Papers by Yervand Grekyan
The current study is the first attempt to investigate the problems of the early history of the Ar... more The current study is the first attempt to investigate the problems of the early history of the Armenian Highland in its close relationship with the geographical and climatic environment during the Early, Middle, and Late Holocene (10th-1st millennia BC) and the impact of global climatic changes on its past societies.
N.A.B.U. n° 3 (septembre), 2024
There are several reasons for the direction taken by his article. The first is that he gives an o... more There are several reasons for the direction taken by his article. The first is that he gives an overview of my book and we have seen from the few examples above that he tends to misinterpret certain passages while leaving others aside. The other point is that Edmonds tends to seek confirmation of the Assyrian vision without considering more important local complexities. In this respect, his discussion of the "transitional cases" (p. 75), while interesting, leads to a teleological reconstruction of the history of a region essentially seen as manipulated by Assyria only. We do not have many sources for understanding the complex history of Sūhu. It therefore seems reasonable to put forward various hypotheses and to test them. It is likely that no reconstruction can be fully satisfactory, but all of them will provide elements of understanding. So let us keep an open mind and move our research forward.
Journal of Cuneiform Studies, 2024
Evidence of Urartian textiles is mostly limited to pictorial representations, along with a few te... more Evidence of Urartian textiles is mostly limited to pictorial representations, along with a few textual references and finds of fragments of textiles in archaeological contexts. The study of an Urartian royal letter gives some new idea on craftsmen who wove textiles in Urartu.
Aramazd: Armenian Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 2023
As the scientific community of classical archaeology was planning to celebrate the upcoming 60th ... more As the scientific community of classical archaeology was planning to celebrate the upcoming 60th anniversary of Prof� Gocha Tsetskhladze, honouring his exceptional achievements in classical studies with a Festschrift, the shocking news of the death of Gocha was reported on September 11, 2022� Gocha Revazi Tsetskhladze was born in Georgia, then one of the national republics of the USSR� In 1988 he graduated from the Faculty of History, Maxim Gorky State University of Kharkov, Ukraine (today V�N� Karazin Kharkiv National University)� In 1993 he defended his first thesis titled 'Greeks in Colchis: Economic and Cultural Relations in the 6th-2nd Centuries BC' and received the degree of 'Candidate of Historical Sciences' from the Institute of Archaeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Moscow� In 1998 he received his DPhil in classical archaeology from Oxford, successfully defending his second thesis titled 'Cultural History of Colchis (6th-2nd Centuries BC)� Long before his academic career, during his school years Gocha actively participated in the excavations of the Colchian sites near Kobuleti in western Georgia, and then became a member of the archaeological teams working at such ancient sites as Mtskheta (Georgia), Chersonesus (Ukraine), and Phanagoria (Russian Federation)� Later on, he headed the archaeological team of the University of Melbourne excavating the ancient cultic centre at Pessinus in east-central Türkiye� Gocha's publications, numbering several hundred titles, were generally devoted to the Black Sea region, including topics on Greek colonization in the 8th-6th centuries BC, investigations on the nature of relations between the local population and the Greek colonists, on the local ethnic groups like the Scythians, as well as on the impact of great powers of the time, like the Achaemenid empire, on local societies� The publication of an Achaemenid inscription from Phanagoria (AWE 18: 113-151) was the last one that he shared with me, remembering my interest towards the ancient societies of Armenia during the post-Urartian and Achaemenid periods� Much less visible was the second aspect of his scientific activity, that is, his editorial work� A work that requires enormous efforts and time, infinite patience, being in itself, let it be said, a thankless job� Being a person of great organizational Photo: Prof� Gocha R� Tsetskhladze
Aramazd: Armenian Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 2023
