Tesis Javier Quinto Canovas

Diversidad, ecologa y conservacin de
insectos saproxlicos (Coleoptera y Diptera:

Syrphidae) en oquedades arbreas del Parque
Nacional de Cabaeros (Espaa)
Javier Quinto Cnovas

Tesis doctoral
Diversidad, ecologa y conservacin de insectos saproxlicos

(Coleoptera y Diptera: Syrphidae) en oquedades arbreas
del Parque Nacional de Cabaeros (Espaa)

(Coleoptera y Diptera: Syrphidae) en oquedades arbreas
del Parque Nacional de Cabaeros (Espaa)
Diversity, ecology and conservation of saproxylic insects (Coleoptera and

Diptera: Syrphidae) in tree hollows in Cabaeros National Park (Spain)
Instituto de investigacin CIBIO
Centro Iberoamericano de la Biodiversidad
Universidad de Alicante
2013
(Coleoptera y Diptera: Syrphidae) en oquedades arbreas del
Parque Nacional de Cabaeros (Espaa)
Memoria presentada por el Licenciado Javier Quinto Cnovas para

optar al ttulo de Doctor en Biologa por la Universidad de Alicante
Fdo. Javier Quinto Cnovas
Las directoras
Fdo. Dra. Estefana Mic Balaguer Fdo. Dra. M ngeles Marcos Garca
Centro Iberoamericano de Centro Iberoamericano de
la Biodiversidad (CIBIO) la Biodiversidad (CIBIO)
Universidad de Alicante Universidad de Alicante
2013
Con orden y tiempo se encuentra el secreto de
hacerlo todo, y de hacerlo bien
Pitgoras
A mi familia y amigos
A mis abuelos
INDICE
Agradecimientos....1
Resumen y estructura de la tesis...7
Captulo 1. Introduccin general15
1.1. Los insectos saproxlicos y su importancia ecolgica..17
1.2. Situacin en Europa y en la Pennsula Ibrica..19
1.3. Justificacin..22
1.4. rea de estudio: El Parque Nacional de Cabaeros.23
1.5. Grupos taxonmicos objeto de estudio...27
1.6. Objetivos de la tesis doctoral28
1.7. Bibliografa.30
Captulo 2. Effectiveness of three sampling methods to survey

saproxylic beetle assemblages in Mediterranean Woodland.
[Efectividad de tres mtodos de muestreo para evaluar el ensamble de
escarabajos saproxlicos en el bosque mediterrneo]..39
Captulo 3. Breaking down complex saproxylic communities:

Understanding sub-networks structure and implications to
network robustness. [Explorando las comunidades saproxlicas: Un
acercamiento a la estructura de las subredes y sus implicaciones en la
estabilidad]..89
Captulo 4. Influence of tree hollow microenvironmental

variables on saproxylic guild diversity in Mediterranean
woodlands. [Influencia de kas variables microambientales sobre
la diversidad de los gremios saproxlicos en bosques
mediterrneos]...147
Discusin general..201
Conclusiones generales...223
Apndice 1. The Genus Ferdinandea Rondani, 1844 (Diptera,
Syrphidae) in the Iberian Peninsula: First records and New
Breeding Sites. [El gnero Ferdinandea Rondani, 1844 (Diptera,
Syrphidae) en la Pennsula Ibrica: Primerascitas y nuevos sitios de
cra]..229
Apndice 2. Lo que las oquedades esconden255

Apndice 3. Nueva cita de Limoniscus violaceus (Mller, 1821)
(Coleoptera: Elateridae) para la regin Mediterrnea Ibrica.
[New record of Limoniscus violaceus (Mller, 1821) (Coleoptera:
Elateridae) in the Iberian Mediterranean Region]...267
Apndice 4. Mallota dusmeti Andru, 1926273

