Nicias: The Cautious General of Athens

Nicias, or Nikias, was a prominent Athenian politician and general during the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE). He advocated for a cautious approach, often opposing the aggressive strategies of leaders like Cleon and Alcibiades. Nicias negotiated the Peace of Nicias with Sparta in 421 BCE, temporarily ending the war.

Early Life and Career

Military Campaigns

The Peace of Nicias

The Sicilian Expedition

Legacy

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The above summary was generated by AI using Perplexity Sonar. To read the orginial human-authored article, please visit Nicias.

Notes on the State of Virginia

Notes on the State of Virginia (1785) is the only full-length work by Thomas Jefferson (l. 1743-1826) published in his lifetime and was written in response to questions from France regarding the thirteen states that formed the United States at that time. Among the topics Jefferson addresses is slavery and the supremacy of Whites over Blacks.

Jefferson's Notes on the State of Virginia began as a response to the questions submitted by François Barbé-Marbois (l. 1745-1837), then diplomat and ambassador to the United States (and best known for negotiating the Louisiana Purchase in 1803), to the thirteen states of the new country of the United States of America.

In 1779, as secretary of the French legation to the United States, Barbé-Marbois was tasked with organizing consulates in each state and, in 1780, submitted a series of questions to the governors of the states on their respective understanding of each one's geography, government, history, laws, military, resources, and other aspects of each region.

At this time, Thomas Jefferson was the governor of Virginia, and he responded with the work that eventually became Notes on the State of Virginia. The work's 'chapters' are, therefore, given as 'queries' in answer to each of Barbé-Marbois' questions. Query I deals with the boundaries of Virginia, Query II with its rivers, and so on through Query 23, along the way addressing physical features, climate, religion, government, commerce, laws, etc.

The work is interesting on many levels but has become famous (or infamous) for Jefferson's observations on slavery, the superiority of Whites over Blacks, and, in Query XIV (on laws), his dismissal of the African American poet Phillis Wheatley (l. c. 1753-1784), whose Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral, had made her famous in 1773. Jefferson characterizes her work as mere mimicry because, according to the prevailing understanding of the time, Black people were incapable of writing poetry, much less the kind of verse Wheatley was so admired for.

Reception & Influence

Notes on the State of Virginia not only influenced Europeans' views of the United States but also those of its citizens and, notably, passages from Query XIV (14) and Query XVIII (18) on slavery. Jefferson opposed slavery as a barbaric and financially imprudent institution, but he was also opposed to emancipation, favoring colonization (sending Blacks back to Africa) as the best means of resolving the 'peculiar institution.'

Abolitionists of the time derided Notes on the State of Virginia, and its passages on slavery were denounced by them for decades after Jefferson's death. The Black abolitionist David Walker's Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World (1829), to give only one example, claimed Jefferson's beliefs on race, reflecting a broader racialized belief system, had to be challenged if emancipation were ever to be realized and Blacks regarded as the equals of Whites.

Pro-slavery advocates were equally stirred by Jefferson's passages on race and the superiority of White people and, as with the abolitionists, continued to draw on Notes on the State of Virginia up through the mid-19th century. T. R. Dew's A Review of the Debate in the Virginia Legislature of 1831 and 1832 was heavily influenced by Jefferson's views, sometimes paraphrasing his lines. This work, by Thomas Roderick Dew (l. 1802-1846), then professor of history and political law at The College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, was written in response to debates over emancipation and colonization in the Virginia State Legislature in the wake of Nat Turner's Rebellion of August 1831. Dew's arguments, echoing Jefferson's, ended the debate in favor of retaining slavery in the state.

In the present day, Notes on the State of Virginia is generally regarded as a racialized sales pitch to France, reflecting poorly on its author, who later became the third president of the United States and, earlier, had penned the Declaration of Independence.

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⇒ Notes on the State of Virginia

An infographic illustrating a typical Roman bathhouse design and elements. The Baths of the Roman Empire were a complex network of public facilities playing a major role in the daily lives of the citizens of the empire. Most Roman baths followed a similar layout of interconnected rooms and spaces, including a frigidarium (cold room), tepidarium (warm room), and caldarium (hot room), along with an...

Hitler's Rise to Power

Adolf Hitler, the infamous leader of Nazi Germany, didn't just wake up one day with absolute power. His journey to the top was a decade-long process filled with setbacks and strategic maneuvering. Hitler promised to revive Germany's lost glory, restore traditional values, and eliminate enemies like Communists and Jewish people, which resonated deeply with a nation reeling from World War I's devastating aftermath. His rise was enabled by those already in power seeking to leverage his popularity for their own gain.

