IV.2. Stone tools
In the Polish literature on the subject, there are a number
of typological div... more IV.2. Stone tools
In the Polish literature on the subject, there are a number of typological divisions systematising stone tools used by prehistoric communities. Th ey are usually based on criteria concerning raw material and morphology. Most of the stone material from Ożarów can be categorised, as per the proposed divisions (e.g. Balcer 2008; Chachlikowski 2013; Szydłowski 2017), as tools of hammer and anvil types. Based on the knowledge gained from experimental studies on fl int knapping techniques, hammers can be further divided into soft and hard. A total of 4 categories of stone forms were distinguished during the analyses. Th ey were defi ned based on the shape of the specimen and the type of deformations resulting from knapping or from its use as a tool. Th e fi rst group consists of artefacts identifi ed as hammers of spherical morphology and with remains of battering marks and smoothing on their surface. Tools of this type were usually made from gneiss, granitoid or sandstone pebbles/cobbles (Chapter IV.1). In addition to battering marks, fl ake scars are sometimes visible on their surface; fl akes fell off when the hammer hit a hard surface—for example, fl int. Th ese scars are usually located at the point of contact between the hammer and the nodule and run in the direction opposite to the movement of the hammer during knapping. Such marks are formed only incidentally, as a result of a blow directed too deep into the fl int nodule or due to a natural fl aw in the pebble/cobble (Fig. 1:1). Th e second category comprises tools similar to discoidal in shape (Fig. 1: 2), with clear and numerous removal scars. Th ese removals usually have a centripetal direction, and it can be assumed that they were created as a result of deliberate shaping of the rock. Th eir narrow edge is usually smoothed. Most of them were made of less compact rocks, which can be split to some extent, such as the Szydłowiec or Jotnian sandstones (Chapter IV.1). Another category consists of stone fl akes, which were most likely removed from the specimens classifi ed in one of the two categories mentioned above. Traces of battering marks and smoothing, typical of hammer-type tools, are oft en visible on their surface (Fig. 1). Th e last category includes plate-like specimens with single removal scars on the surface. Most of them were made from fragments of large and fl at sandstones, possibly not pebbles/ cobbles (Chapter IV.1). Th e morphological categories of stone artefacts presented are closely connected with specifi c raw materials, hence one should be inclined to the idea that they were selected for further work in terms of size and physical properties. At the same time, as petrographic analyses (Chapter IV.1) have shown, they should be linked to the local raw material base. Th ey were probably acquired during the exploitation of deposits at the site or in its immediate vicinity. Th ey could have been picked, for example, from stone debris, from that which was transferred as a result of various hypergenic processes (Czubla 2015; Czubla et al. 2006; Kozłowski 1986).
III.4. Analysis of the waste material from Shaft I/4
Th e classifi cation of the material from th... more III.4. Analysis of the waste material from Shaft I/4 Th e classifi cation of the material from the Ożarów workshops comprises artefacts obtained from the specifi c context of a mine. Individual criteria used in the study are an internal structure and, as a whole, they form a technological image. Th at is, individual elements, such as types of fl akes, should not be treated as fossil directeur – distinctive forms characteristic of the production process of Early Bronze Age sickles. Th eir place in the process is determined by the proportions between the individual categories and data obtained through other methods (refi tting, use-wear analysis, etc.). Th e features of individual products under consideration have their specifi c context – they were produced and deposited in the course of one knapping episode. Th e unquestionable similarity of some classes of wastes to other, chronologically diff erent production cycles (e.g., squared axes or Prądnik knives) does not make the material classifi cation method proposed here directly transferable to another fi eld of research. For every single, confi ned place where fl intknapping was carried out, a slightly diff erent list of morphological features should probably be constructed, although, of course, in many cases, the knappers used similar solutions to achieve slightly diff erent results. In the case of Ożarów, the aim is to describe a specifi c excavated assemblage – numerous and presenting a clear statistical image. Th e introduced classes of artefacts have no value for either cultural (which is known) or technological attribution. Th e aim was to describe how bifacial knives were formed from Ożarów fl int of diff erent varieties and what knapping stages and strategies were employed. Classifi cation of the material from Ożarów workshops: 1. Natural fragments (including small nodules and natural chunks). Th ese include eoliths found in historical material as well as protrusions detached from larger concretions and tabular fl ints – when it could not be assumed that they had been removed intentionally. Th e material was counted in the fi eld, but was not collected for further offi ce work, so it is not possible to perform secondary quantitative and weight analysis. 2. Flat fl akes (early reduction). Th ere were 1,321 fl at fl akes obtained in the course of initial reduction, totalling 50.2 kg, recorded in Shaft I/4. Th is category consists of two groups, which have been merged due to their size (pls. 1, 2). Th e fi rst group includes forms which are fl at in side view. Th eir proportions can be described as para-blade-like. A unidirectional fl ake scar pattern consistent with the direction of fl ake detachment blow (sometimes only one scar) is visible on the dorsal face. Most oft en, they have a massive bulb and a fl at, fairly large butt. Th ey are not too numerous. Th eir size and manner of removal may indicate that they were intentionally manufactured as blanks for further bifacial reduction. Th e second group consists of smaller specimens, which have fl at or natural butts and a massive bulb. Th e angle of fl aking is close to straight. Th ese fl akes usually reduce a large amount of mass from the original fl int nodule, which is visible as convexity on their dorsal face. Th ey have feathered, stepped or hinged termination. Th eir surface is entirely or partially natural, cortical or cracked. Specimens of this type most oft en come from the fi rst, i.e. rough, stage of shaping a preform, when cracked fragments of the nodule were detached, and the specimen was given its general shape. 3. Flat fl akes (shaping). Th e assemblage contains 1,273 fl akes of this type, with the total weight of 6 kg. Th ey have a fl at butt, oft en with a lip, and a small bulb; they were fl aked at a straight angle (pls. 3). Distal parts of the specimens are feathered, stepped or hinged. On their dorsal face, there oft en are unidirectional scars consistent with the direction of the fl ake detachment blow. Th ese forms could be removed both from the “back” and from the wider surfaces of a specimen. In the Ożarów workshops, it was the basic method of thinning knives, commonly used at the advanced stages of reduction. It is likely that these fl akes should be linked with precise thinning of forms with a “back”, at the more advanced stages of knapping. 4. Curved fl akes (early reduction). In the material obtained from the shaft , 836 curved fl akes from the initial reduction stage, totalling 19.2 kg, were recorded. Th ese specimens are curved in profi le, have a fl at or, less frequently, edge butt, usually with a lip under the butt edge, and were fl aked at an acute angle (pls. 4). Th ey are characterized by considerable massiveness – a thickening – in the medial part. Dorsal faces are covered with up to two scars, usually consistent with the direction of the detachment blow, or have only natural, cortical or cracked surfaces. Th ese fl akes usually have feathered, less oft en stepped or hinged termination. Sometimes, the partially cracked underside of a specimen is the only feature that allows it to be classifi ed in this group of fl akes, despite the occasionally worse readability of scars. Th ese fl akes are interpreted as detached in the fi rst stage of work to roughly clean and thin the specimen. Th ey provide information on the weight of the silica mass that was reduced in the initial stages of knapping. 5. Curved negative fl akes (shaping). Th ere were 1,523 such fl akes, totalling 23.3 kg, recorded in the inventory. Th e forms are curved in profi le (pls. 5, 6) and what diff erentiates them from the previous category is that they have fl at or negative butts and at least three fl ake scars on the dorsal face. Th is category is quite broad and includes specimens of varying shapes and sizes. Th ese fl akes were removed from an edge set at an acute angle to the surface being knapped. Th ey have feathered, less oft en stepped or hinged termination. 6. Curved negative fl akes (late phase shaping). Th ere were 500 curved fl akes, totalling 1.55 kg, recorded in Shaft I/4. Th ese are mostly thin forms. Th ey oft en have KOPALNIE KRZEMIENIA 152 NA STANOWISKU „ZA GARNCARZAMI” W OŻAROWIE a faceted, negative or edge butt with a prominent lip, characterised by an acute fl aking angle (pls. 7:3, 9). Th ey are even in shape and usually have feathered terminations. Th e scars on the dorsal face are unidirectional; cortex or cracked surfaces are only rarely preserved. Th ey are associated with the preform fi nishing phase and are characteristic of bifacial reduction. 