29/05/2025

B.1 Thermal
energy transfers
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Molecular theory
Particle theory is all about explaining the properties of
solids, liquids and gases by looking at what the particles
do.

SOLIDS

In a solid the particles ______

around a _____ position. There
is a ______ force of attraction
between each particle and
they are very _____ together

Words – strong, close, vibrate, fixed

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LIQUIDS
In a liquid the particles are
_____ together but can move
in any direction. They won’t
keep a _____ shape like _____
do.

GASES
In a gas the particles are very
far apart and move _____ in all
directions. They often ______
with each other and because
they are far apart they can be
easily _______.

Words – fixed, collide, quickly, close, squashed, solids

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Density
Which one is the most
dense and why?

Solid

Gas
Liquid
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Density
Mass m
Density = ρ=
Volume V

1) What is the density of a piece of wood of

600kg/m3
volume 2m3 and mass 1200kg?
2) What is the density of aluminium if 0.5m3 2700kg/m3
has a mass of 1350kg?
3) Air only has a density of 1.3kg/m3. What 3.9kg
is the mass of 3m3 of air?
4) Carbon dioxide is more dense (2kg/m3).
0.25m3
If you had 0.5kg of carbon dioxide what
volume would this be?
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Absolute Temperature
“Absolute Temperature” starts at
0K and represents the
temperature at which particles
have zero kinetic energy. It
goes up in the same steps as
O
C. For example:

1) The freezing point of water is

273K
2) The boiling point of water is
373K
3) Room temperature is around
293K
Lord Kelvin, 1824-
1907
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Temperature and absolute
temperature

The simple relationship between the

Kelvin and Celsius scales is given
here:
T(K) = T(°C) +
273
 Temperature conversion 29/05/2025

practice
T(K) = T(ºC) +
273
1) Convert 37°C to Kelvin. 310K
2) Convert 298K to °C. 25°C
3) The temperature of a glass of water
chages from 15 °C to 23°C.
(a) Calculate the change in
temperature 8°C
in Celsius
(b) Calculate the change in 8K
 Molecular speed and 29/05/2025

Temperature
Clearly, as the temperature of a substance increases, the
kinetic energy of the particles in the substance increases.
We can express this mathematically:

In other words, the kinetic

Ek = 3/2 kBT energy of molecules is
proportional to their Kelvin
temperature
(where kB = Boltzmann Constant = 1.38x10-23 JK-1

1) Calculate the average kinetic energy of particles of

helium if the temperature of the gas is 25OC?
2) Calculate the average kinetic energy of particles of
hydrogen at a temperature of 0OC?
 29/05/2025
Heat and Temperature
Heat is a type of energy that will flow from a warm
area to a colder one. For example…

This cup of coffee will ____ ____

because it is _____ ____ heat energy
into the surroundings. The hotter it
is, the quicker it will lose heat.

This drink (taken out of the

fridge) will _____ ___ because it
is _____ ___ heat energy from
the surroundings.

Words – giving out, warm

up, taking in, cool down
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Heating ice
Temp/OC
150
Why didn’t the temperature
increase here?
100

50

0
Time/s
Or here?
-50
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Heating ice
Temp/OC
150
This flat line shows where energy is
being used to push the particles
further apart for evaporation. The
100 amount of energy needed to turn 1kg
of a liquid into a gas is called the
Specific Latent Heat of Vaporisation
50 L.

0
Time/s
This flat line shows where energy is
being used to break bonds – this has to
-50 be done during melting. The amount of
energy needed to turn 1kg of a solid into
a liquid is called the Specific Latent Heat
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Internal Energy
Which one of these boxes has got the most internal
energy? Explain your answer:
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Internal Energy
Consider these particles again:

The “internal energy” of the

gas is the total amount of
______ energy and potential
energy of all of the gas _______
added together.

If a substance is heated up it’s internal energy _______.

