Let us start our lesson with a Duaa about
success! But before, let us define what is
success.
In your point of view, Define success.
Success is something that you have to
define yourself. Being successful is
subjective. We may have different
understandings of what success means to
us.
When we talk about success, generally, it

is often related to wealth or fame.
Indeed, it is more than that. A sense of
accomplishment, a career progression or
even as simple as being able to do things
that we love could also mean success to
us.
Success can also be a whole series of small
achievements we make – or celebrating small
victories. Pursuing success is like shooting a
series of moving targets, each time you hit a
target, another one pops out.
To put things into perspective, success is a

destination in everyone’s journey in life,
whether it’s a business, a school assignment, a
career goal or even your relationship with
others. The complexity of success is about
embarking yourself from one state to another;
it is a change which hopefully results in
happiness and serenity.
The fundamentals of seeking success
There are two main attributes that we must have to become
successful: good character and patience.
1. Dua for attaining good character

Everything starts with you. The secret to attaining success is to purify
the soul and have good character before anything else.
The Prophet s.a.w. tells us the importance of good character in the hadith
“There is nothing which will be put on the believer’s scale (on the Day of
Resurrection) that is heavier than good morals.” (Sunan At-Tirmizi)
This is particularly mentioned in the Quran:
‫َقْد َأْفَلَح َمْن َز َّكاَها َو َقْد َخاَب َمْن َدَّس ٮَها‬

“
Successful indeed is the one who purifies their soul, and the one who
corrupts it fails.”
(Surah Ash-Shams, 91:9-10)
One can become the most successful person in this world, or have
abundant wealth and yet does not achieve the bigger success in life. It all
boils down to your attitude towards yourself, your goals and the people
around you.
2. Dua for seeking
patience
This is not just a Dua to ask for patience
but to also seek a good ending from
Allah s.w.t. It is a Dua to ask for patience
that translates into having
perseverance, consistency in progress
and the ability to commit towards the
ultimate success that you are after.
Allah s.w.t. mentions the importance of
having patience in order to achieve
success in the Quran,
‫ٰۤيـ َا ُّي َها ا َّل ِذ ۡي َن ٰا َم ُنوا ا ۡص ِب ُر ۡوا َو َصا ِب ُر ۡوا َو َرا ِب ُط ۡوا َوا َّت ُقوا ال ّٰل َه َل َع َّل ُك ۡم ُت ۡف ِل ُح ۡو َن‬
“O believers! Patiently endure,
persevere, stand on guard, and be
mindful of Allah, so you may be
successful.”
(Surah Ali-‘Imran, 3:200)
The journey towards success has peaks
and valleys. Therefore, we need to keep
ourselves rooted in patience. Thus, this
highlights the importance of having
patience in life as great things are worth
the wait.
Learning
Objectives
To calculate reacting masses

using experimental data and
chemical equations
Reacting Molar
Keywords
masses ratio
HOMEWORK
Correction
2.14 moles
Using the chemical equation for a reaction
we can use moles to work out what mass of
product we might make, or what mass of
reactants we need.
Use
information Identify the
from the ratio of the
Apply mole
question to substance and
calculations
find the mole reactants and
to find answer
of a find the moles
substance / of others
reactant
e.g. “42g of nitrogen (N2) are reacted with hydrogen (H2) to form ammonia (NH3) according
to the equation N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3. What mass of ammonia will be made?”
Step 1 – What can I work out moles of? (which substance do I know formula and
mass for?)
Moles of N2 = mass of N2 ÷ Mr Mr of N2 = 14 + 14 = 28 g/mol
Moles of N2 = 42 ÷ 28 = 1.5
Step 2 – use the equation to get mole ratios N2 + 3 H2 → 2
NH3
Ratio : 1 : 3 : 2
Moles: 1.5 : 4.5 : 3.0
Write in the number of moles you calculated in step 1, then use the
ratios to work out the moles of the other substances in the equation.
n(target)= coefficient of my target x n(given
coefficient of my given
Try this method  if you hate the ratio rule :P
Step 1 – What can I work out moles of? (which substance do I know formula and mass
for?)
Step 2 – use the equation to get mole ratios n(target)= coefficient of my target x n(given
Step 3 – work out the mass you were asked for in the question
Step 1 – What can I work out moles of? (which substance do I know formula and mass for?)
Step 2 – use the equation to get mole ratios n(target)= coefficient of my target x n(given
Step 3 – work out the mass you were asked for in the question
Mass of calcium chloride =
5.5 grams
Lesson Six
Chemistry
Year 9
Learning Objective:
To calculate
percentage yield
Keywords
Actual
Yield mass
Theoretical
mass
And now, let us start our
lesson by making Dua for
victory and guidance
And now what
about
watching one
of the Great
Muslim Minds?
https://www.youtube.com/wa
tch?v=UHGlfS2MX2c
Percentage Yield
Reactions often do not go all the way to completion, or we don’t manage to recover all the
product made.
- product left behind in the apparatus

