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Chapter 04

Exercise
Metabolism
EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY
Theory and Application to
Fitness and Performance
Twelfth Edition
Scott K. Powers, Edward T. Howley, John
C. Quindry

© McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.
 Energy requirements at rest

Almost 100% of A T P is produced by aerobic

metabolism

Blood lactate levels are low (<1.0 m m o l/L)

Resting O2 consumption (MET):

• ~3.5 ml/kg/min

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 VO2 max and Incremental Exercise
Oxygen uptake increases linearly until maximal oxygen
uptake (VO2 max) is achieved

• No further increase in VO2 with increasing work rate

• “Physiological ceiling” for delivery of O2 to muscle

• Influenced by both genetics and training

Physiological factors influencing VO2 max

• Maximum ability of cardiorespiratory system to deliver
oxygen to the muscle
• Ability of muscles to use oxygen and produce A T P
aerobically
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 Oxygen consumption (VO2) during an incremental
exercise test

Fig 4.8 Access the text alternative for slide images.

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 Lactate Threshold

Lactate threshold is the work rate at which blood lactate

lactic rises disproportionally during incremental
exercise
• Appears at approximately 50 to 60% VO2 max in untrained
subjects
• Occurs at higher work rates (65 to 80% VO2 max) in
endurance trained subjects
Lactate threshold has also been called:
• Anaerobic threshold
• Onset of blood lactate accumulation (O B L A)

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 Lactate threshold

Fig 4.9 Access the text alternative for slide images.

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 Possible explanations for the lactate threshold

Low muscle oxygen (hypoxia)

Recruitment of fast-twitch muscle fibers
• L D H isozyme in fast fibers promotes lactate vs pyruvate
formation
Reduced rate of lactate removal from the blood
Accelerated glycolysis (dependence to meet ATP
demand)
• N A D H produced faster than it is shuttled into
mitochondria
• Excess N A D H in cytoplasm converts pyruvate into
lactate
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 Mitochondrial hydrogen shuttle system and lactate
production

Fig 4.10 Access the text alternative for slide images.

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 Practical uses of lactate threshold

Prediction of endurance performance (for example, 10K

run)
• Combined with running economy

Planning training programs

• Marker of training intensity
• Select a training HR based on lactate threshold
• Training near (just below) lactate threshold is effective in
shifting lactate threshold to right

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 For details about the removal of lactate following
exercise, See A Closer Look 4.1

Access the text alternative for slide images.

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 Exercise intensity domains

TABLE 4.1 Exercise Intensity is Classified into Four Domains. See Text for More Details
Exercise-Intensity Exercise Intensity %Maximal  max
%VO Subject Perception of
2
Category Relative to Lactate Heart Rate Exercise Intensity
Threshold
Moderate < lactate threshold 50 to 75% <60% (untrained Light to somewhat hard
subject)

Heavy > lactate threshold 76 to 85% 60 to 75% Hard

Very Heavy > lactate threshold 86 to 100% 76 to 100% Very Hard

Severe > lactate threshold 100% >100% All out exercise

(maximal effort)

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 The four domains of exercise intensity

Fig 4.1 Access the text alternative for slide images.

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 Energy requirement during rest-to-exercise transitions
A T P production increases immediately and oxygen
uptake increases rapidly
• Reaches steady state within 1 to 4 minutes
• After steady state is reached, A T P requirement is met
through aerobic A T P production (at or below vo2max)

Initial A T P production via anaerobic pathways

• ATP-P C system
• Glycolysis
Oxygen deficit
• Lag in oxygen uptake at the beginning of exercise
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 Time course of A T P utilization and oxygen
consumption in transition from rest to submaximal
exercise

Fig 4.2 Access the text alternative for slide images.

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 Role of phosphocreatine system and glycolysis in A T P
production during 3-minute bout of exercise

Fig 4.3 Access the text alternative for slide images.

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 Recovery from exercise: Oxygen Deficit/Debt
Oxygen uptake remains elevated above rest during recovery
from exercise
Oxygen debt
• Term coined by A.V. Hill
• Hill believed that the elevated O2 consumption post exercise
was repayment for O2 deficit at onset of exercise
• Oxygen deficit concept proved to be partially incorrect

Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (E P O C)

• More recently, E P O C was coined to replace the term “oxygen
debt”
• Terminology reflects that only approximately 20% elevated O 2
consumption used to “repay” O2 deficit

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 Oxygen deficit and excess post-exercise O2
consumption (E P O C)

Fig 4.4 Access the text alternative for slide images.