Key Facts:

Historical Context

Hitler's ascent took place amidst a backdrop of economic turmoil and political instability following the Treaty of Versailles. The Great Depression further exacerbated these tensions, leading many Germans to seek radical solutions.

Historical Significance

Hitler's rise to power not only marked the beginning of a totalitarian regime in Germany but also set the stage for World War II. His ability to exploit political weaknesses and economic distress to consolidate power remains a chilling lesson in the exploitation of crises for dictatorial purposes.

Learn More: How Did Hitler Rise to Power?

Poems of Phillis Wheatley and Jefferson's Criticism

Although Phillis Wheatley's poetry found an audience upon publication, it was not well received by everyone and some, notably Thomas Jefferson (l. 1743-1826), dismissed her work entirely as "mimicry" since, according to the prevailing understanding of the time, Blacks were incapable of the "higher thought" that was necessary in writing poetry.

There was no way a slave-holding society could recognize that Blacks were equal in every way to Whites while continuing to hold them in bondage. Many pseudo-scientific and religious justifications for slavery were widely circulated to 'prove' that Blacks were naturally inferior to Whites and, therefore, that slavery was ordained by God so that 'simple' Black people could be properly 'cared for' by their 'benevolent' White masters.

Phillis Wheatley (l. c. 1753-1784) challenged this belief, first in 1770 with a popular poem on the Reverend George Whitefield, and then with the publication of her Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral, in 1773. Scholar Oscar Reiss comments:

However that may be, it did not have the same effect on Thomas Jefferson (later the third President of the United States, serving 1801-1809) who, as a British colonial from slave-holding Virginia, rejected Wheatley's work as nothing more than what one might expect of a child mimicking the words and behavior of an adult. Jefferson does not devote much space to Wheatley in his Notes on the State of Virginia (1785), but his dismissal of her work, along with his commentary on racial differences generally, encouraged later slaveholders to maintain and defend the inferiority of Blacks in the United States.

Wheatley's Rise to Fame

Phillis Wheatley (l. c. 1753-1784), an enslaved African American in Boston, first gained recognition in September 1770 through her poem On the Death of the Reverend Mr. George Whitefield, published as a broadside in Boston and then reprinted at least nine times in Boston, London, Newport (Rhode Island), New York, and Philadelphia. The poem celebrated the life and teachings of the famous evangelist George Whitefield (l. 1714-1770), a popular, if controversial, figure.

This poem is usually considered her first publication because an earlier poem of hers, On the Affray in King Street, on the Evening of 5 March – published in March 1770 and dealing with the Boston Massacre of 5 March 1770 – was unsigned. Wheatley, encouraged by the publication of her work, continued to write, bringing out Poems on Various Subjects in London in 1773.

The book included a letter from her master, John Wheatley, attesting to her authorship, as well as attestations from leading White Bostonians who had brought her to court in 1772 to question her on whether she had actually written the poems published under her name. Wheatley successfully defended her authorship, and the decision of the court informed the attestations.

As Reiss notes, the book was well-received by the British literary community, and once published in the North American Colonies, it was just as successful. Still, Poems on Various Subjects, even with its preface of attestations from respectable White gentlemen, could not convince everyone that a Black woman could write poetry, much less poetry of such depth and lyrical quality.

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⇒ Poems of Phillis Wheatley and Jefferson's Criticism

Christian Celibate Martyrs

Martyrologies, a unique genre of Christian literature, appeared from the 2nd century CE. A martyrology tells the story of the suffering and ordeals of a Christian martyr and details their trial and execution. A shared element of martyrologies was the claim that all martyrs experienced cradle-to-grave virginity, untouched by the mundane pollution of sexual intercourse. procreation, and the sin of lust.

The Concept of Martyrdom

Rome's response to the spread of Christianity at the end of the 1st century included persecution, officially during the reign of the Emperor Domitian (r. 81-96). Christians were charged with the crime of atheism, disbelief, and non-participation in the state cults of the Roman Empire. Non-participation was seen as angering the gods, which imperiled everyone, and so atheism meant that you did not want the Empire to prosper. This was equivalent to treason, which everywhere and always carried a death penalty. Thus, "Christians to the lions . . . "

The Christian response to persecution was to adopt the Jewish concept of martyrdom from the story of the persecution of Jews during the Greek occupation and the subsequent Maccabean Revolt against Greek rule (167 BCE). The term "martyr" meant "witness" in the sense of court testimony, "witnessing to the truth." Martyrdom became a sacrifice, offering one's life for one's religious convictions. The reward was resurrection in heaven after death.