7. Curved bidirectional negative fl akes (late phase shaping). Th ere were 126 fl akes of this type, totalling 0.84 kg, registered in the assemblage. Th ese forms are analogous to those mentioned above (butts, fl aking angle, uniformity of ridges and edges). Th ey diff er from them in the bidirectional scar pattern on the dorsal face (pls. 7:1–2, 4–8, 10). Th ey are associated with the preform fi nishing phase and are characteristic of bifacial reduction. 8. Flakes from sides of nodules. Th ere were 75 such pieces, totalling 7.2 kg, recorded in the inventory. Th e specimens included in this group are characterised by an overpassing in the distal part, which removes the natural bottom of a nodule (pls. 8: 2, 4, 5). 9. Preparation fl akes. Th ere were 670 preparation fl akes, totalling 47.4 kg, recorded in shaft I/4. Th is is a very diverse category, which includes specimens with a fragment of a knapped – crested – edge on the dorsal face: • fl akes that remove ridges lengthwise – these are fl akes or blade-like fl akes that have residual unilateral or bilateral crests (pls. 9: 4) on the dorsal face. Th ey are interpreted as an evidence of removing the back in the second stage before proceeding to the fi nal bifacial reduction of a specimen; • fl akes that remove ridges transversely (pls. 9: 1, 2) – these are the fragments knapped from the back obliquely to the transverse axis of a specimen. Th is type of knapping results in the edge of the processed specimen being located at the extension of the bulb. It is one of practical methods of transitioning from multifacial back to bifaciality; • overpassed fl akes – these are fl akes that intentionally or accidentally remove the opposite edge of a specimen (pls. 11, 12). Th is does not always result in damage to the preform, and oft en such a fl ake conveniently removes the opposite back, enabling the third stage of knapping – the transition to bifaciality – to be carried out; • bite fl akes – these are fragments of bifacial preforms which, due to a defective percussion blow or internal cracks, are removed transversely to the edge, oft en have no fl ake scars, and the place of detachment from the preform has the character of a natural or conchoidal fracture, but without a bulb. Such an eff ect is most oft en unintentional and results from a knapper’s error (cf. Waldorf 1993). 10. Flake fragments (rough shaping). Th ere were 6,341 primary fl ake fragments, totalling 68.1 kg, recorded in the studied assemblage. All cracked fragments that were not classifi ed in other categories, but had scars on the ventral face, were included here. Another distinctive feature of these specimens is their massiveness. 11. Flake fragments (shaping proper). Th ere were 2,664 fragments of fl akes from the proper reduction phase, totalling 6 kg, recorded in Shaft I/4. Th ese forms are analogous to those included in the previous category, except for two features: they are not as massive, and natural surface is very rarely present on the dorsal face of the fl ake. 12. Blade-like fl akes, blades. Th e inventory included 200 pieces, with the total weight of 1.5 kg. Th is category consists of specimens twice as long as they are broad (pls. 8: 1, 3).
Proceedings of XXVIII e congrès préhistorique de France – Amiens, 30 mai-4 juin 2016, 2019
This paper seeks to provide an overview of lithic inventories in the Swiderian culture, sometimes... more This paper seeks to provide an overview of lithic inventories in the Swiderian culture, sometimes also called the Mazovian, developing in areas of Poland in the Late Palaeolithic. It discusses selected aspects of typology, technology and utilization of lithic artefacts on the basis of several inventories recovered from different areas, characterized by the occurrence of both high and poor quality raw materials (i.e. Cichmiana 2, Lubrza 10, Kraków-Bieżanów 15, Suchodółka 3 and Żuławka 13). The applied research methodology combined a morphological analysis, debitage refitting, the experimental method, use-wear analysis and quantitative approach. Typological, technological, raw material and functional characteristics of the analyzed lithic artefacts have enabled us to indicate some interesting correlations between manufacturing techniques, the morphology of lithic tools and their usage. In general, Swiderian inventories are typified by the presence of willow leaf and tanged points, burins or end-scrapers made on thin blades. Tanged points are characterized by flat retouching on the ventral side, which was made using some stone tools. Our studies have revealed that the distribution and usage of Swiderian lithic artefacts was well planned and focused on the production of good quality blanks, from which retouched forms (such as tanged points, end-scrapers or burins) were fashioned. Ad hoc production is fairly nonexistent in the Swiderian material culture. The technological analysis, based on the morphological features of the core reduction products, has shown that the Swiderian debitage was generally concentrated on the detachment of intended blades. The technology was associated mostly with opposed platform cores, very intensive and precise preparation of cores, reduction, renovation of cores and blade production, and the application of the soft hammer stone technique. Such types of cores are generally considered typical of assemblages attributable to the Swiderian occupation, yet sites with restricted access to good quality raw material also yielded cores almost unprepared for working. Use-wear studies performed on formal tools and a sample of unretouched products of core reduction (flakes and blades) have suggested that the implements were usually used for hunting and butchering activities, and in individual cases also for plant and wood processing. We were particularly interested in Swiderian points, which were employed as components of projectile weapons. A quantitative approach was applied in order to precisely determine the function of willow leaf points – whether they were used as arrowheads, dart-tips or spear-points.
Adrián Nemergut, Ivan Cheben, Jaroslava Ruttkayová, Katarzyna Pyżewicz (eds.): 16th SKAM Lithic Workshop. “Fossil directeur” - A phenomenon over time and space. 21–23 of October 2019, Nitra, Slovak Republic. Abstract book. Nitra, 2019
UISPP Commission on Flint Mining in Pre- and Protohistoric Times. 19-21 September 2019. Program - Abstracts - Field Guide, Sep 2019
The forest growing in the northern part of Karniowice (commune Zabierzów, district Kraków) was th... more The forest growing in the northern part of Karniowice (commune Zabierzów, district Kraków) was the object of interest among researchers dealing with flint mining for a long time. Flint mines used for gunflint production were located on the north-eastern edge of the forest in XVIII and XIX century. The special relation of this region with flint extraction was confirmed in the ’90s during a field survey carried out in the Polish Archaeological Record Program (AZP). On the southern and eastern side of the forest numerous lithic scatters from different time periods were found. According to the method used in AZP program, these places were registered as two sites (AZP-100-55/94 and AZP-100-55/131) with a surface of 15 ha each. The next verification of the forest area was carried out in 2014 thanks to data obtained through LiDAR scanning. Except of the gunflint production site from Zelków, the topographic model of the surface allowed to distinguish the next flint mine in Karniowice, located on the mountain ridge stretching from the top of Góra Krzemionka to the north. Additionally, more detailed interpretation of this topographical model provided signes of mining that are different from the XVIII and XIX century exploitation. Similar traces are visible on other two sites but unfortunately, their structures are strongly damaged by modern plowing or lime quarries. Lithic materials from these sites suggest that flint was extracted there from early Neolithic (linear culture) to the Early Bronze Age. Although the research is still ongoing, we can assume that the Karniowice forest is one of the key regions when it comes to prehistoric flint mining in the south part of Polish Jura.
VIR BIMARIS Od kujawskiego matecznika do stepów nadczarnomorskich. Studia z dziejów międzymorza bałtycko-pontyjskiego ofiarowane Profesorowi Aleksandrowi Kośko , 2019
The production of bifacial flint daggers started in the Late Neolithic and the Early Bronze Age i... more The production of bifacial flint daggers started in the Late Neolithic and the Early Bronze Age in particular parts of Europe. Few production centres during that time were located in Poland and Ukraine (in the area between the regions of Volhynia and Lesser Poland). In this paper, we present the brief history of research, production technology, typology and function of flint daggers from these areas. To that end, we analyzed bifacial forms from the collections of three Polish museums. The study focuses on describing the research history of flint daggers in these regions. We also present the classification of bifacial forms from Western Ukraine and Poland. However, due to the focus of this research we excluded the forms originating from the Scandinavian and Northern Pontic dagger traditions. The technology studies section shows the methods of platform preparation and the techniques used during the flake removal process. We then studied selected finished daggers to assess how they were repaired and reshaped. Finally, we present microscopic analyses that were used to interpret the function of selected artefacts, which allow us to demonstrate how daggers were possibly hafted and used.