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 Mechanisms responsible for rapid and slow components
of E P O C

Rapid portion of E P O C
• Elevated O2 consumption used for:
• Re-synthesis of stored P C in muscle
• Replenishing muscle (myoglobin) and blood (hemoglobin) O 2 stores

Slow portion of O2 debt

• Increased blood levels of epinephrine and norepinephrine
= increases metabolic rate
• Increased O2 needed for increased metabolic rate
• Elevated heart rate, breathing, and body temp
• Conversion of lactate to glucose (gluconeogenesis)
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 E P O C is greater following high intensity exercise-why?

Higher body temperature

Greater depletion of P C
• Additional O2 required for re-synthesis

Greater concentrations of lactate in blood

• Additional O2 required for gluconeogenesis

Higher levels of blood epinephrine and norepinephrine

at end of exercise

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 Summary of factors contributing to post-exercise
oxygen consumption

Fig 4.6 Access the text alternative for slide images.

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 Endurance trained individuals have a lower O2 deficit
than sedentary

Trained subjects have a lower oxygen deficit-why?

• Better developed aerobic bioenergetic capacity due to
cardiovascular (more capillaries) and muscular
adaptations (greater mitochondrial volume)
• Increased mitochondrial volume in muscle fibers results in
less lactate production at beginning of exercise

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 Metabolic responses to exercise: influence of intensity
and duration

Metabolic Responses to short-term, high intensity

exercise
• 1–5 seconds of exercise
• A T P produced via A T P-P C system

• Intense exercise >5 seconds

• Shift to A T P production via glycolysis

• Events lasting >45 seconds

• A T P production through A T P-P C, glycolysis, and aerobic
systems
• 70% anaerobic/30% aerobic at 60 seconds
• 50% anaerobic/50% aerobic at 2 minutes
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 Metabolic responses to exercise: influence of duration
and intensity

Metabolic Responses to prolonged exercise (>10

minutes) in cool environment
• A T P production primarily from aerobic metabolism
• Steady-state oxygen uptake can generally be maintained
during submaximal exercise (below lactate threshold)
Prolonged exercise in a hot and humid environment or at
high intensity
• Results in upward drift in oxygen uptake over time due to
increases in body temperature and increasing blood levels
of epinephrine and norepinephrine

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 Impact of exercise intensity and ambient temperature on
VO2 during exercise

Exercise at 50% VO2max in a

hot/humid environment

Exercise at 75% VO2max

in a cool environment

Fig 4.7 Access the text alternative for slide images.

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 Estimation of fuel utilization during submaximal
exercise 1

Measurement of respiratory exchange ratio provides a

noninvasive technique to estimate fuel utilization during
exercise
• The respiratory exchange ratio (R) is the ratio of carbon dioxide
produced to the oxygen consumed (VCO2/VO2)
• The caloric equivalent for oxygen is 4.69 kcal/L when fat alone is used
and 5.05 kcal/L when carbohydrate is the only fuel (approximately 6%
difference between fuels)
• Using R to estimate fuel utilization assumes that protein is NOT used
as a fuel during exercise
• In order for R to be used as an estimate of substrate utilization during
exercise, the subject must be in a steady-state.

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 Estimation of fuel utilization during submaximal exercise

R for fat (palmitic acid)

C16H32O2  23 O2  16 CO2  16 H2O

VCO2 16 CO2
R  0.70
VO2 23 O2

R for carbohydrate (glucose)

C16H12O6  6 O2  6 CO2  6 H2O

VCO2 6 CO2
R  1.00
VO2 6 O2

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 Percentage of fat and carbohydrate metabolized
determined by R

TABLE 4.2 Percentage of Fat and Carbohydrate Metabolized as Determined by a Nonprotein

Respiratory Exchange Ratio (R) and the Caloric Equivalent for Oxygen (kcal  L-1O2 )
R % Fat % Carbohydrate (kcal  L-1O2 )

0.70 100 0 4.69

0.75 83 17 4.74

0.80 61 33 4.80

0.85 50 50 4.86

0.90 33 67 4.92

0.95 17 83 4.99

1.00 0 100 5.05

Source: Knoebel, Leon K. “Energy Metabolism,” Physiology. Boston,

MA: Little Brown & Company, 1984.