The books of the Maccabees utilized earlier concepts from the books of Jewish prophets. The Assyrian conquest of Northern Israel (722 BCE) and the Babylonian conquest and destruction of the first Temple in Jerusalem (587 BCE) caused a theological crisis. Difficult questions had to be answered: Were the gods of the Assyrians and Babylonians greater than the God of Israel? Why did God allow this to happen?

The prophets claimed that the God of Israel was still the mightiest, but utilized the other nations to punish Israel for their consistent lapses into idolatry, the worship of other gods. Polemically, idolatry led to the sexual immorality of non-Jews, Gentiles (the later pagans of Christianity). Highlighted in the Maccabee literature, political oppression was equated with sexual immorality: "For the temple was filled with debauchery and reveling by the nations, who dallied with prostitutes and had intercourse with women within the sacred precincts and besides brought in things for sacrifice that were unfit" (2 Maccabees 6:4). Jews created 'vice lists' of Gentile lifestyles. The letters of Paul the Apostle to the Gentiles contain the same polemical vice lists against the dominant culture of the Roman Empire.

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⇒ Christian Celibate Martyrs

Siege of Sevastopol in 1941-2

The siege of Sevastopol (Oct 41 to Jul 42) was an attack by Axis forces on the base of the USSR's Black Sea Fleet during Operation Barbarossa of the Second World War (1939-45). Sevastopol (aka Sebastopol) had one of the world's strongest fortresses, but the attackers had the largest ever assembly of Axis artillery under a single army command.

While the fortress and port were besieged, a large land battle was fought in eastern Crimea. Sevastopol fell to the Axis army led by the German general Erich von Manstein (1887-1973) on 4 July 1942, consolidating the possession of resource-rich Ukraine and opening the way to the oil fields of the Caucasus.

Operation Barbarossa

Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), the leader of Nazi Germany, was confident after swift Axis victories in the Low Countries and France in 1940 that he could make even greater gains in territory and resources by attacking the USSR. Hitler, as he had always promised, was determined to find Lebensraum ('living space') for the German people, that is, new lands in the east where they could find resources and prosper. Hitler was particularly interested in finding these resources in Ukraine.

Operation Barbarossa, the code name for the attack on the USSR, was launched on 22 June 1941. The overall objective was to smash the USSR's Red Army and take control of several key cities. The invading force, made up of German, Slovakian, Italian, Romanian, and Finnish forces, amongst others, consisted of 3.6 million men. The overall commander was Field Marshal Walter von Brauchitsch (1881-1948). The Axis force was divided into three massive army groups. Army Group South (AGS) was commanded by Gerd von Rundstedt (1875-1953). This army group consisted of between 46 and 52 infantry divisions and five panzer divisions. A significant part of the force was from the Romanian Army. AGS was tasked with striking into Ukraine.

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⇒ Siege of Sevastopol in 1941-2

Ellen and William Craft's Running a Thousand Miles for Freedom

Ellen and William Craft's Running a Thousand Miles for Freedom (1860) tells the story of the couple's escape from slavery, with Ellen disguised as a young, White gentleman of means and William as her slave. They successfully traveled to the free state of Pennsylvania in 1848 and became the most famous fugitive slaves in the United States.

Ellen Craft (l. 1826-1891) was born in Clinton, Georgia, to a light-skinned slave and her White master, and so was light-skinned herself and could pass as a White woman. William Craft (l. 1824-1900) was born in Macon, Georgia, where Ellen arrived in the company of her new mistress after the wife of her previous owner presented her to her daughter as a wedding gift to get her out of the house and remove the evidence of her husband's affair.

The Crafts devised a clever scheme in which Ellen would pose as a White gentleman traveling north for his health (since women could not travel alone with male slaves), accompanied by a faithful slave. Because neither could read or write, Ellen wore her right arm in a sling so that the couple would raise no suspicions when asked to sign guest registries. They traveled from Georgia to Pennsylvania, arriving in Philadelphia on Christmas Day 1848.

They were taken under care by the abolitionists in the city and moved to Boston, where they lectured on their experiences until the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was passed by Congress and slave-catchers were sent to bring them back to Georgia. With the help of Boston abolitionists, the Crafts fled to England, where they lived for the next 19 years, had five children, lectured on their escape, and, having learned to read and write, co-authored Running a Thousand Miles for Freedom, published in 1860.