Do you know why?
- difficulty separating product from reaction mixture
The amount of product we obtain is called the yield.
How to find the

Percentage yield ( % yield) =
percentage yield?
amount actually made (Experimental is given ) x 100
maximum amount possible (theoretical by calculation)
The maximum amount possible is calculated, assuming all the reactants react completely.
The amount you make is measured.

Example:
Carbon burns in oxygen to make carbon dioxide, but other combustion products
can also be produced. 12g of carbon was burnt, and produced 33g of CO 2. What
was the percentage yield of carbon dioxide?
C + O2  CO2
Step 1: Work out the maximum amount of CO2 which can be made. (using moles)
12g carbon = 1 mole (moles = mass/Mr = 12/12)

mole ratio: 1 mole C makes one mole of CO2
mass CO2 = moles x Mr of CO2 = 1 x 44 = 44 g
Step 2: Work out % yield using actual mass and maximum mass
% yield = actual amount (33g) x 100 = 75%

maximum amount (44g)
Step 1: Work out the maximum amount which can be made. (using moles)
Step 2: Work out % yield using actual mass and maximum mass
More Practice
For the balanced equation shown below, if the reaction of 91.3 grams of
C3H6 produces an 81.3% yield, how many grams of CO2would be
produced?
2C3H6+9O26CO2+6H2O
Silver metal can be prepared by reducing its nitrate,
AgNO3 with copper according to the following equation:
Cu(s) + 2 AgNO3(aq) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2 Ag(s)
What is the percent yield of the reaction if 71.5 grams of Ag

was obtained from 132.5 grams of AgNO3 ?
HOMEWORK
If the reaction of 6.5 grams of C6H12O6 produces 2.5
grams of CO2, what is the percent yield?
HOMEWORK
Oxygen can be produced in laboratories by
decomposition of potassium chlorate, KClO3.
How many grams of KClO3 are needed to

produce 19.2 g of O2 if the reaction yield is
80% ?
2 KClO3(s) → 2 KCl(s) + 3 O2(g)

Lesson Seven
Learning Objectives
1- To calculate the
percentage by mass
(percentage composition)
of an element in a
substance.
2- Practical: To
understand water of
crystallisation
Keywords
si ti o n ation
o m p o ysta l l i s
C Cr
ro u s ou s
Hyd Anhyd r
Percentage
composition H H 1 1
(% by mass) O Ar 16
In general, the % of X in a substance is:
% of X = number of X atoms x Ar of X x 100

Mr of substance
e.g. % of H in CH4
% of H = 4 x 1 x 100 = 25%
A water molecule
16 contains 1 oxygen atom and 2 hydrogen atoms.
16g of every 18g of water is the oxygen atoms, 2g of every 18g of water is hydrogen
atoms.
We can therefore say that water contains (16 ÷ 18) x 100 = 89% oxygen
water contains (2 ÷ 18) x 100 = 11% hydrogen
What percentage (by mass) of sodium oxide (Na2O) is sodium?
Step 1 – get the Relative Atomic Masses Na = 23 O = 16

Step 2 – work out Relative Formula Mass of Na2O Mr = 23 + 23 + 16 = 62 g/mol
Step 3 – use the equation for % composition % Na = 2 x 23 x 100 = 74% Na

62
Using percentages by mass
e.g. What mass of sodium is there in a 20g chunk of sodium oxide? (Answer to 1 d.p.)
(you previously worked out that the % of Na in Na2O is 74%)
Mass of sodium = 74% of 20g = 74 x 20g = 14.8g to 1 d.p.