In the mid-90's of the past century, when Armenia was in extreme economic crises due to war and t... more In the mid-90's of the past century, when Armenia was in extreme economic crises due to war and the blockade, when one might have felt 'lucky' if his home had electricity even for a few hours, these 'lit' hours were doubly luck for a young man fascinated by cuneiform scripts and one who spent his childhood on the top of a hill called Arin-Berd, the wellknown Urartian fortress of Erebuni, situated just a few hundred meters from his paternal house in the homonymous district of Yerevan, as they coincided with a TV program called, if I remember correctly, 'Anadolu beşiği' in Turkish (i.e. 'Anatolian cradle'), a quite fascinating and popular program which aired on TRT 2 TV channel� One of the episodes was devoted to Urartu, and I first 'met' Altan Çilingiroğlu in this program, when he was talking about excavations at Ayanis (another well-known Urartian fortress near the village Ağartı, to the north of Van in eastern Türkiye) and representing the circumstances of discovery of the 'susi'-temple inscription of Ayanis: after a rainy day, when he was resting against debris of the fallen mud-brick walls, a part of the soil suddenly fell off revealing cuneiform signs on the surface of a basalt block… Altan Çilingiroğlu's interest in the Urartian culture developed long before the 1970's, when he was working towards his doctoral degree at the University of Manchester, UK, which he completed in 1976� His interest peaked soon after his entrance into the İstanbul University, Faculty of Letters, Department of Classical Archaeology (1965-1969), which gave him an opportunity to take part in the excavations of the Urartian fortress Sarduriḫinili near Van, memorialising his participation in a few B&W photographs. The palette of his ca. fifty years' scientific activities includes around a hundred publications, mostly devoted to the Urartian culture, covering a wide area of topics-from excavation reports to political history and historical geography, from arts and material culture to beliefs and state religion�
The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East. Edited by Karen Radner, Nadine Moeller, and D. T. Potts, Oxford University Press. Pp. 769-864 , 2023
The kingdom of Urartu (biblical Ararat) is known as Biainili in the local cuneiform sources. This... more The kingdom of Urartu (biblical Ararat) is known as Biainili in the local cuneiform sources. This influential state was formed in the ninth century BC and flourished until the seventh century BC in the mountainous territories stretching eastward from the Euphrates river, with the heartland located between Lakes Van, Sevan, and Urmia in eastern Turkey, Armenia, and northwestern Iran. The Urartian state succeeded in unifying vast territories across a rugged landscape of high plains separated by formidable mountain ranges and played an important role in the wider region. For a time, the spread of its political influence toward central Anatolia, northern Syria, and western Iran provided a counterweight to the Assyrian Empire. This chapter covers the history of Urartu from its formation to its violent end and examines the state’s structure; its administrative, economic, and military organization; and the state pantheon, as well as issues of chronology and ethnicity.
Systemizing the Past. Papers in Near Eastern and Caucasian Archaeology Dedicated to Pavel S. Avetisyan on the Occasion of His 65th Birthday, 2023
In the studies devoted to the periods marking transitions from one to another stage in the histor... more In the studies devoted to the periods marking transitions from one to another stage in the history of the Armenian Highland, in searching the roots of those transitions represented by major social and cultural changes, little attention has been paid to the role of environmental factors and climate change. One such period is the transition from the Early to the Middle Bronze Age, at c. 2300-2200 BC. That period was marked by the collapse of the Early Bronze Age culture of Armenia, the Kura-Araxes, followed by substantial changes and the emergence of new cultural phenomena. When comparing these data to that from Upper Mesopotamia and other regions of the ancient Near East, both adjacent to the Armenian Highland, and further away, we find quite similar patterns that can help explain the processes discussed in the current article, presented in honour of Pavel Avetisyan, a colleague and а friend.
Paradise Lost. The Phenomenon of the Kura-Araxes Tradition along the Fertile Crescent, 2022
Abstract: Two of the documented global climate changes of the Holocene that are known in the acad... more Abstract: Two of the documented global climate changes of the Holocene that are known in the academic literature as the ‘5.2 ka BP’ and ‘4.2 ka BP’ events, coincide with two important stages of the Early Bronze Age Kura-Araxes culture of Armenia. The ‘4.2 ka BP event’ coincides with the final stage of this culture, the process of fragmentation and decline observed for the Kura-Araxes from 2500 BC onwards. It ends at around 2200 BC with abandonment or destruction of the Kura-Araxes settlements, accompanied by increased population shifts that led to almost total desertion of large areas both in the Kura-Araxes interfluve, the ‘homeland’ of this culture, and elsewhere. In parallel, this process was accompanied by migrations of new population groups (the influx of the bearers of the ‘Kurgan culture’ into the highland). The second phenomenon is the so-called ‘Kura-Araxes expansion’ which took place some hundred years
prior. The dating of the ‘expansion’ at around 3000-2900 BC shows that it took place in another period of drastic climate change. The manifestations of the societal crisis observed in the Kura-Araxes cultural
world, the increased mobility of the population and the movements (‘expansion’) to more favourable areas may indicate that we are dealing with interrelated phenomena.