They returned to the United States in 1868, three years after the end of the American Civil War and passage of the Thirteenth Amendment abolishing slavery, and they set up a farm school outside of Savannah, Georgia, employing former slaves. White supremacist policies made it difficult to maintain the school, which closed in 1878.

In 1890, the Crafts moved to Charleston, South Carolina, to live with their daughter. Ellen Craft died of natural causes in 1891, and William in 1900. Their book became a bestseller, especially among abolitionist circles, and remains a popular work in the present day.

Text

The following excerpt is taken from Running a Thousand Miles for Freedom; or, the Escape of William and Ellen Craft from Slavery, the Electronic Edition, published on the site Documenting the American South, pp. 27-43. The excerpt has been edited for space; omissions indicated by ellipses. The full account is given in the bibliography below and in the External Links.

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⇒ Ellen and William Craft's Running a Thousand Miles for Freedom

Views of the Afterlife in Roman Tombstone Inscriptions

Ancient views of the afterlife are reflected in literature, tomb inscriptions, and grave goods. Then, as now, a belief in another stage of existence after death was a shared belief by all ancient societies. Initially, the Greco-Roman Hades contained all the dead. Over time, the dead became distinguished by the virtuous and the wicked and were assigned different areas in the land of the dead.

Roman tombstone inscriptions demonstrate an absence of the often esoteric views of the schools of philosophy and the elevation of the soul after death. Philosophical reflections are rare. One of the shortest tombstone inscriptions summarizes what may have been an Epicurean concept. Epicureans believed in the existence of the gods but rejected their interference in human affairs. It was up to humans to avoid pain and suffering and focus on the good things of life, not worrying about the afterlife: "Non fui, fui, non sum, non curo" ("I was not; I was, I am not; I care not").

There are no references to the chthonic powers (the avenging divine beings such as Nemesis and the harpies), levels of Hades described by Plato (l. 424/423 to 348/347 BCE), or the walled cities in Hades described in Virgil's Aeneid. When references do appear, it is expressed more as hope than as a firm belief in the details of what awaits.

Education in the Ancient World

Historians often estimate the level of Roman education at 1-5%, coming from the upper classes. This is what we term formal education, which consisted of Romanized versions of the Greek mythology, Homer's tales, classical Greek drama, Roman histories, and various schools of Roman and Greek philosophy. An element for the elite, formal education required leisure and money, resources not available to the rest of the population. The upper classes utilized pedagogues (tutors), often educated slaves in philosophy, who lived with the family and were honored members of the household. Many cities had public libraries with borrowing privileges for the upper classes.

However, education in this sense was different from basic literacy. Basic education for girls in ancient Rome was the same as for boys; they were taught the basics of reading and writing, either in the home or in organized schools. This included some tales of Homer and some history of Rome. Especially among the business classes and trades, some literacy was required, as well as the essentials of mathematics, simply to do business. The dozens of examples of graffiti (many having to do with campaign promises during elections) would have been pointless if most of the public could not read.

The majority of Romans were exposed to what we term "classical literature" through the dozens of Greek tragedy and comedy performances offered during the religious festivals. Politicians dominated the Roman forum with speeches that referred to traditions. Then (as now), public trials were popular entertainment where advocates educated in Roman law couched their arguments with references to both traditions and myths.

In the literary versions of Hades, Minos, Rhadamanthus, and Aeacus were judges of the dead in the afterlife. According to their deeds in life, the dead were assigned various places in Hades. All Romans knew about this through the gladiator games. At the end of a bout, characters dressed as Minos and Rhadamanthus tested the loser with hot irons to make sure he was dead and not faking. But we find no reference to any judgment in the afterlife. Average Romans must have known various elements of Hades, but they did not produce a comparable equivalent body of literature on the details of what happened after death.