In this paper we shall demonstrate the relationship between experimental research regarding the o... more In this paper we shall demonstrate the relationship between experimental research regarding the oldest period of human history and the popularisation of knowledge of the Stone Age. Our discussion is based primarily on our own experience of undertaking experimental research and presentation of its results to participants of popular science events. Some examples illustrating the relationship between science and its popularisation have been provided.
IV.2. Stone tools
In the Polish literature on the subject, there are a number
of typological div... more IV.2. Stone tools
In the Polish literature on the subject, there are a number of typological divisions systematising stone tools used by prehistoric communities. Th ey are usually based on criteria concerning raw material and morphology. Most of the stone material from Ożarów can be categorised, as per the proposed divisions (e.g. Balcer 2008; Chachlikowski 2013; Szydłowski 2017), as tools of hammer and anvil types. Based on the knowledge gained from experimental studies on fl int knapping techniques, hammers can be further divided into soft and hard. A total of 4 categories of stone forms were distinguished during the analyses. Th ey were defi ned based on the shape of the specimen and the type of deformations resulting from knapping or from its use as a tool. Th e fi rst group consists of artefacts identifi ed as hammers of spherical morphology and with remains of battering marks and smoothing on their surface. Tools of this type were usually made from gneiss, granitoid or sandstone pebbles/cobbles (Chapter IV.1). In addition to battering marks, fl ake scars are sometimes visible on their surface; fl akes fell off when the hammer hit a hard surface—for example, fl int. Th ese scars are usually located at the point of contact between the hammer and the nodule and run in the direction opposite to the movement of the hammer during knapping. Such marks are formed only incidentally, as a result of a blow directed too deep into the fl int nodule or due to a natural fl aw in the pebble/cobble (Fig. 1:1). Th e second category comprises tools similar to discoidal in shape (Fig. 1: 2), with clear and numerous removal scars. Th ese removals usually have a centripetal direction, and it can be assumed that they were created as a result of deliberate shaping of the rock. Th eir narrow edge is usually smoothed. Most of them were made of less compact rocks, which can be split to some extent, such as the Szydłowiec or Jotnian sandstones (Chapter IV.1). Another category consists of stone fl akes, which were most likely removed from the specimens classifi ed in one of the two categories mentioned above. Traces of battering marks and smoothing, typical of hammer-type tools, are oft en visible on their surface (Fig. 1). Th e last category includes plate-like specimens with single removal scars on the surface. Most of them were made from fragments of large and fl at sandstones, possibly not pebbles/ cobbles (Chapter IV.1). Th e morphological categories of stone artefacts presented are closely connected with specifi c raw materials, hence one should be inclined to the idea that they were selected for further work in terms of size and physical properties. At the same time, as petrographic analyses (Chapter IV.1) have shown, they should be linked to the local raw material base. Th ey were probably acquired during the exploitation of deposits at the site or in its immediate vicinity. Th ey could have been picked, for example, from stone debris, from that which was transferred as a result of various hypergenic processes (Czubla 2015; Czubla et al. 2006; Kozłowski 1986).
III.4. Analysis of the waste material from Shaft I/4
Th e classifi cation of the material from th... more III.4. Analysis of the waste material from Shaft I/4 Th e classifi cation of the material from the Ożarów workshops comprises artefacts obtained from the specifi c context of a mine. Individual criteria used in the study are an internal structure and, as a whole, they form a technological image. Th at is, individual elements, such as types of fl akes, should not be treated as fossil directeur – distinctive forms characteristic of the production process of Early Bronze Age sickles. Th eir place in the process is determined by the proportions between the individual categories and data obtained through other methods (refi tting, use-wear analysis, etc.). Th e features of individual products under consideration have their specifi c context – they were produced and deposited in the course of one knapping episode. Th e unquestionable similarity of some classes of wastes to other, chronologically diff erent production cycles (e.g., squared axes or Prądnik knives) does not make the material classifi cation method proposed here directly transferable to another fi eld of research. For every single, confi ned place where fl intknapping was carried out, a slightly diff erent list of morphological features should probably be constructed, although, of course, in many cases, the knappers used similar solutions to achieve slightly diff erent results. In the case of Ożarów, the aim is to describe a specifi c excavated assemblage – numerous and presenting a clear statistical image. Th e introduced classes of artefacts have no value for either cultural (which is known) or technological attribution. Th e aim was to describe how bifacial knives were formed from Ożarów fl int of diff erent varieties and what knapping stages and strategies were employed. Classifi cation of the material from Ożarów workshops: 1. Natural fragments (including small nodules and natural chunks). Th ese include eoliths found in historical material as well as protrusions detached from larger concretions and tabular fl ints – when it could not be assumed that they had been removed intentionally. Th e material was counted in the fi eld, but was not collected for further offi ce work, so it is not possible to perform secondary quantitative and weight analysis. 2. Flat fl akes (early reduction). Th ere were 1,321 fl at fl akes obtained in the course of initial reduction, totalling 50.2 kg, recorded in Shaft I/4. Th is category consists of two groups, which have been merged due to their size (pls. 1, 2). Th e fi rst group includes forms which are fl at in side view. Th eir proportions can be described as para-blade-like. A unidirectional fl ake scar pattern consistent with the direction of fl ake detachment blow (sometimes only one scar) is visible on the dorsal face. Most oft en, they have a massive bulb and a fl at, fairly large butt. Th ey are not too numerous. Th eir size and manner of removal may indicate that they were intentionally manufactured as blanks for further bifacial reduction. Th e second group consists of smaller specimens, which have fl at or natural butts and a massive bulb. Th e angle of fl aking is close to straight. Th ese fl akes usually reduce a large amount of mass from the original fl int nodule, which is visible as convexity on their dorsal face. Th ey have feathered, stepped or hinged termination. Th eir surface is entirely or partially natural, cortical or cracked. Specimens of this type most oft en come from the fi rst, i.e. rough, stage of shaping a preform, when cracked fragments of the nodule were detached, and the specimen was given its general shape. 3. Flat fl akes (shaping). Th e assemblage contains 1,273 fl akes of this type, with the total weight of 6 kg. Th ey have a fl at butt, oft en with a lip, and a small bulb; they were fl aked at a straight angle (pls. 3). Distal parts of the specimens are feathered, stepped or hinged. On their dorsal face, there oft en are unidirectional scars consistent with the direction of the fl ake detachment blow. Th ese forms could be removed both from the “back” and from the wider surfaces of a specimen. In the Ożarów workshops, it was the basic method of thinning knives, commonly used at the advanced stages of reduction. It is likely that these fl akes should be linked with precise thinning of forms with a “back”, at the more advanced stages of knapping. 4. Curved fl akes (early reduction). In the material obtained from the shaft , 836 curved fl akes from the initial reduction stage, totalling 19.2 kg, were recorded. Th ese specimens are curved in profi le, have a fl at or, less frequently, edge butt, usually with a lip under the butt edge, and were fl aked at an acute angle (pls. 4). Th ey are characterized by considerable massiveness – a thickening – in the medial part. Dorsal faces are covered with up to two scars, usually consistent with the direction of the detachment blow, or have only natural, cortical or cracked surfaces. Th ese fl akes usually have feathered, less oft en stepped or hinged termination. Sometimes, the partially cracked underside of a specimen is the only feature that allows it to be classifi ed in this group of fl akes, despite the occasionally worse readability of scars. Th ese fl akes are interpreted as detached in the fi rst stage of work to roughly clean and thin the specimen. Th ey provide information on the weight of the silica mass that was reduced in the initial stages of knapping. 