Agradecimientos
Agradecimientos
En la grata tarea de agradecer resulta complejo comprimir la
riqueza de los aos en unos pocos renglones, reconocer todo el apoyo
recibido, el gran valor de las experiencias y lecciones aprendidas, as
como el papel que juega la amistad en la elaboracin de una tesis.
Quiero empezar agradeciendo a las personas que un da me

dieron la oportunidad de estar donde hoy estoy: en un mundo
saproxlico. Gracias a las Dras. Estefana Mic y M ngeles Marcos por
ofrecerme hacer una tesis que ha resultado ser tan estimulante, por
ensearme mucha ciencia, por la paciencia, por la cercana, y cmo no,
por ese toque de humor permanente que ha propiciado tantos
momentos inolvidables. Espero que esta tesis slo sea el principio de
muchos aos de estrecho trabajo y relacin. Tambin agradecer a M
ngeles que desde un primer momento me abriese las puertas de la
investigacin en aquellos primeros pinitos en plagas, cumpliendo as
una de las principales metas de mi vida de estudiante de biologa,
aportar algo a la ciencia.
Al Dr. Eduardo Galante por todo el apoyo profesional, econmico

y personal recibido, por ser junto a Fani Y M ngeles parte esencial de
esta tesis.
A los proyectos CGL2008-04472, CGL2009-09656 y CGL2011-

23658 del Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacin, y al proyecto LIFE-
07/NAT/00762 de la Comisin Europea LIFE-Nature, por el soporte
econmico de esta tesis.
A la Administracin y al personal del Parque Nacional de

Cabaeros por toda la ayuda prestada durante la realizacin del trabajo
de campo.
Al Instituto CIBIO por poner a mi disposicin todos sus medios. A

todos los profesores que lo componen.
A todo el personal de administracin y servicios del CIBIO, los

PAS, por toda la gestin y logstica, por la ayuda que siempre me
prestis. A Jess por las trampas, grficas por ese gran humor y risa
contagiosa que siempre ameniza. A Mati por la tertulia, y por ese cario
que nos tienes. A Chema por salvarme del suicidio con la informtica. A
Carmen por los dulces hechos adrede, por su atencin. A Yolanda por ser
tan entraable y por la tranquilidad que transmite. A David por su
1
Agradecimientos
enorme paciencia y buen hacer. A Jos Carlos por las conversaciones y

risas entre pasillos. A Antonio Cano por su amabilidad y constante buen
humor.
A Roderic Pla por prestarme la hermosa foto de Fresneda de

Gargantilla que aparece en la cubierta trasera, y a Jos Ignacio Pascual
por la gran foto de Mallota dusmeti.
Al Instituto de Ecologa de Xalapa, A.C., por permitirme realizar

mi estancia de investigacin, as como a todos los componentes del
grupo de Interacciones Multitrficas: Dr. Vicente Hernndez, Dr. Eduardo
Ribera, Dr. Cuauhtmoc Deloya, Dr. Juan Martnez, Too, Araceli, Ingrid,
Haydee, Saray, Arturo, etc. por toda vuestra ayuda y por ensearme un
poco de vuestra cultura y vuestra fabulosa tierra. No quisiera olvidarme
en este prrafo de agradecer a Nancy, Cande y Janet, por ser tan buenas
conmigo desde el primer da, sois geniales.
Un especial agradecimiento al Dr. Vctor Rico y la Dra. Cecilia Daz

por acogerme acadmica y personalmente durante mi estancia en
Xalapa, por hacerme sentir como uno ms del grupo de Interacciones,
por ensearme muchos y valiosos conocimientos. Por el nimo, y afecto
recibido en los momentos bajos y en los momentos altos.
Al Dr. Herv Brustel, por su inestimable ayuda en la

determinacin de montaas de escarabajos, por facilitarme tanta
bibliografa, por las divertidas tardes de laboratorio y das de campo, y
por ese carcter tan espontneo que tanto me gusta. I learned a lot of
things with you, I am very grateful for your continuous help and for your
saproxylic friendship. I hope to continue working with a professional like
you.
Tambin agradecer a todos los taxnomos que participaron en la

identificacin del material entomolgico, un trabajo esencial para la
elaboracin de esta tesis: A. Violas, A. Verdugo, F. Soldati, O.
Rose, J.C. Otero, M.A. Alonso-Zarazaga, A. Herrmann, J.L. Zapata,
J.P. Tamisier, G. Liberti, C. Prez, R. Allemand, T. Noblecourt, P.
Leblanc, L. Chkir, P. Vienna.
A los Doctores Graham Rotheray, Ellen Rotheray, Jos Michelena,
Ricardo Jimnez, Ascensin Padilla, Ana Pineda, Antonio Ricarte y Zorica
Nedeljkovic, por el buen trato y apoyo recibido siempre que nos
encontramos. Ascen, muchas gracias por tu ayuda con los mapas.
2
Agradecimientos
A mis compaer@s del doctorado, mis compaer@s de fatigas.