100
Practice: Work out the % by mass of oxygen in:

What is the mass of oxygen in
MgO = 1 x 16 x 100/(24+16) = 40%
5.5g of magnesium oxide (MgO) ?
CO2 = 2 x 16 x 100/(12+16+16) = 73% % O in MgO = 40% (see above)
40% of 5.5g = 5.5 x 40 = 2.2g
Na2CO3 = 3 x 16 x 100/106 = 45% 100
Water of crystallisation
Crystals of ionic substances can contain fixed numbers of water molecules
as part of the giant ionic lattice. e.g. the formula of copper(II) sulphate
crystals shown here is CuSO4∙5H2O
This means there are 5 water molecules in the lattice for every one Cu2+
and SO42- ion.
The mass of these water molecules must be included
in Mr: CuSO4.5H2O = 63.5 + 32 + (4x16) + 5x(1+1+16)
= 249.5 g/mol
Without the water of crystallisation, the substance is said

to be anhydrous:
We can also get asked for the % by mass of water in crystals having water of crystallisation:
What is the % by mass of water in CuSO4.5H2O ?
In this case:
% of water = number of H2O x Mr of H2O x 100 Mr of CuSO4.5H2O
Mr of hydrated substance = 63.5 + 32 + (4x16) + (5x18)
= 249.5 g/mol
so % H2O = 5 x 18 x 100 = 36%
249.5
Lesson Eight
Learning Objectives
1- To know what is meant by the terms empirical formula

and molecular formula
2- To calculate empirical and molecular formulae from

experimental data
3- To understand how the formulae of simple compounds can be

obtained experimentally, including metal oxides, water and salts
containing water of crystallisation
l
Keywords
pir ica
Em la
form u
lec ul ar
M o
u la
form
1.32 know what is meant by the terms empirical formula and molecular formula
Empirical formula
– the simplest whole-number ratio of the atoms present
Molecular formula
tells you how many of each type of atom in a molecule

e.g. NH3 has one N and three H atoms
The empirical formula can be the same as the molecular formula, but often is different.
e.g. Name Molecular formula Empirical formula
water H2O H 2O
ethane C2H6 CH3
glucose C6H12O6 CH2O
benzene C6H6 CH
hydrazine N2H4 NH2
1.33 calculate empirical and molecular formulae from experimental data
1.31 understand how the formulae of simple compounds can be obtained experimentally, including metal
oxides, water and salts containing water of crystallisation
Experiment to determine empirical formula of a substance

The mass change when an element combines with oxygen can be used to work out the
empirical formula of the oxide. e.g. Magnesium ribbon burns in air to form white magnesium
oxide.
Method:
• weigh a crucible and lid.
• place magnesium ribbon in crucible with lid, and reweigh.
• heat crucible until magnesium burns.
• lift the lid occasionally until there is no further reaction.
• allow the crucible and lid to cool, and reweigh.
• repeat the heating, cooling and reweighing until two
consecutive masses are the same, to make sure that all of the
magnesium has reacted
• calculate the mass of magnesium oxide formed.
e.g. Results
Mass of magnesium before burning: = 1.20g
Mass of magnesium oxide after burning: = 2.00g
Mass of oxygen that reacted = 2.00 – 1.20 = 0.80g
Calculation Mg O
mass (g) 1.20 0.80
÷ Ar (g/mol) 24 16
Mole(m/Mr) 1.2/24 0.08/16
0.05 : 0.05
Ratio = 0.05/0.05 0.05/0.05 divide all by smallest to get whole numb
1 : 1 The formula of magnesium oxide is MgO

Experiment to calculate number of waters of crystallisation

The change in mass of crystals when they are heated to drive off the water of crystallisation
is used to work out how many waters of crystallisation the crystals contain.
e.g. hydrated copper(II) sulphate crystals have the formula:
CuSO4.nH20 where n = integer
To find ‘n’:
• Weigh the hydrated crystals.
• Heat until all the water has been given off (the crystals turn white)
• Allow to cool and weigh the anhydrous crystals.
Example:
Results
Mass of hydrated crystals (before heating): 4.99g
Mass of anhydrous crystals (after heating): 3.19g
Mass of water given off = 4.99 – 3.19 = 1.80g
Experiment to calculate number of waters of crystallisation
Calculation
Mr of CuSO4 = 63.5 + 32 + (4 x 16) = 159.5 g/mol
Mr of water = 1 + 1 + 16 = 18 g/mol
Use a table format like this to lay out your working:
CuSO4 H 2O
mass (g) 3.19 1.80
÷
Mr (g/mol) 159.5 18
Mole (m/Mr) 0.02 0.1