5. Curved negative fl akes (shaping). Th ere were 1,523 such fl akes, totalling 23.3 kg, recorded in the inventory. Th e forms are curved in profi le (pls. 5, 6) and what diff erentiates them from the previous category is that they have fl at or negative butts and at least three fl ake scars on the dorsal face. Th is category is quite broad and includes specimens of varying shapes and sizes. Th ese fl akes were removed from an edge set at an acute angle to the surface being knapped. Th ey have feathered, less oft en stepped or hinged termination. 6. Curved negative fl akes (late phase shaping). Th ere were 500 curved fl akes, totalling 1.55 kg, recorded in Shaft I/4. Th ese are mostly thin forms. Th ey oft en have KOPALNIE KRZEMIENIA 152 NA STANOWISKU „ZA GARNCARZAMI” W OŻAROWIE a faceted, negative or edge butt with a prominent lip, characterised by an acute fl aking angle (pls. 7:3, 9). Th ey are even in shape and usually have feathered terminations. Th e scars on the dorsal face are unidirectional; cortex or cracked surfaces are only rarely preserved. Th ey are associated with the preform fi nishing phase and are characteristic of bifacial reduction. 7. Curved bidirectional negative fl akes (late phase shaping). Th ere were 126 fl akes of this type, totalling 0.84 kg, registered in the assemblage. Th ese forms are analogous to those mentioned above (butts, fl aking angle, uniformity of ridges and edges). Th ey diff er from them in the bidirectional scar pattern on the dorsal face (pls. 7:1–2, 4–8, 10). Th ey are associated with the preform fi nishing phase and are characteristic of bifacial reduction. 8. Flakes from sides of nodules. Th ere were 75 such pieces, totalling 7.2 kg, recorded in the inventory. Th e specimens included in this group are characterised by an overpassing in the distal part, which removes the natural bottom of a nodule (pls. 8: 2, 4, 5). 9. Preparation fl akes. Th ere were 670 preparation fl akes, totalling 47.4 kg, recorded in shaft I/4. Th is is a very diverse category, which includes specimens with a fragment of a knapped – crested – edge on the dorsal face: • fl akes that remove ridges lengthwise – these are fl akes or blade-like fl akes that have residual unilateral or bilateral crests (pls. 9: 4) on the dorsal face. Th ey are interpreted as an evidence of removing the back in the second stage before proceeding to the fi nal bifacial reduction of a specimen; • fl akes that remove ridges transversely (pls. 9: 1, 2) – these are the fragments knapped from the back obliquely to the transverse axis of a specimen. Th is type of knapping results in the edge of the processed specimen being located at the extension of the bulb. It is one of practical methods of transitioning from multifacial back to bifaciality; • overpassed fl akes – these are fl akes that intentionally or accidentally remove the opposite edge of a specimen (pls. 11, 12). Th is does not always result in damage to the preform, and oft en such a fl ake conveniently removes the opposite back, enabling the third stage of knapping – the transition to bifaciality – to be carried out; • bite fl akes – these are fragments of bifacial preforms which, due to a defective percussion blow or internal cracks, are removed transversely to the edge, oft en have no fl ake scars, and the place of detachment from the preform has the character of a natural or conchoidal fracture, but without a bulb. Such an eff ect is most oft en unintentional and results from a knapper’s error (cf. Waldorf 1993). 10. Flake fragments (rough shaping). Th ere were 6,341 primary fl ake fragments, totalling 68.1 kg, recorded in the studied assemblage. All cracked fragments that were not classifi ed in other categories, but had scars on the ventral face, were included here. Another distinctive feature of these specimens is their massiveness. 11. Flake fragments (shaping proper). Th ere were 2,664 fragments of fl akes from the proper reduction phase, totalling 6 kg, recorded in Shaft I/4. Th ese forms are analogous to those included in the previous category, except for two features: they are not as massive, and natural surface is very rarely present on the dorsal face of the fl ake. 12. Blade-like fl akes, blades. Th e inventory included 200 pieces, with the total weight of 1.5 kg. Th is category consists of specimens twice as long as they are broad (pls. 8: 1, 3).
Proceedings of XXVIII e congrès préhistorique de France – Amiens, 30 mai-4 juin 2016, 2019
This paper seeks to provide an overview of lithic inventories in the Swiderian culture, sometimes... more This paper seeks to provide an overview of lithic inventories in the Swiderian culture, sometimes also called the Mazovian, developing in areas of Poland in the Late Palaeolithic. It discusses selected aspects of typology, technology and utilization of lithic artefacts on the basis of several inventories recovered from different areas, characterized by the occurrence of both high and poor quality raw materials (i.e. Cichmiana 2, Lubrza 10, Kraków-Bieżanów 15, Suchodółka 3 and Żuławka 13). The applied research methodology combined a morphological analysis, debitage refitting, the experimental method, use-wear analysis and quantitative approach. Typological, technological, raw material and functional characteristics of the analyzed lithic artefacts have enabled us to indicate some interesting correlations between manufacturing techniques, the morphology of lithic tools and their usage. In general, Swiderian inventories are typified by the presence of willow leaf and tanged points, burins or end-scrapers made on thin blades. Tanged points are characterized by flat retouching on the ventral side, which was made using some stone tools. Our studies have revealed that the distribution and usage of Swiderian lithic artefacts was well planned and focused on the production of good quality blanks, from which retouched forms (such as tanged points, end-scrapers or burins) were fashioned. Ad hoc production is fairly nonexistent in the Swiderian material culture. The technological analysis, based on the morphological features of the core reduction products, has shown that the Swiderian debitage was generally concentrated on the detachment of intended blades. The technology was associated mostly with opposed platform cores, very intensive and precise preparation of cores, reduction, renovation of cores and blade production, and the application of the soft hammer stone technique. Such types of cores are generally considered typical of assemblages attributable to the Swiderian occupation, yet sites with restricted access to good quality raw material also yielded cores almost unprepared for working. Use-wear studies performed on formal tools and a sample of unretouched products of core reduction (flakes and blades) have suggested that the implements were usually used for hunting and butchering activities, and in individual cases also for plant and wood processing. We were particularly interested in Swiderian points, which were employed as components of projectile weapons. A quantitative approach was applied in order to precisely determine the function of willow leaf points – whether they were used as arrowheads, dart-tips or spear-points.
Adrián Nemergut, Ivan Cheben, Jaroslava Ruttkayová, Katarzyna Pyżewicz (eds.): 16th SKAM Lithic Workshop. “Fossil directeur” - A phenomenon over time and space. 21–23 of October 2019, Nitra, Slovak Republic. Abstract book. Nitra, 2019
UISPP Commission on Flint Mining in Pre- and Protohistoric Times. 19-21 September 2019. Program - Abstracts - Field Guide, Sep 2019
The forest growing in the northern part of Karniowice (commune Zabierzów, district Kraków) was th... more The forest growing in the northern part of Karniowice (commune Zabierzów, district Kraków) was the object of interest among researchers dealing with flint mining for a long time. Flint mines used for gunflint production were located on the north-eastern edge of the forest in XVIII and XIX century. The special relation of this region with flint extraction was confirmed in the ’90s during a field survey carried out in the Polish Archaeological Record Program (AZP). On the southern and eastern side of the forest numerous lithic scatters from different time periods were found. According to the method used in AZP program, these places were registered as two sites (AZP-100-55/94 and AZP-100-55/131) with a surface of 15 ha each. The next verification of the forest area was carried out in 2014 thanks to data obtained through LiDAR scanning. Except of the gunflint production site from Zelków, the topographic model of the surface allowed to distinguish the next flint mine in Karniowice, located on the mountain ridge stretching from the top of Góra Krzemionka to the north. Additionally, more detailed interpretation of this topographical model provided signes of mining that are different from the XVIII and XIX century exploitation. Similar traces are visible on other two sites but unfortunately, their structures are strongly damaged by modern plowing or lime quarries. Lithic materials from these sites suggest that flint was extracted there from early Neolithic (linear culture) to the Early Bronze Age. Although the research is still ongoing, we can assume that the Karniowice forest is one of the key regions when it comes to prehistoric flint mining in the south part of Polish Jura.