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⇒ Views of the Afterlife in Roman Tombstone Inscriptions

A 1st century CE bronze portable abacus, part of a Roman scribe's kit. From St. Martin-de-Corléans Cemetery, Aosta, North Italy. (Archaeological Museum, Aosta)

Ancient Trade Secrets: Indus Valley and Lapis Lazuli We know from Mesopotamian texts that the Indus people traded lapis lazuli along with gold tin and copper which was sourced from modern-day Afghanistan as well as semi-precious stones such as agate and carnelian which were commonly used for beads. The Indus Valley was known by the Mesopotamians as the Meluhates who came from the land of the Meluha. Did you know that the famous Cleopatra VII wore lapis lazuli eyeshadow from Meluha ? #indus #cleopatra #lapislazuli #civilisation #indian LEARN MORE --> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CaSprrRI83g

Europe Transformed

In the span of just 35 years, from 1914 to 1949, Europe underwent a profound transformation. The era was marked by World War I, the collapse of empires, and the rise of powerful ideologies like fascism and communism. This period, which culminated in World War II and the subsequent rebuilding of Europe, reshaped the continent's borders and political structures, laying the groundwork for the modern Europe we know today. One surprising aspect is how these events, driven by both war and ideological shifts, created the foundation for contemporary Europe's political landscape.

Key Facts

Historical Context

The period between 1914 and 1949 was pivotal for Europe as it transitioned from a continent dominated by traditional empires to one where new ideologies held sway. The aftermath of World War I created a power vacuum that allowed fascist and communist regimes to flourish.

Historical Significance

The events of this era set the stage for modern Europe by establishing the political and geographical structures that still influence the continent today. The formation of the European Union, for instance, was partly a response to the devastating effects of conflict in this period, as nations sought to promote peace through cooperation.

Learn More: Europe 1914–1949: History Maps of the World Wars

Europe 1914–1949: History Maps of the World Wars

This map collection explores the geopolitical transformation of Europe between 1914 and 1949. From the First World War (1914-18) and the collapse of empires to the rise of fascism, communism, and totalitarian regimes, through the Second Wolrd War (1939-45) and postwar reconstruction, these maps reveal how war and ideology reshaped European borders and power structures, laying the foundation for modern Europe as we know it today.

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⇒ Europe 1914–1949: History Maps of the World Wars

Phillis Wheatley

Phillis Wheatley (l. c. 1753-1784) was the first African American woman to publish a book of poetry and become recognized as a poet, overcoming the prevailing understanding of the time that a Black person was incapable of writing, much less writing poetry and, further, that an enslaved person, considered property, could do so.

She was not, as commonly claimed, the first African American author to publish poetry, as that distinction goes to Jupiter Hammon (l. 1711-1806), who published his An Evening Thought: Salvation by Christ, with Penitential Cries in 1761. Wheatley, however, holds the honor of being the first African American author to publish a full-length book of poetry, her Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral, in 1773.

Her book was widely praised both in England (where it was published) and in Britain's North American colonies. She received a personal response from General George Washington (l. 1732-1799) thanking her for a poem she had written in his honor in 1775, which was later published by Thomas Paine (l. 1737-1809) in the Pennsylvania Gazette.

Not everyone was a fan of Wheatley's works, however, and some, most notably Thomas Jefferson (l. 1743-1826), dismissed her as simply a mimic who was only capable of reflecting concepts she had absorbed from White classical writers. The backward views of Jefferson, and those like him, did nothing to diminish popular appreciation for Wheatley's work, however, and she remained highly regarded, even after falling on hard times, until her death at the age of 31.

Today, Phillis Wheatley is regarded as one of the greatest American poets and continues to be honored as such through place names, memorials, plaques, and educational institutions.

Life & Work

Wheatley's brief biography, as given by L. Maria Child and included in Homespun Heroines and Other Women of Distinction (1926), compiled and edited by Hallie Q. Brown, is given below, although some details are omitted, which will be addressed here.

Phillis Wheatley's actual name is unknown. She is thought to have been born c. 1753 in modern-day Gambia or Senegal and was one of the over three million people of those regions sold into slavery. She arrived in Boston, Massachusetts, aboard the slave ship Phillis in July 1761 and was purchased by John Wheatley, a wealthy merchant, and his wife Susanna. The Wheatleys named her after the ship that had brought her to them.

The Wheatleys had two children, twins, Mary and Nathaniel, who were then 18 years old. Mary taught young Phillis English and how to read and write, while Nathaniel assisted as his duties would allow. Phillis was a fast learner, and by the age of 12, was proficient in Greek, Latin, and the Bible. She wrote her first poem when she was 14, and, that same year, published another poem, on the near wreck of a merchant ship caught in a storm, in The Newport Mercury on 21 December 1767.

Although a slave, Phillis was treated like a member of the family and given light domestic work. The Wheatleys were progressive members of Boston society and, recognizing the girl's innate intelligence and quick wit, encouraged her education. She would frequently be invited to dinner parties given at the home to read her latest works, which were met with praise and gave her the confidence to write more.