=
Ratio 0.02/0.02 0.1/0.02 (divide all by smallest)
1 : 5
So the formula is CuSO4 ∙ 5H20
Lesson Nine
Empirical formula calculations

e.g. A substance contains 4.0g calcium, 1.2g carbon and 4.8g oxygen. What is its empirical
formula? Use a table like this to lay out your working:
Ca C O
mass 4.0 1.2 4.8
÷ Ar 40 12 16
= ratio 0.1 0.1 0.3 divide all by smallest to get whole numbers
1 : 1 : 3 Formula is CaCO3
We also get questions where we are given percentage of each element (or of all but one
element – remember the percentages must add up to 100%), rather than mass. The
method is the same:
e.g. A hydrocarbon contains 25% of hydrogen and 75% of carbon. What is its empirical
formula?
H C
mass 25% 75%
Ar 1 12
Ratio 25 6.25  all by smallest to get whole numbers
4 1 Formula is CH4
Practice:
A compound of phosphorus and fluorine only, contains 24.6% phosphorus. What is its
empirical formula?
P F
Mass 24.6 75.4

Ar 31 19
Mole 0.79 3.97
Ratio 0.79/0.79 3.97/0.79
1 5 formula PF5
Sometimes the ‘whole numbers’ don’t come out as perfect integers – usually because of
rounding errors e.g. in the masses used. If your answer is NEARLY a whole number
e.g. 2.997 or 3.0017 … then you should round it to a whole number.
If your answer is in-between whole numbers, it may be a fraction (e.g. ½):

Al O
Ratio 1 : 1.5 … deal with this by multiplying everything up x 2
2 : 3 Formula is Al2O3
From empirical to molecular formula
If you have worked out the empirical formula for a substance and you know the relative
formula mass, Mr, of the substance, then you can work out the molecular formula.
1. Add up the Molar masses of the atoms in the empirical formula

2. Divide the relative formula mass by Molar masses of the atoms in the empirical formula
3. Multiply all the numbers in the empirical formula by this amount
4. e.g. The empirical formula of a substance is found to be NO2. The relative formula mass
is found by mass spectrometry experiments, and found to be 92. What is the molecular
formula of this substance?
Empirical formula = NO2 Mr = 92
Step 1: NO2 = 14 + 16 + 16 = 46
Step 2: 92/46 = 2
Step 3: NO2 x 2 so molecular formula is N2O4
Practice:
Determine the molecular formula of these substances:
HO
empirical formula HO Mr = 34 2 2
C4H8
empirical formula CH2 Mr = 56
C6H6
empirical formula CH Mr = 78
Lesson Ten
Keywords
rati o n o n
e nt Di lu ti
Conc
l ume Room e
r Vo rat ur
M o la Tempe
Moles in solution
concentration (mol /dm3) = moles
volume (in dm3)
e.g. 7.3g of HCl are dissolved in 0.1 dm3 (100cm3) of water. What is the concentration of the
HCl solution?
Mr of HCl = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5