VIR BIMARIS Od kujawskiego matecznika do stepów nadczarnomorskich. Studia z dziejów międzymorza bałtycko-pontyjskiego ofiarowane Profesorowi Aleksandrowi Kośko , 2019
The production of bifacial flint daggers started in the Late Neolithic and the Early Bronze Age i... more The production of bifacial flint daggers started in the Late Neolithic and the Early Bronze Age in particular parts of Europe. Few production centres during that time were located in Poland and Ukraine (in the area between the regions of Volhynia and Lesser Poland). In this paper, we present the brief history of research, production technology, typology and function of flint daggers from these areas. To that end, we analyzed bifacial forms from the collections of three Polish museums. The study focuses on describing the research history of flint daggers in these regions. We also present the classification of bifacial forms from Western Ukraine and Poland. However, due to the focus of this research we excluded the forms originating from the Scandinavian and Northern Pontic dagger traditions. The technology studies section shows the methods of platform preparation and the techniques used during the flake removal process. We then studied selected finished daggers to assess how they were repaired and reshaped. Finally, we present microscopic analyses that were used to interpret the function of selected artefacts, which allow us to demonstrate how daggers were possibly hafted and used.
In this paper we shall demonstrate the relationship between experimental research regarding the o... more In this paper we shall demonstrate the relationship between experimental research regarding the oldest period of human history and the popularisation of knowledge of the Stone Age. Our discussion is based primarily on our own experience of undertaking experimental research and presentation of its results to participants of popular science events. Some examples illustrating the relationship between science and its popularisation have been provided.
Finding and Defining the Federmesser-Gruppen / Azilian, 2020
The purpose of the paper is to investigate the lithic technology of the Arch-Backed Point (ABP) g... more The purpose of the paper is to investigate the lithic technology of the Arch-Backed Point (ABP) groups. The research consisted of analyses of reduction processes and morphological features of debitage. Until recently, Polish archaeology was dominated by studies which employed the dynamic technological classification, infrequently accompanied by the results of application of refitting methods, mostly related to spatial analyses. Having obtained data on the »chaîne opératoire« of two ABP assemblages by dint of the refitting method, we compared them with each other in order to demonstrate two variants of reduction sequences for blade production.
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Papers by Witold Grużdź
In the Polish literature on the subject, there are a number
of typological divisions systematising stone tools used by
prehistoric communities. Th ey are usually based on criteria
concerning raw material and morphology. Most of the
stone material from Ożarów can be categorised, as per the
proposed divisions (e.g. Balcer 2008; Chachlikowski 2013;
Szydłowski 2017), as tools of hammer and anvil types. Based
on the knowledge gained from experimental studies on fl int
knapping techniques, hammers can be further divided into
soft and hard.
A total of 4 categories of stone forms were distinguished
during the analyses. Th ey were defi ned based on the shape of
the specimen and the type of deformations resulting from
knapping or from its use as a tool.
Th e fi rst group consists of artefacts identifi ed as hammers
of spherical morphology and with remains of battering marks
and smoothing on their surface. Tools of this type were usually
made from gneiss, granitoid or sandstone pebbles/cobbles
(Chapter IV.1). In addition to battering marks, fl ake scars
are sometimes visible on their surface; fl akes fell off when
the hammer hit a hard surface—for example, fl int. Th ese
scars are usually located at the point of contact between the
hammer and the nodule and run in the direction opposite to
the movement of the hammer during knapping. Such marks
are formed only incidentally, as a result of a blow directed
too deep into the fl int nodule or due to a natural fl aw in the
pebble/cobble (Fig. 1:1).
Th e second category comprises tools similar to discoidal
in shape (Fig. 1: 2), with clear and numerous removal scars.
Th ese removals usually have a centripetal direction, and it
can be assumed that they were created as a result of deliberate
shaping of the rock. Th eir narrow edge is usually smoothed.
Most of them were made of less compact rocks, which can
be split to some extent, such as the Szydłowiec or Jotnian
sandstones (Chapter IV.1).
Another category consists of stone fl akes, which were most
likely removed from the specimens classifi ed in one of the two
categories mentioned above. Traces of battering marks and
smoothing, typical of hammer-type tools, are oft en visible on
their surface (Fig. 1).
Th e last category includes plate-like specimens with single
removal scars on the surface. Most of them were made from
fragments of large and fl at sandstones, possibly not pebbles/
cobbles (Chapter IV.1).
Th e morphological categories of stone artefacts presented
are closely connected with specifi c raw materials, hence one
should be inclined to the idea that they were selected for
further work in terms of size and physical properties. At the
same time, as petrographic analyses (Chapter IV.1) have
shown, they should be linked to the local raw material base.
Th ey were probably acquired during the exploitation of
deposits at the site or in its immediate vicinity. Th ey could
have been picked, for example, from stone debris, from
that which was transferred as a result of various hypergenic
processes (Czubla 2015; Czubla et al. 2006; Kozłowski 1986).
Th e classifi cation of the material from the Ożarów workshops
comprises artefacts obtained from the specifi c context of a mine.
Individual criteria used in the study are an internal structure and,
as a whole, they form a technological image. Th at is, individual
elements, such as types of fl akes, should not be treated as fossil
directeur – distinctive forms characteristic of the production
process of Early Bronze Age sickles. Th eir place in the process
is determined by the proportions between the individual
categories and data obtained through other methods (refi tting,
use-wear analysis, etc.). Th e features of individual products
under consideration have their specifi c context – they were
produced and deposited in the course of one knapping episode.
Th e unquestionable similarity of some classes of wastes to other,
chronologically diff erent production cycles (e.g., squared axes or
Prądnik knives) does not make the material classifi cation method
proposed here directly transferable to another fi eld of research. For
every single, confi ned place where fl intknapping was carried out,
a slightly diff erent list of morphological features should probably
be constructed, although, of course, in many cases, the knappers
used similar solutions to achieve slightly diff erent results. In the case
of Ożarów, the aim is to describe a specifi c excavated assemblage –
numerous and presenting a clear statistical image. Th e introduced
classes of artefacts have no value for either cultural (which is
known) or technological attribution. Th e aim was to describe how
bifacial knives were formed from Ożarów fl int of diff erent varieties
and what knapping stages and strategies were employed.
Classifi cation of the material from Ożarów workshops:
1. Natural fragments (including small nodules and natural
chunks).
Th ese include eoliths found in historical material as well as
protrusions detached from larger concretions and tabular fl ints
– when it could not be assumed that they had been removed
intentionally. Th e material was counted in the fi eld, but was not
collected for further offi ce work, so it is not possible to perform
secondary quantitative and weight analysis.
2. Flat fl akes (early reduction).
Th ere were 1,321 fl at fl akes obtained in the course of
initial reduction, totalling 50.2 kg, recorded in Shaft I/4. Th is
category consists of two groups, which have been merged due
to their size (pls. 1, 2).
Th e fi rst group includes forms which are fl at in side
view. Th eir proportions can be described as para-blade-like.
A unidirectional fl ake scar pattern consistent with the direction
of fl ake detachment blow (sometimes only one scar) is visible
on the dorsal face. Most oft en, they have a massive bulb and
a fl at, fairly large butt. Th ey are not too numerous. Th eir size and
manner of removal may indicate that they were intentionally
manufactured as blanks for further bifacial reduction.
Th e second group consists of smaller specimens, which have
fl at or natural butts and a massive bulb. Th e angle of fl aking is close
to straight. Th ese fl akes usually reduce a large amount of mass from
the original fl int nodule, which is visible as convexity on their
dorsal face. Th ey have feathered, stepped or hinged termination.
Th eir surface is entirely or partially natural, cortical or cracked.
Specimens of this type most oft en come from the fi rst, i.e. rough,
stage of shaping a preform, when cracked fragments of the nodule
were detached, and the specimen was given its general shape.