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 Factors governing fuel selection during exercise

Fuel selection during exercise is influenced by several

factors including:
• Exercise intensity (ATP demand)
• Exercise duration (fuel availability)
• Availability of fuels (for example, availability of muscle
glycogen and glucose in blood and availability of free fatty
acids

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 Exercise intensity and fuel selection

Low-intensity exercise (<30% VO2 max)

• Fats are primary fuel during prolonged low intensity exercise
High-intensity exercise (>70% VO2 max)
• Carbohydrates are primary fuel
“Crossover” concept
• Describes the shift from fat to C H O metabolism as exercise
intensity increases
• Due to:
• Recruitment of fast muscle fibers
• Increasing blood levels of epinephrine stimulate glycogen
breakdown
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 Exercise intensity and fuel utilization during exercise:
crossover concept

Fig 4.12 Access the text alternative for slide images.

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 McArdle’s syndrome: a genetic error in muscle glycogen
metabolism

• Individuals with McArdle’s Syndrome cannot synthesize

the muscle enzyme phosphorylase due to genetic
mutation; this results in the inability to break down muscle
glycogen
• McArdle’s Syndrome patients do not produce lactate
during an incremental exercise test and complain of
exercise intolerance and muscle pain
• McArdle’s Syndrome patients use proportionally more fat
as fuel, BUT they are not able to burn more fat as
carbohydrate availability limits fat oxidation rates.

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 Interaction of fat and CHO metabolism during exercise

“Fats burn in the flame of carbohydrates”

Glycogen is depleted during prolonged high-intensity
exercise. This results in:
• Reduced rate of glycolysis and production of pyruvate
• Reduced Citric acid (Krebs) cycle intermediates
• Reduced fat oxidation
• Fats are metabolized by Citric acid (Krebs) cycle

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 Exercise duration and fuel selection 1

Prolonged, low-intensity exercise

• Promotes a gradual shift from carbohydrate metabolism
toward fat metabolism
Due to an increased rate of lipolysis
• Breakdown of triglycerides → glycerol + F F A
• By enzymes called lipases

• Stimulated by rising blood levels of several fat releasing

hormones (chapter 5)

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 Exercise duration and fuel selection 2

Fig 4.13 Access the text alternative for slide images.

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 What exercise intensity is best for burning fat?

Prolonged exercise at low intensity (approximately 20% VO2 max)

• High percentage of energy expenditure (approximately 66%) derived
from fat
-1
• However, total energy expended is low (3 kcal min )
• Total fat oxidation is also low (2 kcal min-1 )
Prolonged exercise at higher intensities (approximately 60% VO2
max)
• Lower percentage of energy (approximately 33%) from fat
-1
• Total energy expended is higher (9 kcal min )
• Total fat oxidation is also higher (3 kcal min-1 )
FATmax
• Highest rate of fat oxidation
• Reached just before lactate threshold

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 Impact of exercise intensity on fat metabolism

Fig 4.14 Access the text alternative for slide images.

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 Sources of fuel supply during exercise

Carbohydrate
• Muscle glycogen
• Blood glucose (diet and liver)
Amino acid (small amounts)
• Muscle protein
Free fatty acids
• Muscle fat stores
• White adipocytes-numerous locations in body

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 Body fuel storage

TABLE 4.3 Principal Storage Sites of Carbohydrate and Fat in the Body of a Healthy,
Non-obese (20% Body Fat), 70-kg Male Subject

Note that dietary intake of carbohydrate influences the amount of glycogen stored in both the liver and
muscle. Mass units for storage are grams (g) and kilograms (kg). Energy units are kilocalories (kcal) and
kilojoules (kJ). Data are from references 31, 33, and 69.

Carbohydrate (C H O)
Storage Site Mixed Diet High-C H O Diet Low-C H O Diet
Liver glycogen 60 g (240 kcal or 1005 kJ) 90 g (360 kcal or 1507 kJ) <30 g (120 kcal or 502 kJ)
Glucose in blood and 10 g (40 kcal or 167 kJ) 10 g (40 kcal or 167 kJ) 10 g (40 kcal or 167 kJ)
extracellular fluid
Muscle glycogen 350 g (1400 kcal or 5860 600 g (2400 kcal or 300 g (1200 kcal or 5023
kJ) 10,046 kJ) kJ)
Storage Site Fat Mixed Diet
Adipocytes 14 kg (107,800 kcal or
451,251 kJ)
Muscle 0.5 kg (3850 kcal or
16,116 kJ)

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 Influence of exercise intensity on fuel source

Fig 4.15 Access the text alternative for slide images.

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 Percent of energy derived from fuel sources during
prolonged submaximal exercise

Fig 4.16 Access the text alternative for slide images.

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 Cori cycle: lactate as a fuel source

Fig 4.17 Access the text alternative for slide images.

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