error

Chapter one
Errors in Measurements
Objective:
To understand and analyze the

cause of errors and find ways of
reducing them
Introduction
 In the process of making any measurements,

errors and uncertainties are inherent. This is
also true with instrument used in the
measurement.
 the study of error is important as a step in

finding ways of reducing them, and also as
a means of estimating the reliability of final
results.
Measuring instrument
its accuracy and precision depends

- Design
- Selection of materials
- Skill of manufacturing
Definition of Error
• Difference between a measured quantity and its true
value
 y  
Where:
ε = the error in the
measurement
y = the measured value
μ = the true value
Characteristics of Measurements
• No measurements are exact.

• All measurements contain errors.
• The true value of a quantity being measured is
never known
• The exact sizes of errors are unknown
What is difference between error and uncertainty?
Error is the difference between the true value of the

measurand and the measured value. ...
Accuracy is an expression of the lack of error.
Uncertainty characterizes the range of values within

which the true value is asserted to lie with some level
of confidence.
Uncertainty is reflects the doubt about the accuracy
of a measurement ,often expressed as range or margin
of error.
Classification of error
• There are three different types of error in
measurement system.
1. systematic error
2. random error
3. gross error
Types of errors
1. Gross errors – these errors occur due to human
mistakes in reading instruments
and recording & calculating results
in measurements. The mathematical
analysis of these errors is impossible
since these may occur in different
amounts.
To avoid gross errors:
o care should be taken while the reading and
recording the data
o more reading should be taken for the quantity
being measured.
2. Systematic errors
- are repeated consistently with the repetition
of the experiment.
- these errors cannot be determined by direct
repetitive observation of the measurand made
each time with same technique
- can be located only by having repeated
measurement under different conditions or
different equipment and method.
These errors may be
Instrumental, environmental or Observational errors

Instrumental errors
may arise due to:
o inherent shortcomings of instruments
o misuse of instruments
o loading effects of instruments
Some examples:
- mechanical friction - displaced scale
- backlash - non-uniform division of
- pointer drag the scale
- constructional faults - bent or distorted pointer
- poor maintenance
Environmental errors
- errors due to conditions external to the
measuring device
Some examples:
effects of temperature
pressure
humidity
dust
vibrations
external magnetic or
electrostatics fields
Environmental errors can be eliminated or reduced
by taking the following measures:
 using the instrument in controlled conditions of
pressure, temperature, humidity in which it was
originally assembled and calibrated
 measure deviations in the local conditions from
the calibrated ones and then apply a suitable
corrections to the instrument readings
 make a complete new calibration under the
local conditions
 in case it is suspected that external magnetic or
electrostatic fields can effect the reading of the
instruments, magnetic shield may be provided
 apply computed corrections when needed and
are necessary
Observational errors
These errors occurs due to carelessness of the operators.
Even when an instrument has been properly selected,
carefully installed and faithfully calibrated, shortcoming
in the measurement occurs due to certain failings on the
part of the observer.
Some reasons of occurrence:
 parallax (an object appears to change its position
because the person or instrument observing
it has change their position)
 wrong scale reading and wrong recording of data
 inaccurate estimates of average reading
 incorrect conversion of units in between consecutive
readings
3. Random errors
 are accidental, small and independent
 they vary in an unpredictable manner
 the magnitude and direction of these errors
cannot be predicted from a knowledge of
measurement system
Some common causes:

- friction in instrument movement
- backlash in the movement
- parallax errors between pointer and scale
- hysteresis in elastic members
- mechanical vibrations
Types of Measurement Errors
Sources of errors Characteristic of errors

 Improper sensing position  Systematic errors
 Improper element calibration  Random errors
 Improper data acquisition method  Parameter tracking
 Improper sampling rate (Ch. 5) errors
 Elements non-linearity
 Environment effects
15
Other sources of errors
o noise – any signal that does not convey useful
information
o response time – the time taken by the instrument
to show 63.2% change in a reading
o design limitations – in the design of instrument,
certain inevitable factors such
friction lead to uncertainty of
measurement
o energy exchanged by interaction
o transmission
o deterioration of measuring system
o ambient influences on measuring systems
o errors of observation and interpretation
Measurement Errors
True Measured
Value Value
Sensing Conditioning Processing Presentation
Element Element Element Element
I O
K1 K2 K3 K4
•None of the elements can be perfectly

manufactured and integrated in the system,
hence error.
•Error increases through different measurement
elements from sensor element to output
element.
17
Ways to Reduce Measurement Error
• Double check all measurements for accuracy.

Double check your formulas are correct.
• Make sure observers and measurement takers
are well trained.
• Make the measurement with the instrument
that has the highest precision.
• Take the measurements under controlled
conditions.
Make Measurements several Times
Make Measurements on Several Instruments
Make successive Measurements on different parts
of instruments (different parts of ruler)
End of presentation
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Chapter one

To understand and analyze the

 In the process of making any measurements,

 the study of error is important as a step in

its accuracy and precision depends

• No measurements are exact.

Error is the difference between the true value of the

Accuracy is an expression of the lack of error.

Uncertainty characterizes the range of values within

These errors may be

Instrumental, environmental or Observational errors

Some common causes:

Sources of errors Characteristic of errors

•None of the elements can be perfectly

• Double check all measurements for accuracy.

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