This will cause either:
1) An increase in _________ (i.e. an increase in kinetic
energy)
2) A change of ______ (i.e. an increase in potential energy)
Words – state, temperature, molecules, increases,
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Changes of State
Q. What are Note that these
these changes changes are
of state called? “physical
changes”, not
“chemical
changes”. What
would happen if
1 4 2
these were
3 chemical
changes?

5
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Changes of Mass
Q. Does the
mass of
substance What’s
change during happened
these changes here?
of state?
1 4 2
3

5
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Melting Ice
Ice at a temperature of below 0OC:
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Melting Ice
Ice turning into water and then a gas:
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Heating a Liquid up
If we heat this beaker up it’s fairly clear
that the liquid will gain internal energy
and get hotter.

Q. What three things does the increase

in temperature depend on?

1) The amount of liquid (i.e. the mass)

2) The amount of heat energy going in
to the liquid (i.e. how hot the
Bunsen is and how long it’s on for)
3) The substance being heated – e.g. is
it water or cooking oil?
 Putting these into an 29/05/2025

equation…
Let’s put the factors from the last slide into an equation:

If the rise in temperature depends on

the mass of liquid, how much energy it
is given and the substance being
You do NOT heated then we can say:
need to
remember ΔQ = mcΔT
this equation!
Where:
ΔQ = amount of heat energy being
supplied/removed (in Joules)
m = mass of liquid (in kg)
c = “specific heat capacity” (in J/kg
K)
 Definition of Specific Heat29/05/2025
Capacity
ΔQ = mcΔT
The specific heat capacity can be thought of as the
“ability of an object to store heat energy”. It’s proper
definition is:

Definition of SHC: The amount of energy needed

(to be gained or lost) to change the temperature of
1kg of a substance by 1K.
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Some example questions
1) A beaker filled with 0.1kg of water with specific heat
capacity 4200J/(kg.K) is heated from 200C to 800C.
Calculate the amount of heat energy gained by the
water.
25.2 KJ

2) Another beaker containing 24g of water starts at 500C.

If it loses 2000J of energy what temperature has it
dropped to? 30.20C
 29/05/2025
Specific Heat Capacity
How can we measure SHC experimentally?

Q = W = VIt and Q = mcΔT

A
12 V 1) Calculate Q if Q = voltage x
V current x time (in seconds)
2) Divide this by the mass of the
water in kg
3) Divide this by the change in
temperature in K
4) Write down your answer – specific
heat capacity of water = _____J
/(kg.K)
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Specific Heat Capacity
How can we do this experimentally?

Q = W = VIt and Q = mcΔT

A
12 V Possible errors with this experiment:
V
1) Temperature throughout the liquid
should be the same
Solution:

2) Heat is lost to the surroundings

Solution(s):
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Another way…
A
12 V
V

A metal
Using Specific Heat 29/05/2025

Capacity
Q. How do we use Specific
Heat Capacity to determine an
unknown quantity?

For example, what is the

temperature of a Bunsen
Burner flame?

Assuming 100% transfer of

heat energy, we can say…

Q lost by nail =Qgained by water

m c ΔT
nail nail nail = m water c water ΔT
water
 Specific Latent Heat
29/05/2025

The Specific Latent Heat of a substance is defined as “the

amount of heat energy needed to change the state of one
kilogram of the substance WITHOUT changing its
temperature”. Therefore:

Energy = mass x specific latent heat of fusion

Q = mL

• Q is heat energy supplied (in J)

• m is mass (in kg)
• L is specific latent heat (in J/kg)
 Latent Heat of Fusion
29/05/2025

From the previous slide we can say that the energy

needed to melt water is given by…
Energy = mass x specific latent heat of fusion

To work out L A
experimentally you 12 V
could… V
VIt = ∆mL
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Some example questions
1) A 12V, 3A heater is used to melt ice over the course of
two mins. The latent heat of fusion for water is 334 KJ
kg-1. How much ice would have been melted?
12.9g

2) What assumptions have you made?