By 1773, Phillis had a book-length manuscript of verse, and Susanna sent her to London, accompanied by Nathaniel, who was traveling there on family business, because she felt there were better chances of finding a publisher there than in the Colony of Massachusetts. Phillis had also been told by the family's doctor that she should avail herself of a sea voyage for her health as she suffered from asthma and a frail constitution.

Through Nathaniel's connections, Phillis was introduced to the members of high society in London, including the Lord Mayor, Frederick Bull. News of the young African poet circulated quickly, and Selina Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon, agreed to be her patron without ever having even met her. Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral was published 1 September 1773.

An audience was arranged with King George III of Great Britain (r. 1760-1820), but news arrived that Susanna Wheatley was seriously ill, and Phillis and Nathaniel left for Boston before she could be presented to the king. Upon her arrival home, the Wheatleys set her free, and she cared for Susanna during her illness until her death in the spring of 1774. John died in 1778, and Mary soon after. Nathaniel moved to London to manage the business there, and Phillis was left alone in Boston.

She found work as a domestic before meeting the free Black grocer, John Peters, whom she married. The couple lived in poverty, and their two children died in infancy. Peters' business failed, and when he could not pay his debts, he was sent to prison in 1784.

Phillis was left alone again, this time with a third infant child, and found work as a scullery maid. Never very robust, Wheatley developed pneumonia and died on 5 December 1784, along with her infant daughter.

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⇒ Phillis Wheatley

Lebensraum

Lebensraum ('living space'), is a geopolitical concept which was adopted by Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), the leader of Nazi Germany, to justify the military domination of Central and Eastern Europe, and then the USSR. Hitler promised that Lebensraum in the east would gain vast new space and resources and so ensure economic prosperity and autonomy for Germanic peoples.

In addition to economic considerations, Nazi race theory was used to justify foreign conquests since the achievement of Lebensraum would also bring the destruction of the Nazis' main enemies: Communists, Jewish people, and Slavic people, all of whom were regarded as politically or racially inferior to Nazis and Germanic people.

Hitler's Popular Appeal

Adolf Hitler had won popularity amongst the German electorate in the early 1930s by making popular promises. Hitler said he would reverse the harsh settlement terms after the First World War (1914-18), which were embodied in the Treaty of Versailles. Germany had since suffered economic problems, especially after the Great Depression of 1929 onwards. World trade collapsed, and prices fell, badly affecting workers of all kinds as their wages were cut. Around one-third of German workers lost their jobs. Unemployment in 1928 was 1.4 million; in 1932, it was 6 million. Crime, particularly juvenile crime, rocketed. The governments of the Weimar Republic seemed unable to solve any of these problems, but Hitler promised solutions.

Hitler promised the people bread and work. He planned to massively rearm Germany, restoring national pride and creating jobs. He promised business leaders lucrative state contracts such as arms manufacturing. This idea was also popular with the German Army, which had been severely limited in size by the Treaty of Versailles.

Hitler talked of creating a Volksgemeinschaft or people's traditional folk community, a self-sufficient society that has no class distinctions. This community would not only be developed in Germany but in new conquered lands where new natural resources would ensure the prosperity of all. Hitler was selling a dream of a 'Greater Germany', and in post-war Germany, when times were tough, the idea of new lands and new resources to boost the economy appealed to many voters and many large business owners.

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⇒ Lebensraum

A map depicting the two transatlantic voyages of Amerigo Vespucci between 1499 and 1502. It is based on the 1507 map by Martin Waldseemüller, a German clergyman and cartographer, which first referred to the southern hemisphere where Amerigo Vespucci landed in 1501 as America. Waldseemüller and his collaborator Matthias Ringmann gave their Introduction to Cosmography an accompanying world map...

Life in Air Raid Shelters During the London Blitz

During the Second World War, air raid shelters became a crucial part of life in Britain, especially in London, as the city faced sustained bombing from the German Luftwaffe. The London Blitz, which lasted from September 1940 to May 1941, prompted civilians to seek refuge in various shelters.

Types of Shelters

The Blitz Experience

The End of the Blitz

The Luftwaffe concluded its campaign after conducting 85 major operations against London, dropping 24,000 tons of high explosives, and moving its focus to Operation Barbarossa in June 1941. Britain emerged unsubdued, though over 43,000 civilians were killed during the Blitz.

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The above summary was generated by AI using Perplexity Sonar. To read the orginial human-authored article, please visit Life in an Air Raid Shelter in the London Blitz.