Herald of Social Sciences, no. 2 (665), 2022
One of the dramatic stages in the history of the Ancient Near East is the period of "Megasdrought... more One of the dramatic stages in the history of the Ancient Near East is the period of "Megasdrought" (or "4.2-3.9 ka BP event"). It goes about a global climate change that occurred ca. 2200-1900 BC to be reflected in the decrease in precipitations. The authors of this study adhere to the point of view that the appearance of vishap stone stelae characteristic of the Armenian Highland and associated with the cult of water should be considered in the context of the mentioned climatic changes. The installation of these statues in the form of fish and bull during a drought pursued the goal of "propitiating" the god of Thunder, in whose honor they were erected, sending down rain, "opening" the way for heavenly waters (which is reflected in the iconography of these monuments). The search for habitats with sufficient water resources was a motivation for the society of the Middle Bronze Age to populate highland landscapes, which made them available for the vital needs of the population.
Boardman J., Hargrave J., Avram A., Podossinov A. 2022 (eds.). Connecting the Ancient West and East. Studies Presented to Prof. Gocha R. Tsetskhladze, vol. I., 2022
One of the major points of contention of the last two decades is the question of the existence of... more One of the major points of contention of the last two decades is the question of the existence of the Median empire in and beyond the Iranian plateau. Modern scholarship is starting to reject previous reconstructions of the history of the Medes that were based mostly on the works of
ancient Greek historians, especially concerning so-called ‘independent Media’, i.e. the history of the Medes in the 7th–6th centuries BC. The new data on the palaeo-environment of the ancient Near East for the period under discussion, as well as the close parallels and common background
of the developments in other regions of the ancient Near East, reveal that the conditions of that period were not favourable to the birth of any noticeable state formation on the Iranian plateau.
Altorientalische Forschungen, vol. 49(1): 48–52, 2022
Related words in the Hurrian and Urartian vocabularies are numerous due to the affinity of these ... more Related words in the Hurrian and Urartian vocabularies are numerous due to the affinity of these two languages. To the list of common roots and terms we can now add two more examples: iradini “bird” and purulini “divination(?)”.
State Archives of Assyria Bulletin, vol. 27., 2021
Ancient Near Eastern Studies, vol. 58., 2021
M. Herles, C. Beuger, J. Becker, S. Arnhold (eds), Von Syrien bis Georgien – durch die Steppen Vorderaisens. Festschrift für Felix Blocher anlässlich seines 65. Geburtstages (marru 13). Münster: Zaphon., 2021
G.R. Tsetskhladze (ed.), Archaeology and History of Urartu (Biainili), Colloquia Antiqua, vol. 28, Leuven - Paris - Bristol, CT: Peeters, 2021
G.R. Tsetskhladze (ed.), Archaeology and History of Urartu (Biainili), Colloquia Antiqua, vol. 28, Leuven - Paris - Bristol, CT: Peeters, 2021
The ancient site of Karmir-Blur lies on the outskirts of modern Yerevan, on the fertile Ararat pl... more The ancient site of Karmir-Blur lies on the outskirts of modern Yerevan, on the fertile Ararat plain in Armenia, which was named ‘the land of the Waza(eans)’ in Urartian cuneiform sources and once formed a part of the confederation of the ‘lands of Etiuni’. The history of the site dates back to the 13th–12th centuries BC, when it was occupied by an Early Iron Age settlement. Urartians appeared here by the end of the 9th century
BC, conquered the Ararat plain and burnt down its settlements including the Early Iron Age site at Karmir-Blur. After some time of abandonment a small fortress or fortified road station was built there as a part of fortification system controlling the main route from Erebuni to Argishtihinili, the two major Urartian sites in Ararat plain at that time.