3) Another heater is used to boil off 100g of water. The

latent heat of vaporisation is 2260KJ kg-1. If the heater
was running on a 20V, 2A supply how long was it used
for?
94 mins
 Conduction
29/05/2025

Conduction is all about when heat is transferred through

a _________. The heat is passed on by ___________ in the
molecules. These vibrations get BIGGER when the solid
has more ENERGY (i.e. when it is being __________).

Metals are _______ conductors than non-metals. This is

because the heat is carried by free ________ that can
carry the energy around the metal and give it to other
electrons and ions.

Words – vibrations, electrons, solid, heated, better

 Conduction
29/05/2025

• Conduction is the main method of thermal energy

transfer in solids
• Conduction occurs when:
Two solids of different temperatures come in
contact
with one another, thermal energy is transferred
from
the hotter object to the cooler object until
they
reach thermal equilibrium
 Conduction
29/05/2025

• Metals are the best thermal conductors

• This is because they have a high number of free
electrons
 Thermal conductivity
29/05/2025

• The conductivity of a material can be quantified by its

thermal conductivity
• Thermal conductivity is defined as
The ability of a substance to transfer heat via
conduction
• It is denoted by the symbol k and has units of W m-1K-1
• The thermal conductivities of some common materials
are shown in the table below
 Thermal conductivity
29/05/2025

• Excellent thermal conductors...

• Have high values of thermal conductivity
• Transfer thermal energy at a fast rate
• (Usually) contain a large number of delocalised
electrons (diamond being the obvious exception)

• Poor thermal conductors (insulators)...

• Have low values of thermal conductivity
• Transfer thermal energy at a slow rate
• Contain few delocalised electrons
 Thermal conductivity
29/05/2025

Temperature gradient formula

• When there is a temperature difference between two
points, thermal energy will flow from the region of
higher temperature to the region of lower
temperature
• This is known as a temperature gradient
• The rate of the heat transfer via conduction is given
by: = kA
• Where:
= flow of thermal energy per second (W or Js-1)
k = thermal conductivity of the material (W m-1 K-1 )
A = cross-sectional area (m2)
ΔT = temperature difference (K or °C)
Δx = thickness of the material (m)
 29/05/2025
Temperature gradient formula
Practice question
A composite rod is made of three rods; steel, aluminium
and copper. Each rod has the same length and cross-
section, as shown in the diagram.

The steel end is held at 100°C and the copper end is

held at 0°C.
Determine the temperatures at the steel-aluminium
junction and the aluminium-copper junction.
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Practice question continue
Assume that the rods are perfectly insulated from the
surroundings.
Thermal conductivity of steel = 60 W-1 m-1 K-1
Thermal conductivity of aluminium = 240 W-1 m-1 K-1
Thermal conductivity of copper = 400 W-1 m-1 K-1

Answer:

Step 1: Analyse the scenario and set up an

equation

• As the rods have identical dimensions, the amount of

heat flowing through each rod must be the same
• Therefore,
rate of energy transfer in steel = rate of energy
transfer in aluminium
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Practice question continue
= =
ks A = ka A = kc A

the rods have identical dimensions

ks ΔTs = ka ΔTa = kc ΔTc

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Practice question continue
Step 2: Form two simultaneous equations and
substitute in the values of ΔT and k

Temperature difference in steel:ΔTs = (100 – T1)

Temperature difference in aluminium: ΔTa = (T1 –
T2)
Temperature difference in copper: ΔTc = (T2 – 0)

ks(100 − T1) = ka(T1 − T2) ⇒ 60(100 − T1) = 240(T1 − T2)

eq.(1)
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Practice question continue
Step 3: Expand and simplify eq. (1)

6000 − 60T1 = 240T1 − 240T2

300T1 - 240T1 = 6000

5T1 - 4T2 = 100

Step 4: Expand and simplify eq. (2)

240T1 − 240T2 = 400T2

240T1 = 640T2
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Practice question continue
Step 5: Determine the temperature at the steel-
aluminium junction T1

5T1 - 4 = 100

= 100

T1 = 28.6 ≈ 29 °C
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Practice question continue
Step 6: Determine the temperature at the
aluminium-copper junction T2