3. Flat fl akes (shaping).
Th e assemblage contains 1,273 fl akes of this type, with the
total weight of 6 kg. Th ey have a fl at butt, oft en with a lip, and
a small bulb; they were fl aked at a straight angle (pls. 3). Distal
parts of the specimens are feathered, stepped or hinged. On
their dorsal face, there oft en are unidirectional scars consistent
with the direction of the fl ake detachment blow. Th ese forms
could be removed both from the “back” and from the wider
surfaces of a specimen. In the Ożarów workshops, it was
the basic method of thinning knives, commonly used at the
advanced stages of reduction. It is likely that these fl akes should
be linked with precise thinning of forms with a “back”, at the
more advanced stages of knapping.
4. Curved fl akes (early reduction).
In the material obtained from the shaft , 836 curved fl akes from
the initial reduction stage, totalling 19.2 kg, were recorded. Th ese
specimens are curved in profi le, have a fl at or, less frequently, edge
butt, usually with a lip under the butt edge, and were fl aked at an acute
angle (pls. 4). Th ey are characterized by considerable massiveness
– a thickening – in the medial part. Dorsal faces are covered with up
to two scars, usually consistent with the direction of the detachment
blow, or have only natural, cortical or cracked surfaces. Th ese fl akes
usually have feathered, less oft en stepped or hinged termination.
Sometimes, the partially cracked underside of a specimen is the only
feature that allows it to be classifi ed in this group of fl akes, despite the
occasionally worse readability of scars. Th ese fl akes are interpreted
as detached in the fi rst stage of work to roughly clean and thin the
specimen. Th ey provide information on the weight of the silica mass
that was reduced in the initial stages of knapping.
5. Curved negative fl akes (shaping).
Th ere were 1,523 such fl akes, totalling 23.3 kg, recorded in
the inventory. Th e forms are curved in profi le (pls. 5, 6) and
what diff erentiates them from the previous category is that they
have fl at or negative butts and at least three fl ake scars on the
dorsal face. Th is category is quite broad and includes specimens
of varying shapes and sizes. Th ese fl akes were removed from an
edge set at an acute angle to the surface being knapped. Th ey
have feathered, less oft en stepped or hinged termination.
6. Curved negative fl akes (late phase shaping).
Th ere were 500 curved fl akes, totalling 1.55 kg, recorded
in Shaft I/4. Th ese are mostly thin forms. Th ey oft en have
KOPALNIE KRZEMIENIA 152 NA STANOWISKU „ZA GARNCARZAMI” W OŻAROWIE
a faceted, negative or edge butt with a prominent lip,
characterised by an acute fl aking angle (pls. 7:3, 9). Th ey are
even in shape and usually have feathered terminations. Th e
scars on the dorsal face are unidirectional; cortex or cracked
surfaces are only rarely preserved. Th ey are associated with
the preform fi nishing phase and are characteristic of bifacial
reduction.
7. Curved bidirectional negative fl akes (late phase shaping).
Th ere were 126 fl akes of this type, totalling 0.84 kg,
registered in the assemblage. Th ese forms are analogous to those
mentioned above (butts, fl aking angle, uniformity of ridges and
edges). Th ey diff er from them in the bidirectional scar pattern
on the dorsal face (pls. 7:1–2, 4–8, 10). Th ey are associated with
the preform fi nishing phase and are characteristic of bifacial
reduction.
8. Flakes from sides of nodules.
Th ere were 75 such pieces, totalling 7.2 kg, recorded
in the inventory. Th e specimens included in this group are
characterised by an overpassing in the distal part, which removes
the natural bottom of a nodule (pls. 8: 2, 4, 5).
9. Preparation fl akes.
Th ere were 670 preparation fl akes, totalling 47.4 kg,
recorded in shaft I/4. Th is is a very diverse category, which
includes specimens with a fragment of a knapped – crested –
edge on the dorsal face:
• fl akes that remove ridges lengthwise – these are fl akes or
blade-like fl akes that have residual unilateral or bilateral
crests (pls. 9: 4) on the dorsal face. Th ey are interpreted as
an evidence of removing the back in the second stage before
proceeding to the fi nal bifacial reduction of a specimen;
• fl akes that remove ridges transversely (pls. 9: 1, 2) – these
are the fragments knapped from the back obliquely to the
transverse axis of a specimen. Th is type of knapping results
in the edge of the processed specimen being located at the
extension of the bulb. It is one of practical methods of transitioning
from multifacial back to bifaciality;
• overpassed fl akes – these are fl akes that intentionally or
accidentally remove the opposite edge of a specimen (pls.
11, 12). Th is does not always result in damage to the preform,
and oft en such a fl ake conveniently removes the opposite
back, enabling the third stage of knapping – the transition
to bifaciality – to be carried out;
• bite fl akes – these are fragments of bifacial preforms which,
due to a defective percussion blow or internal cracks, are
removed transversely to the edge, oft en have no fl ake scars,
and the place of detachment from the preform has the character
of a natural or conchoidal fracture, but without a bulb.
Such an eff ect is most oft en unintentional and results from
a knapper’s error (cf. Waldorf 1993).
10. Flake fragments (rough shaping).
Th ere were 6,341 primary fl ake fragments, totalling 68.1
kg, recorded in the studied assemblage. All cracked fragments
that were not classifi ed in other categories, but had scars on the
ventral face, were included here. Another distinctive feature of
these specimens is their massiveness.
11. Flake fragments (shaping proper).
Th ere were 2,664 fragments of fl akes from the proper
reduction phase, totalling 6 kg, recorded in Shaft I/4. Th ese
forms are analogous to those included in the previous category,
except for two features: they are not as massive, and natural
surface is very rarely present on the dorsal face of the fl ake.
12. Blade-like fl akes, blades.
Th e inventory included 200 pieces, with the total weight of
1.5 kg. Th is category consists of specimens twice as long as they
are broad (pls. 8: 1, 3).
called the Mazovian, developing in areas of Poland in the Late Palaeolithic. It discusses selected aspects of
typology, technology and utilization of lithic artefacts on the basis of several inventories recovered from different
areas, characterized by the occurrence of both high and poor quality raw materials (i.e. Cichmiana 2, Lubrza
10, Kraków-Bieżanów 15, Suchodółka 3 and Żuławka 13).
The applied research methodology combined a morphological analysis, debitage refitting, the experimental
method, use-wear analysis and quantitative approach. Typological, technological, raw material and functional
characteristics of the analyzed lithic artefacts have enabled us to indicate some interesting correlations between
manufacturing techniques, the morphology of lithic tools and their usage.
In general, Swiderian inventories are typified by the presence of willow leaf and tanged points, burins or
end-scrapers made on thin blades. Tanged points are characterized by flat retouching on the ventral side, which
was made using some stone tools.
Our studies have revealed that the distribution and usage of Swiderian lithic artefacts was well planned and
focused on the production of good quality blanks, from which retouched forms (such as tanged points,
end-scrapers or burins) were fashioned. Ad hoc production is fairly nonexistent in the Swiderian material
culture. The technological analysis, based on the morphological features of the core reduction products, has
shown that the Swiderian debitage was generally concentrated on the detachment of intended blades. The
technology was associated mostly with opposed platform cores, very intensive and precise preparation of cores,
reduction, renovation of cores and blade production, and the application of the soft hammer stone technique.
Such types of cores are generally considered typical of assemblages attributable to the Swiderian occupation,
yet sites with restricted access to good quality raw material also yielded cores almost unprepared for working.
Use-wear studies performed on formal tools and a sample of unretouched products of core reduction (flakes and
blades) have suggested that the implements were usually used for hunting and butchering activities, and in individual
cases also for plant and wood processing. We were particularly interested in Swiderian points, which were
employed as components of projectile weapons. A quantitative approach was applied in order to precisely determine
the function of willow leaf points – whether they were used as arrowheads, dart-tips or spear-points.
The next verification of the forest area was carried out in 2014 thanks to data obtained through LiDAR scanning. Except of the gunflint production site from Zelków, the topographic model of the surface allowed to distinguish the next flint mine in Karniowice, located on the mountain ridge stretching from the top of Góra Krzemionka to the north. Additionally, more detailed interpretation of this topographical model provided signes of mining that are different from the XVIII and XIX century exploitation. Similar traces are visible on other two sites but unfortunately, their structures are strongly damaged by modern plowing or lime quarries.