moles of HCl = mass of HCl / Mr of HCl = 7.3  36.5 = 0.2 mole
concentration = moles of HCl  volume of solution in dm3 = 0.2  0.1 = 2 mol/dm3
Concentrated:
a concentrated acid (or alkali) has a large number of acid molecules per cm 3 of aqueous
solution.
Dilute:
a dilute acid (or alkali) has a small number of acid molecules per cm 3 of aqueous solution.
The units of concentration are mol/dm3 Note: 1dm3 = 1000cm3 and 1 dm3 = 1 litre
A solution with a concentration of 1 mol/dm3 has one mole of the solute dissolved in 1 dm3
of the solution.
A solution of 0.1 mol/dm3 is only a tenth of the concentration, i.e. it is ten times more
dilute.
We can also work out how many moles are in a solution if we know its concentration and its
volume:
moles = concentration (in mol/dm3) x volume (in dm3)
e.g. How many moles of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) would I need to dissolve to make up
500cm3 of solution with 0.1 mol/dm3 concentration ? Remember 1000cm3 = 1dm3
Step 1: Work out how many moles of NaOH would be needed (and convert volume to dm 3)
moles of NaOH = concentration x volume in dm3 = 0.1 x 0.5 = 0.05 mol
Step 2: Work out the mass of sodium hydroxide needed for this number of moles
Mr of NaOH = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40
mass of NaOH = moles of NaOH x Mr of NaOH = 0.05 x 40 = 2.0g
Practice:
How many moles of sodium chloride would I need in order to make 250cm 3 of solution
with concentration 2 mol/dm3 ?
What would the mass of the sodium chloride be ?
If I only had 5.85 g of sodium chloride, what concentration solution would I get if I
dissolved it to make 100cm3 of solution ?
How many moles of sodium chloride would I need in order to make 250cm 3 of solution
with concentration 2 mol/dm3 ?
250cm3 = 0.25 dm3
Moles of NaCl = conc x vol (dm3) = 2.0 x 0.25 = 0.5 moles
What would the mass of the sodium chloride be ?

Mr of NaCl = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5
Mass of NaCl = moles x Mr = 0.5 x 58.5 = 29.25g
If I only had 5.85 g of sodium chloride, what concentration solution would I get if I
dissolved it to make 100cm3 of solution ?
100cm3 = 0.1dm3
Moles of NaCl = mass of NaCl / Mr = 5.85 / 58.5 = 0.1 moles
Concentration = moles / volume (dm3) = 0.1 / 0.1 = 1.0 mol/dm3
1.35C understand how to carry out calculations involving gas volumes and the molar
volume of a gas (24 dm3 and 24 000 cm3 at room temperature and pressure (rtp))
Moles of gases
It is not always convenient to work with masses of a gas. We usually measure volumes instead.
1 mole of any gas has a volume of 24.0 dm3 at room temperature and pressure. This is called
the molar volume. N.B. 1 dm3 = 1000cm3
number of moles = volume of gas (dm3)

molar volume
volume (dm3) = number of moles x molar volume
Practice converting volume to moles:

How many moles of gas in: What volume would be occupied by:
i) 6.0 dm3 of CO2 0.25 mol i) 0.5 moles of CH4 12 dm3
ii) 2.4 dm3 of NH3 0.1 mol ii) 2.0 moles of H2 48 dm3
iii) 240cm3 of O2 0.01 mol iii) 0.0125 moles of N2 300 cm3
Moles of gases
number of moles = volume of gas (dm3)

molar volume
volume (dm3) = number of moles x molar volume
We can come across volumes of gas within reacting quantity (mole) calculations:
More practice: “What volume of gas would be collected if 10g of calcium carbonate was
heated until it thermally decomposed: CaCO3(s)  CaO(s) + CO2(g) ”
Hint: calculate moles of CaCO3 decomposing, then use the 1:1:1 mole ratio in the equation to
work out moles of CO2 produced, then convert moles of CO2 to volume of CO2.
Mr of CaCO3 = 40 + 12 + (3 x 16) = 100