The name of Rusa son of Argishti, king of Urartu (the first half of the 7th century BC) is known in Urartian studies as a reformer and builder king. The establishment of a new administrative centre in the Ararat plain, ‘the city of Teisheba of the land of Waza’, was the first major city-building project realised by that king. The new city was built just in the place of the ancient settlement. It occupied an area of about 40 ha and had a population of a few thousand people at most. The city carried important administrative, economic and religious functions, was a house of state archives, and served as a place for state reserves. Life in the city was interrupted after dramatic events within the kingdom of Urartu at some time during the second half of the 7th century BC. The city was invaded by an enemy, who used so-called ‘Scythian-type’ arrowheads and was
burnt down completely. The site was abandoned once more to be populated again from the early mediaeval period onwards.
G.R. Tsetskhladze (ed.), Archaeology and History of Urartu (Biainili), Colloquia Antiqua, vol. 28, Leuven - Paris - Bristol, CT: Peeters, 2021
Urartian cuneiform inscriptions often mention about construction of cultic structures, including ... more Urartian cuneiform inscriptions often mention about construction of cultic structures, including ‘steles’, ‘gates’ and ‘susi temples’ for certain gods. Other buildings were also connected with the worship of those gods. These are figuring in the texts as É (‘house’ of a god), É.DINGIR.MEŠ (‘house of gods’), É.BÁRA (‘shrine’, ‘sanctuary’) or iarani (a kind of cultic structure). The texts also mention some other architectural structures,
such as (É).adunusi, É.sir(i)hani, Éṭulurini, É.ašihusi, etc., which were possibly connected in some way with the worship of gods. In contrast to this illusory diversity, the cultic structures in the Urartian kingdom were usually devoted to Haldi, the head of the Urartian pantheon. Those include the ‘steles of Haldi’, the ‘house of Haldi’, the ‘gate of Haldi’, the ‘sanctuary of Haldi’ and the ‘susi’ temple of Haldi’. The latter is the main if not the only architectural structure which could be definitely identified as a ‘temple’. However strange it may seem, apart from a few attestations, mostly dated to the earlier, ‘formative’ period of the kingdom, the texts do not provide strong evidence about the existence of any important temple
or cultic structure devoted to other deities than Haldi, even in the cities, which were named after other gods, like Teisheba, the storm god. One may even insist that the concept of ‘temple’ in Urartu should be understood as ‘temple of Haldi’.
The Urartian temple-building mindset was formed under the heavy influence of Haldi-centred ideology. As Haldi was a mountain-god or a hero born from the mountain, the standard Urartian temple, as an architectural model, embodied a mountain or a cliff, and the ‘gates’ led to the ‘house’ where that god lived.
Aramazd: Armenian Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 2019
Unlike the ancient Mesopotamian cuneiform sources, there is no direct evidence of keeping records... more Unlike the ancient Mesopotamian cuneiform sources, there is no direct evidence of keeping records of celestial objects or astronomical phenomena in the corpus of the Urartian cuneiform texts. In spite of this, astral scenes are widely represented in religious symbolism and iconography of Urartian bronze art. An exceptional evidence of an Urartian cuneiform text could fill the lack of information, perhaps, pointing out the apparition of a comet.
Pavel Avetisyan (Ed.-in-Chief), Arsen Bobokhyan, Alessandra Gilibert, Pavol Hnila (volume's editors), Vishap between Fairy Tale and Reality. Yerevan, p. 437-447., 2019
The worship of stone stelae is a characteristic phenomenon for the early societies of the Armenia... more The worship of stone stelae is a characteristic phenomenon for the early societies of the Armenian Highland. This phenomenon is observed in the Highland also in the period of Urartian dominion (IX-VII centuries BC), represented by the stone stelae called (NA4)pulusi. More than forty attestations are known in the Urartian cuneiform sources that inform about erection of stelae and entire “shrines of stelae” in different parts of the empire. The number of archaeologically attested stelae, both inscribed and uniconic, is more than fifty. These stelae had important role in the Urartian religious system and were connected with the gods representing the state pantheon.