Lithic materials from these sites suggest that flint was extracted there from early Neolithic (linear culture) to the Early Bronze Age. Although the research is still ongoing, we can assume that the Karniowice forest is one of the key regions when it comes to prehistoric flint mining in the south part of Polish Jura.
of Europe. Few production centres during that time were located in Poland and Ukraine (in the area between
the regions of Volhynia and Lesser Poland). In this paper, we present the brief history of research, production
technology, typology and function of flint daggers from these areas. To that end, we analyzed bifacial forms from
the collections of three Polish museums. The study focuses on describing the research history of flint daggers in
these regions. We also present the classification of bifacial forms from Western Ukraine and Poland. However,
due to the focus of this research we excluded the forms originating from the Scandinavian and Northern Pontic
dagger traditions. The technology studies section shows the methods of platform preparation and the techniques
used during the flake removal process. We then studied selected finished daggers to assess how they were repaired
and reshaped. Finally, we present microscopic analyses that were used to interpret the function of selected
artefacts, which allow us to demonstrate how daggers were possibly hafted and used.
In the Polish literature on the subject, there are a number
of typological divisions systematising stone tools used by
prehistoric communities. Th ey are usually based on criteria
concerning raw material and morphology. Most of the
stone material from Ożarów can be categorised, as per the
proposed divisions (e.g. Balcer 2008; Chachlikowski 2013;
Szydłowski 2017), as tools of hammer and anvil types. Based
on the knowledge gained from experimental studies on fl int
knapping techniques, hammers can be further divided into
soft and hard.
A total of 4 categories of stone forms were distinguished
during the analyses. Th ey were defi ned based on the shape of
the specimen and the type of deformations resulting from
knapping or from its use as a tool.
Th e fi rst group consists of artefacts identifi ed as hammers
of spherical morphology and with remains of battering marks
and smoothing on their surface. Tools of this type were usually
made from gneiss, granitoid or sandstone pebbles/cobbles
(Chapter IV.1). In addition to battering marks, fl ake scars
are sometimes visible on their surface; fl akes fell off when
the hammer hit a hard surface—for example, fl int. Th ese
scars are usually located at the point of contact between the
hammer and the nodule and run in the direction opposite to
the movement of the hammer during knapping. Such marks
are formed only incidentally, as a result of a blow directed
too deep into the fl int nodule or due to a natural fl aw in the
pebble/cobble (Fig. 1:1).
Th e second category comprises tools similar to discoidal
in shape (Fig. 1: 2), with clear and numerous removal scars.
Th ese removals usually have a centripetal direction, and it
can be assumed that they were created as a result of deliberate
shaping of the rock. Th eir narrow edge is usually smoothed.
Most of them were made of less compact rocks, which can
be split to some extent, such as the Szydłowiec or Jotnian
sandstones (Chapter IV.1).
Another category consists of stone fl akes, which were most
likely removed from the specimens classifi ed in one of the two
categories mentioned above. Traces of battering marks and
smoothing, typical of hammer-type tools, are oft en visible on
their surface (Fig. 1).
Th e last category includes plate-like specimens with single
removal scars on the surface. Most of them were made from
fragments of large and fl at sandstones, possibly not pebbles/
cobbles (Chapter IV.1).
Th e morphological categories of stone artefacts presented
are closely connected with specifi c raw materials, hence one
should be inclined to the idea that they were selected for
further work in terms of size and physical properties. At the
same time, as petrographic analyses (Chapter IV.1) have
shown, they should be linked to the local raw material base.
Th ey were probably acquired during the exploitation of
deposits at the site or in its immediate vicinity. Th ey could
have been picked, for example, from stone debris, from
that which was transferred as a result of various hypergenic
processes (Czubla 2015; Czubla et al. 2006; Kozłowski 1986).
Th e classifi cation of the material from the Ożarów workshops
comprises artefacts obtained from the specifi c context of a mine.
Individual criteria used in the study are an internal structure and,
as a whole, they form a technological image. Th at is, individual
elements, such as types of fl akes, should not be treated as fossil
directeur – distinctive forms characteristic of the production
process of Early Bronze Age sickles. Th eir place in the process
is determined by the proportions between the individual
categories and data obtained through other methods (refi tting,
use-wear analysis, etc.). Th e features of individual products
under consideration have their specifi c context – they were
produced and deposited in the course of one knapping episode.
Th e unquestionable similarity of some classes of wastes to other,
chronologically diff erent production cycles (e.g., squared axes or
Prądnik knives) does not make the material classifi cation method
proposed here directly transferable to another fi eld of research. For
every single, confi ned place where fl intknapping was carried out,
a slightly diff erent list of morphological features should probably
be constructed, although, of course, in many cases, the knappers
used similar solutions to achieve slightly diff erent results. In the case
of Ożarów, the aim is to describe a specifi c excavated assemblage –
numerous and presenting a clear statistical image. Th e introduced
classes of artefacts have no value for either cultural (which is
known) or technological attribution. Th e aim was to describe how
bifacial knives were formed from Ożarów fl int of diff erent varieties
and what knapping stages and strategies were employed.
Classifi cation of the material from Ożarów workshops:
1. Natural fragments (including small nodules and natural
chunks).
Th ese include eoliths found in historical material as well as
protrusions detached from larger concretions and tabular fl ints
– when it could not be assumed that they had been removed
intentionally. Th e material was counted in the fi eld, but was not
collected for further offi ce work, so it is not possible to perform
secondary quantitative and weight analysis.
2. Flat fl akes (early reduction).
Th ere were 1,321 fl at fl akes obtained in the course of
initial reduction, totalling 50.2 kg, recorded in Shaft I/4. Th is
category consists of two groups, which have been merged due
to their size (pls. 1, 2).
Th e fi rst group includes forms which are fl at in side
view. Th eir proportions can be described as para-blade-like.
A unidirectional fl ake scar pattern consistent with the direction
of fl ake detachment blow (sometimes only one scar) is visible
on the dorsal face. Most oft en, they have a massive bulb and
a fl at, fairly large butt. Th ey are not too numerous. Th eir size and
manner of removal may indicate that they were intentionally
manufactured as blanks for further bifacial reduction.
Th e second group consists of smaller specimens, which have
fl at or natural butts and a massive bulb. Th e angle of fl aking is close
to straight. Th ese fl akes usually reduce a large amount of mass from
the original fl int nodule, which is visible as convexity on their
dorsal face. Th ey have feathered, stepped or hinged termination.
Th eir surface is entirely or partially natural, cortical or cracked.
Specimens of this type most oft en come from the fi rst, i.e. rough,
stage of shaping a preform, when cracked fragments of the nodule
were detached, and the specimen was given its general shape.
3. Flat fl akes (shaping).
Th e assemblage contains 1,273 fl akes of this type, with the
total weight of 6 kg. Th ey have a fl at butt, oft en with a lip, and
a small bulb; they were fl aked at a straight angle (pls. 3). Distal
parts of the specimens are feathered, stepped or hinged. On
their dorsal face, there oft en are unidirectional scars consistent
with the direction of the fl ake detachment blow. Th ese forms
could be removed both from the “back” and from the wider
surfaces of a specimen. In the Ożarów workshops, it was
the basic method of thinning knives, commonly used at the
advanced stages of reduction. It is likely that these fl akes should
be linked with precise thinning of forms with a “back”, at the
more advanced stages of knapping.
4. Curved fl akes (early reduction).
In the material obtained from the shaft , 836 curved fl akes from
the initial reduction stage, totalling 19.2 kg, were recorded. Th ese
specimens are curved in profi le, have a fl at or, less frequently, edge
butt, usually with a lip under the butt edge, and were fl aked at an acute
angle (pls. 4). Th ey are characterized by considerable massiveness
– a thickening – in the medial part. Dorsal faces are covered with up
to two scars, usually consistent with the direction of the detachment
blow, or have only natural, cortical or cracked surfaces. Th ese fl akes
usually have feathered, less oft en stepped or hinged termination.