Moles of CaCO3 = mass ÷ Mr = 10/100 = 0.1 moles
Mole ratio is 1:1 so 0.1 moles of CaCO3 produces 0.1 moles of CO2
Volume of CO2 (dm3) = moles x molar volume = 0.1 x 24 = 2.4 dm3
Lesson Eleven
Keywords
Oxid e u sti on
ta l om b
Me C
le c ti on
Cru c ib Redu
1.36 practical: know how to determine the formula of a metal oxide by combustion
(e.g. magnesium oxide) or by reduction (e.g. copper(II) oxide)
There are two main methods available for determination by experiment;
(a) by direct reaction between the element and oxygen/air.
(b) by reduction of the metal oxide (only for metals low in reactivity series), using hydrogen or
methane.
Example (a): a crucible was weighed with its lid (6.20g).
A coiled piece of magnesium ribbon was added, and it was weighed again (6.68g).
The crucible was heated [diagram (a)] until the magnesium started to burn, then the lid was
raised for brief periods until it had ceased to burn.
It was heated to constant mass with the lid off.
The final mass of crucible, lid and magnesium oxide was 7.00g.
Find the empirical formula of the magnesium oxide. [Mg=24; O=16]
1.36 practical: know how to determine the formula of a metal oxide by combustion
(e.g. magnesium oxide) or by reduction (e.g. copper(II) oxide)
There are two main methods available for determination by experiment;
(a) by direct reaction between the element and oxygen/air.
(b) by reduction of the metal oxide (only for metals low in reactivity series), using hydrogen or
methane.
Example (b): a porcelain boat was weighed empty (3.620g).
Some red copper oxide was added, and it was weighed again (4.832g). The apparatus was
assembled as in the diagram (b).
The hydrogen cylinder was switched on, and the air was swept out of the test tube before
igniting the gas at the exit hole.
The boat was heated until all the copper oxide had been reduced, and the hydrogen flow was
left on while the boat cooled, to prevent air reaching the hot copper.
On reweighing the boat, its mass was 4.696g.
Find the empirical formula of the copper oxide. [Cu=63.5; O=16]

1.e Chemical Formulae, Equations and Calculations (1)

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Lesson

This year commemorates the 150

2Mg (s) + O2(g)

An equation can also be written with symbols and

CH4 + O2  CO2 + H2O

Reactant Side Product Side

1 carbon atom 1 carbon atom

A few extra tips:

a. H2(g) + O2(g) -> H2O (l)

b. CH4(g) + O2(g) -> CO2(g) + H2O (l)

c. Zn(s) + HCl(aq) -> ZnCl2(s) + H2(g)

d. CO2(g) + H2O (l) -> C6H12O6(s) + O2(g)

e. C2H6(g) + O2(g) -> CO2(g) + H2O (l)

f. AgNO3(aq) + CaCl2 (aq) -> Ca(NO3)2(aq) + AgCl

a. 2 H2(g) + O2(g) -> 2 H2O (l)

b. CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) -> CO2(g) + 2 H2O (l)

c. Zn(s) + 2 HCl(aq) -> ZnCl2(s) + H2(g)

d. 6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O (l) -> C6H12O6(s) + 6 O2(g)

e. 2 C2H6(g) + 7 O2(g) -> 4 CO2(g) + 6 H2O (l)

f. 2 AgNO3(aq) + CaCl2 (aq) -> Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2 AgCl

To calculate relative formula

An equation can also be written with symbols and formulae instead

Subscript - shows how many atoms of an element are in a

Relative Formula Mass

(We’ll see why later)

Add the Relative Atomic Masses (Ar or RAM) of the atoms

From periodic table

therefore, the relative formula mass of H2O = 18 g/mol

Work out the Relative Formula Mass, Mr, of:

The relative formula mass (Mr), sometimes written

(We’ll see why later)

e.g. The formula for water is H2O. What is its Mr ?

Add the Relative Atomic Masses (Ar or RAM) of the atoms

From periodic table

therefore, the relative formula mass of H2O = 18 g/mol

One Mole is the amount of a

Atoms Molecules Formulae

One mole of any substance contains exactly the same AMOUNT

The relative formula mass of a substance, weighed out in grams,

e.g. 18g/mol of water (H2O) contains exactly the same number of

moles (n) = mass of substance (g)

What is the mass of:

Using Avogadro’s number 602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 atoms

Symbol: NA Value: 6.0 x 1023

“number of…” = “moles of…” x NA

Step 2: multiply moles by NA to get number of particles (molecules in this case)

Step 2: convert moles to mass Mr of C60 = 60 x 12 = 720 g/mol

When we talk about success, generally, it

To put things into perspective, success is a

1. Dua for attaining good character

This is particularly mentioned in the Quran:

‫َقْد َأْفَلَح َمْن َز َّكاَها َو َقْد َخاَب َمْن َدَّس ٮَها‬

To calculate reacting masses

- product left behind in the apparatus

The amount of product we obtain is called the yield.

How to find the

The amount you make is measured.

12g carbon = 1 mole (moles = mass/Mr = 12/12)

% yield = actual amount (33g) x 100 = 75%

Cu(s) + 2 AgNO3(aq) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2 Ag(s)