In this study we try to discuss in general terms the Urartian stone stelae in the context of the “sacred landscapes” of the ancient Near East. The preliminary observations allow us to note the similarity of the Urartian stelae with the Assyrian ones, dated to the XIV-VII centuries BC (Middle and Neo-Assyrian periods), and to assume about common background of those monuments, perhaps, being originated from the earlier period “sacred landscapes”. The dragon-stones of the Armenian Highland could be characteristic examples of such a landscape.
Bridging Times and Spaces. Festschrift in Honour of Gregory Areshian on the Occasion of His Sixty-Fifth Birthday, ed. by P.S. Avetisyan, Y.H. Grekyan, Oxford: Archaeopress Archaeology, 2017
The absence of relevant written texts leaves settlement size as the main source for estimation of... more The absence of relevant written texts leaves settlement size as the main source for estimation of the numbers of inhabitants of Urartian cities. Even in this case the information is scanty, as the excavations at the Urartian sites were usually centered around the main buildings in the ‘citadels’ enclosed by fortification walls and the efforts spent on unearthing the residential quarters of the settlements located outside the fortification walls, were certainly insufficient. This has resulted in overestimations of the population numbers proposed for some Urartian cities. By better analyzing the surface area, building density, the city-building mindset, and the nature of the Urartian state, it may become possible to more accurately calculate the numbers of inhabitants in Urartian cities.
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Papers by Yervand Grekyan
prior. The dating of the ‘expansion’ at around 3000-2900 BC shows that it took place in another period of drastic climate change. The manifestations of the societal crisis observed in the Kura-Araxes cultural
world, the increased mobility of the population and the movements (‘expansion’) to more favourable areas may indicate that we are dealing with interrelated phenomena.
ancient Greek historians, especially concerning so-called ‘independent Media’, i.e. the history of the Medes in the 7th–6th centuries BC. The new data on the palaeo-environment of the ancient Near East for the period under discussion, as well as the close parallels and common background
of the developments in other regions of the ancient Near East, reveal that the conditions of that period were not favourable to the birth of any noticeable state formation on the Iranian plateau.
BC, conquered the Ararat plain and burnt down its settlements including the Early Iron Age site at Karmir-Blur. After some time of abandonment a small fortress or fortified road station was built there as a part of fortification system controlling the main route from Erebuni to Argishtihinili, the two major Urartian sites in Ararat plain at that time.
The name of Rusa son of Argishti, king of Urartu (the first half of the 7th century BC) is known in Urartian studies as a reformer and builder king. The establishment of a new administrative centre in the Ararat plain, ‘the city of Teisheba of the land of Waza’, was the first major city-building project realised by that king. The new city was built just in the place of the ancient settlement. It occupied an area of about 40 ha and had a population of a few thousand people at most. The city carried important administrative, economic and religious functions, was a house of state archives, and served as a place for state reserves. Life in the city was interrupted after dramatic events within the kingdom of Urartu at some time during the second half of the 7th century BC. The city was invaded by an enemy, who used so-called ‘Scythian-type’ arrowheads and was
burnt down completely. The site was abandoned once more to be populated again from the early mediaeval period onwards.
such as (É).adunusi, É.sir(i)hani, Éṭulurini, É.ašihusi, etc., which were possibly connected in some way with the worship of gods. In contrast to this illusory diversity, the cultic structures in the Urartian kingdom were usually devoted to Haldi, the head of the Urartian pantheon. Those include the ‘steles of Haldi’, the ‘house of Haldi’, the ‘gate of Haldi’, the ‘sanctuary of Haldi’ and the ‘susi’ temple of Haldi’. The latter is the main if not the only architectural structure which could be definitely identified as a ‘temple’. However strange it may seem, apart from a few attestations, mostly dated to the earlier, ‘formative’ period of the kingdom, the texts do not provide strong evidence about the existence of any important temple
or cultic structure devoted to other deities than Haldi, even in the cities, which were named after other gods, like Teisheba, the storm god. One may even insist that the concept of ‘temple’ in Urartu should be understood as ‘temple of Haldi’.