T2 = x 28.6 = 10.7 ≈ 11 °C
 Convection
29/05/2025

Convection is all about when a gas or

liquid (“fluid”) moves and carries heat with
it. When the fluid is heated it ____________.
This means that it will become less
__________ than the colder fluid around it.
Because of this the warmer fluid will try to
“_______” over the colder fluid, and this is
why warm air rises. This is called a
convection ___________. This is how heat
reaches us from the ___________ in this
room.
In CONDUCTION the heat was passed
on by VIBRATIONS in a SOLID
In CONVECTION the heat is passed on
by the FLUID expanding, rising and
TAKING THE HEAT with it

Words to use: expands, radiators, dense, heated, current,

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Radiation
An introduction…

I’m cool! I’m very hot!

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Some examples of radiation
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Some examples of radiation
 Black body Radiation
29/05/2025

A perfect black body is defined as:

An object that absorbs all of the radiation incident on it
and does not reflect or transmit any.

• Black body radiation is the name given to the thermal

radiation emitted by all bodies.
• Black body radiation can be emitted in the form of
infrared light, but also visible light or other
wavelengths, depending on the temperature.
• Since a good absorber is also a good emitter, a perfect
black body would be the best possible emitter too.
• As a result, an object which completely absorbs all
radiation will be black.
• This is because the colour black is what is seen when all
colours from the visible light spectrum are absorbed.
 Black body Radiation 29/05/2025
• The intensity and wavelength distribution of any
continues
emitted waves depends on the temperature of the
body.
• This can be represented on a black-body radiation
curve of intensity against wavelength.

• As the temperature increases, the peak of the curve

moves.
• This moves to a lower wavelength and a higher
 29/05/2025
Radiation from a black body
Stars can be considered as black bodies.
Consider the energy distribution of different stars:

Relative T=6000K
intensity

T=4500K

T=3000K

Wavelength
•
Black body Radiation 29/05/2025
From the electromagnetic spectrum, waves with a
continues
smaller wavelength have higher energy (e.g. UV rays,
X-rays).

• The hotter the object, the greater the amount of

infrared radiation it radiates in a given time.
• This increases the thermal energy emitted and
therefore the wavelength of the emitted radiation
decreases:
• At room temperature, objects emit thermal radiation
in the infrared region of the spectrum
• At around 1000°C, an object will emit a significant
amount of red visible light
• At around 6000°C, an object will mainly emit white
or blue visible light (and some ultraviolet)
• At even higher temperatures, objects will emit
Apparent Brightness & 29/05/2025

Luminosity
The apparent brightness b of a star is defined as:
The intensity of radiation received on Earth from a star
• The unit of measurement for apparent brightness is
Watts per metre squared (Wm-2)
• The apparent brightness of a star depends on two main
factors:
– How much light the star emits
– How far away the star is (more distant stars are
usually fainter than nearby stars)
• How much light the star emits is given by the
luminosity L of the star, which is defined as:
The total power output of radiation emitted by a
star
• Luminosity is measured in units of Watts (W)
Apparent Brightness & 29/05/2025

Luminosity
What is the difference between apparent brightness and
luminosity?

• The luminosity is the total power output of the star

• The apparent brightness is what is measured on Earth
Apparent Brightness & 29/05/2025

Luminosity
This is because:
• Luminosity tells us how bright the star is at its surface.
• Apparent brightness tells us how bright the star is as
observed from the Earth.

• Therefore, by the time the radiation from the distant

star reaches the Earth, it will have spread out over a
very large area.
• This means the intensity of the radiation detected on
Earth will only be a fraction of the value of the star's
luminosity.
Apparent Brightness & 29/05/2025

Luminosity
Inverse Square Law of Radiation
• Light sources which are farther away appear fainter
because the light it emits is spread out over a greater
area
• The moment the light leaves
the surface of the star, it
begins to spread out uniformly
through a spherical shell
• The surface area of a sphere
is equal to 4πr2
• The radius r of this sphere is equal to the distance d
between the star and the Earth
• By the time the radiation reaches the Earth, it has
been spread over an area of 4πd2
Apparent Brightness & 29/05/2025