Sometimes, the partially cracked underside of a specimen is the only
feature that allows it to be classifi ed in this group of fl akes, despite the
occasionally worse readability of scars. Th ese fl akes are interpreted
as detached in the fi rst stage of work to roughly clean and thin the
specimen. Th ey provide information on the weight of the silica mass
that was reduced in the initial stages of knapping.
5. Curved negative fl akes (shaping).
Th ere were 1,523 such fl akes, totalling 23.3 kg, recorded in
the inventory. Th e forms are curved in profi le (pls. 5, 6) and
what diff erentiates them from the previous category is that they
have fl at or negative butts and at least three fl ake scars on the
dorsal face. Th is category is quite broad and includes specimens
of varying shapes and sizes. Th ese fl akes were removed from an
edge set at an acute angle to the surface being knapped. Th ey
have feathered, less oft en stepped or hinged termination.
6. Curved negative fl akes (late phase shaping).
Th ere were 500 curved fl akes, totalling 1.55 kg, recorded
in Shaft I/4. Th ese are mostly thin forms. Th ey oft en have
KOPALNIE KRZEMIENIA 152 NA STANOWISKU „ZA GARNCARZAMI” W OŻAROWIE
a faceted, negative or edge butt with a prominent lip,
characterised by an acute fl aking angle (pls. 7:3, 9). Th ey are
even in shape and usually have feathered terminations. Th e
scars on the dorsal face are unidirectional; cortex or cracked
surfaces are only rarely preserved. Th ey are associated with
the preform fi nishing phase and are characteristic of bifacial
reduction.
7. Curved bidirectional negative fl akes (late phase shaping).
Th ere were 126 fl akes of this type, totalling 0.84 kg,
registered in the assemblage. Th ese forms are analogous to those
mentioned above (butts, fl aking angle, uniformity of ridges and
edges). Th ey diff er from them in the bidirectional scar pattern
on the dorsal face (pls. 7:1–2, 4–8, 10). Th ey are associated with
the preform fi nishing phase and are characteristic of bifacial
reduction.
8. Flakes from sides of nodules.
Th ere were 75 such pieces, totalling 7.2 kg, recorded
in the inventory. Th e specimens included in this group are
characterised by an overpassing in the distal part, which removes
the natural bottom of a nodule (pls. 8: 2, 4, 5).
9. Preparation fl akes.
Th ere were 670 preparation fl akes, totalling 47.4 kg,
recorded in shaft I/4. Th is is a very diverse category, which
includes specimens with a fragment of a knapped – crested –
edge on the dorsal face:
• fl akes that remove ridges lengthwise – these are fl akes or
blade-like fl akes that have residual unilateral or bilateral
crests (pls. 9: 4) on the dorsal face. Th ey are interpreted as
an evidence of removing the back in the second stage before
proceeding to the fi nal bifacial reduction of a specimen;
• fl akes that remove ridges transversely (pls. 9: 1, 2) – these
are the fragments knapped from the back obliquely to the
transverse axis of a specimen. Th is type of knapping results
in the edge of the processed specimen being located at the
extension of the bulb. It is one of practical methods of transitioning
from multifacial back to bifaciality;
• overpassed fl akes – these are fl akes that intentionally or
accidentally remove the opposite edge of a specimen (pls.
11, 12). Th is does not always result in damage to the preform,
and oft en such a fl ake conveniently removes the opposite
back, enabling the third stage of knapping – the transition
to bifaciality – to be carried out;
• bite fl akes – these are fragments of bifacial preforms which,
due to a defective percussion blow or internal cracks, are
removed transversely to the edge, oft en have no fl ake scars,
and the place of detachment from the preform has the character
of a natural or conchoidal fracture, but without a bulb.
Such an eff ect is most oft en unintentional and results from
a knapper’s error (cf. Waldorf 1993).
10. Flake fragments (rough shaping).
Th ere were 6,341 primary fl ake fragments, totalling 68.1
kg, recorded in the studied assemblage. All cracked fragments
that were not classifi ed in other categories, but had scars on the
ventral face, were included here. Another distinctive feature of
these specimens is their massiveness.
11. Flake fragments (shaping proper).
Th ere were 2,664 fragments of fl akes from the proper
reduction phase, totalling 6 kg, recorded in Shaft I/4. Th ese
forms are analogous to those included in the previous category,
except for two features: they are not as massive, and natural
surface is very rarely present on the dorsal face of the fl ake.
12. Blade-like fl akes, blades.
Th e inventory included 200 pieces, with the total weight of
1.5 kg. Th is category consists of specimens twice as long as they
are broad (pls. 8: 1, 3).
called the Mazovian, developing in areas of Poland in the Late Palaeolithic. It discusses selected aspects of
typology, technology and utilization of lithic artefacts on the basis of several inventories recovered from different
areas, characterized by the occurrence of both high and poor quality raw materials (i.e. Cichmiana 2, Lubrza
10, Kraków-Bieżanów 15, Suchodółka 3 and Żuławka 13).
The applied research methodology combined a morphological analysis, debitage refitting, the experimental
method, use-wear analysis and quantitative approach. Typological, technological, raw material and functional
characteristics of the analyzed lithic artefacts have enabled us to indicate some interesting correlations between
manufacturing techniques, the morphology of lithic tools and their usage.
In general, Swiderian inventories are typified by the presence of willow leaf and tanged points, burins or
end-scrapers made on thin blades. Tanged points are characterized by flat retouching on the ventral side, which
was made using some stone tools.
Our studies have revealed that the distribution and usage of Swiderian lithic artefacts was well planned and
focused on the production of good quality blanks, from which retouched forms (such as tanged points,
end-scrapers or burins) were fashioned. Ad hoc production is fairly nonexistent in the Swiderian material
culture. The technological analysis, based on the morphological features of the core reduction products, has
shown that the Swiderian debitage was generally concentrated on the detachment of intended blades. The
technology was associated mostly with opposed platform cores, very intensive and precise preparation of cores,
reduction, renovation of cores and blade production, and the application of the soft hammer stone technique.
Such types of cores are generally considered typical of assemblages attributable to the Swiderian occupation,
yet sites with restricted access to good quality raw material also yielded cores almost unprepared for working.
Use-wear studies performed on formal tools and a sample of unretouched products of core reduction (flakes and
blades) have suggested that the implements were usually used for hunting and butchering activities, and in individual
cases also for plant and wood processing. We were particularly interested in Swiderian points, which were
employed as components of projectile weapons. A quantitative approach was applied in order to precisely determine
the function of willow leaf points – whether they were used as arrowheads, dart-tips or spear-points.
The next verification of the forest area was carried out in 2014 thanks to data obtained through LiDAR scanning. Except of the gunflint production site from Zelków, the topographic model of the surface allowed to distinguish the next flint mine in Karniowice, located on the mountain ridge stretching from the top of Góra Krzemionka to the north. Additionally, more detailed interpretation of this topographical model provided signes of mining that are different from the XVIII and XIX century exploitation. Similar traces are visible on other two sites but unfortunately, their structures are strongly damaged by modern plowing or lime quarries.
Lithic materials from these sites suggest that flint was extracted there from early Neolithic (linear culture) to the Early Bronze Age. Although the research is still ongoing, we can assume that the Karniowice forest is one of the key regions when it comes to prehistoric flint mining in the south part of Polish Jura.
of Europe. Few production centres during that time were located in Poland and Ukraine (in the area between
the regions of Volhynia and Lesser Poland). In this paper, we present the brief history of research, production
technology, typology and function of flint daggers from these areas. To that end, we analyzed bifacial forms from
the collections of three Polish museums. The study focuses on describing the research history of flint daggers in
these regions. We also present the classification of bifacial forms from Western Ukraine and Poland. However,
due to the focus of this research we excluded the forms originating from the Scandinavian and Northern Pontic
dagger traditions. The technology studies section shows the methods of platform preparation and the techniques
used during the flake removal process. We then studied selected finished daggers to assess how they were repaired
and reshaped. Finally, we present microscopic analyses that were used to interpret the function of selected
artefacts, which allow us to demonstrate how daggers were possibly hafted and used.