The Urartian temple-building mindset was formed under the heavy influence of Haldi-centred ideology. As Haldi was a mountain-god or a hero born from the mountain, the standard Urartian temple, as an architectural model, embodied a mountain or a cliff, and the ‘gates’ led to the ‘house’ where that god lived.
In this study we try to discuss in general terms the Urartian stone stelae in the context of the “sacred landscapes” of the ancient Near East. The preliminary observations allow us to note the similarity of the Urartian stelae with the Assyrian ones, dated to the XIV-VII centuries BC (Middle and Neo-Assyrian periods), and to assume about common background of those monuments, perhaps, being originated from the earlier period “sacred landscapes”. The dragon-stones of the Armenian Highland could be characteristic examples of such a landscape.
prior. The dating of the ‘expansion’ at around 3000-2900 BC shows that it took place in another period of drastic climate change. The manifestations of the societal crisis observed in the Kura-Araxes cultural
world, the increased mobility of the population and the movements (‘expansion’) to more favourable areas may indicate that we are dealing with interrelated phenomena.
ancient Greek historians, especially concerning so-called ‘independent Media’, i.e. the history of the Medes in the 7th–6th centuries BC. The new data on the palaeo-environment of the ancient Near East for the period under discussion, as well as the close parallels and common background
of the developments in other regions of the ancient Near East, reveal that the conditions of that period were not favourable to the birth of any noticeable state formation on the Iranian plateau.
BC, conquered the Ararat plain and burnt down its settlements including the Early Iron Age site at Karmir-Blur. After some time of abandonment a small fortress or fortified road station was built there as a part of fortification system controlling the main route from Erebuni to Argishtihinili, the two major Urartian sites in Ararat plain at that time.
The name of Rusa son of Argishti, king of Urartu (the first half of the 7th century BC) is known in Urartian studies as a reformer and builder king. The establishment of a new administrative centre in the Ararat plain, ‘the city of Teisheba of the land of Waza’, was the first major city-building project realised by that king. The new city was built just in the place of the ancient settlement. It occupied an area of about 40 ha and had a population of a few thousand people at most. The city carried important administrative, economic and religious functions, was a house of state archives, and served as a place for state reserves. Life in the city was interrupted after dramatic events within the kingdom of Urartu at some time during the second half of the 7th century BC. The city was invaded by an enemy, who used so-called ‘Scythian-type’ arrowheads and was
burnt down completely. The site was abandoned once more to be populated again from the early mediaeval period onwards.
such as (É).adunusi, É.sir(i)hani, Éṭulurini, É.ašihusi, etc., which were possibly connected in some way with the worship of gods. In contrast to this illusory diversity, the cultic structures in the Urartian kingdom were usually devoted to Haldi, the head of the Urartian pantheon. Those include the ‘steles of Haldi’, the ‘house of Haldi’, the ‘gate of Haldi’, the ‘sanctuary of Haldi’ and the ‘susi’ temple of Haldi’. The latter is the main if not the only architectural structure which could be definitely identified as a ‘temple’. However strange it may seem, apart from a few attestations, mostly dated to the earlier, ‘formative’ period of the kingdom, the texts do not provide strong evidence about the existence of any important temple
or cultic structure devoted to other deities than Haldi, even in the cities, which were named after other gods, like Teisheba, the storm god. One may even insist that the concept of ‘temple’ in Urartu should be understood as ‘temple of Haldi’.
The Urartian temple-building mindset was formed under the heavy influence of Haldi-centred ideology. As Haldi was a mountain-god or a hero born from the mountain, the standard Urartian temple, as an architectural model, embodied a mountain or a cliff, and the ‘gates’ led to the ‘house’ where that god lived.
In this study we try to discuss in general terms the Urartian stone stelae in the context of the “sacred landscapes” of the ancient Near East. The preliminary observations allow us to note the similarity of the Urartian stelae with the Assyrian ones, dated to the XIV-VII centuries BC (Middle and Neo-Assyrian periods), and to assume about common background of those monuments, perhaps, being originated from the earlier period “sacred landscapes”. The dragon-stones of the Armenian Highland could be characteristic examples of such a landscape.