Luminosity
Inverse Square Law of Radiation
The inverse square law of radiation can be calculated
using:
𝐿
𝑏= 2
4  𝑑
Where:
• b = apparent brightness (Wm-2 )
• L = luminosity of the source (W)
• d = distance between the star and the Earth (m)
Apparent Brightness & 29/05/2025

Luminosity
Inverse Square Law of Radiation
𝐿
𝑏= 2
4  𝑑
• This equation assumes:
• The power from the star radiates uniformly through
space
• No radiation is absorbed between the star and the
Earth
• This equation tells us:
• For a given star, the luminosity is constant
• The intensity of the emitted light follows an inverse
square law
• For stars with the same luminosity, the star with the
greater apparent brightness is closer to the Earth
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Practice question
A star has a known luminosity of 9.7 × 1027 W.
Observations of the star show that the apparent
brightness of light received on Earth from the star is 114
nWm-2.

Determine the distance of the star from Earth.

Answer:

Step 1: Write down the known quantities

Luminosity, L = 9.7 × 1027 W

Apparent brightness, b = 114 nWm-2 = 114 × 10-9 Wm-2
 29/05/2025
Practice question continues
Step 2: Write down the inverse square law of
radiation and rearrange for distance d
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Practice question continues
Step 3: Substitute in the values and calculate the
distance d

m
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Stefan-Boltzmann Law
• The total power P radiated by a perfect black body
depends on two factors:
– It's absolute temperature
– It's surface area

• The relationship between these is known as Stefan's

Law or the Stefan-Boltzmann Law, which states:
The total energy emitted by a black body per unit
area
per second is proportional to the fourth power of the
absolute temperature of the body
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Stefan-Boltzmann Law
The Stefan-Boltzmann Law can be calculated using:

• Where:
– P = total power emitted across all wavelengths (W)
– σ = the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (IB Data
booklet)
– A = surface area of the body (m2)
– T = absolute temperature of the body (K)
 29/05/2025
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
• The Stefan-Boltzmann law is often used to calculate the
luminosity of celestial objects, such as stars
• The surface area of a star (or other spherical object) is
equal to A =4πr2
– Where r = radius of the star
• The Stefan-Boltzmann equation then becomes:

• Where:
– L = luminosity of the star (W)
– r = radius of the star (m)
– σ = the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (IB Data
booklet)
 29/05/2025
Practice question
The surface temperature of Proxima Centauri, the nearest
star to Earth, is 3000 K and its luminosity is 6.506 × 1023
W.

Calculate the radius of Proxima Centauri in solar radii and

show your working clearly.

Solar radius = 6.96 × 108 m

Answer:

Step 1: List the known quantities:

Surface temperature, T = 3000 K

Luminosity, L = 6.506 × 1023 W
Stefan's constant, σ = 5.67 × 10-8 W m-2 K-4
8
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Practice question continues
Step 2: Write down the Stefan-Boltzmann equation
and rearrange for radius r
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Practice question continues
Step 3: Substitute the values into the equation

Radius of Proxima Centauri: R = 1.061 ×

108 m
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Practice question continues
Step 3: Substitute the values into the equation

= 0.152
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Wien’s Displacement Law
The black body radiation curve for
different temperatures peaks at a
wavelength that is inversely proportional
to the temperature. This can be written
as:
1
𝜆 𝑚𝑎𝑥 α 𝑇h𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 max = 2.9010 -3 / T
𝑇

Where:
λ = the maximum wavelength emitted
Wilhelm Carl Werner
Otto Fritz Franz Wien
by an object at the peak intensity (m)
(1864-1928)
T = the surface temperature of an
object (K)
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Example questions
1) A star is observed from the Earth as being red
(principal wavelength 650nm). What is its surface
temperature?

2) What is the star’s luminosity (radius 100,000Km)?

3) What would be the peak wavelength of radiation

emitted by a Bunsen burner of temperature 1200K?