Hemos pasado de ser completos desconocidos a ser grandes amigos en
unos aos. Con cada uno de vosotros he aprendido muchsimo, me
habis hecho sentir en familia, y nos hemos divertido lo que no est
escrito La mezcla cultural ha sido una de las experiencias ms
enriquecedoras que he vivido.
Regarding profundamente my CIBIO compis. Ana Paola, eres una

persona sencillamente sensacional. Contigo he crecido como persona,
me has enseado conocimientos de toda ndole. Gracias por estar
siempre ah, por regalarme una amistad sincera, y por confiar en m
personal y profesionalmente. Ale jandra yuca teca, desprendes una
calidez nica, eres atenta, amiga de tus amigos, y fiel a tus principios.
Conseguirs todo lo que te propongas porque eres una gran profesional,
gracias por conseguir que siempre viese el vaso medio lleno. A Yelitza,
por ese carcter fabuloso y tripolar, con quien comparto mltiples gustos
y aficiones, gracias por regalarme una amistad tan especial. A Chanes, mi
hermano mexicano, por ser tan buena persona y tan buen amigo, por
compartir todo lo que tienes, y por ese espritu que contagia las ganas de
luchar por las cosas que uno quiere. A Johanna, con quien la vida y la
ciencia es un continuo captulo del club de la comedia que merece ser
vivido, gracias por compartir tantos momentos de risas y despelucadas,
por toda la complicidad y amistad que siempre has depositado en m. A
Adi, por ser una gran persona con grandes valores, a la par que
divertidsima y capaz de hacer cosas que nadie ms puede hacer, gracias
por transmitirme tanta vitalidad, por abrirme las puertas de tu depa y de
tu corazn y dejar que me quedase all para siempre.
A mi comitiva de organizacin: Cinta Quirce, Alejandra Lpez,

Elena Corts, Josy Zarur y Tania Ivorra. Cintiiii, por atender y querer a
todo el mundo, gracias por ser cmplice (junto con Yeli y conmigo) de la
organizacin de eventos, lo hemos pasado genial. Ale, mi esposa de
campo, gracias por las carcajadas diarias, por esos das de locura
saproxlica, por toda tu ayuda, y sobre todo por ese gran afecto que nos
tenemos, gracial esposal!! Elena la besoneta, gracias por hacerme sentir
que nunca estaba solo en la batalla de la tesis, por no perder nunca la
ilusin por la investigacin, por ser una gran compaera y amiga, y no
vacilar en prestar tu ayuda. A Josynha, la clida brasilera amiga de todo el
mundo, por ser tan divertida, y por integrar a todo tipo de gentes en la
gran familia del CIBIO. A Tania, sin ti no habra sido lo mismo el
saproxilico-oh-oh-ooooh, gracias por escucharme y por tu amistad.
3
Agradecimientos
A todos los amig@s que ya acabaron su tesis, ovipositaron y nos

dejaron a nuestra suerte. Olga, gracias por esa energa. Flor, mi amiwina,
gracias por todo tu cario. Catherine, por los muchos momentos de
cultura latina-ibrica fusin. Antonio Ricarte, por estar siempre abierto a
ayudar en lo que haga falta. Jorge Leriana, por acogerme tan bien aqu y
en Mxico. Marina Mazn, por ser un solete. A Rubn Limiana, por ser
tan agradable, por esos cafs en petit comit con Cinta, Elena, Sara y
Gema gracias chicas! A Mauricio, por contagiar esa locura sana.
Tambin agradecer a los estancias cortas Carlos el bueno, Carlos el malo
y Daniela, porque en slo unos meses nos hicimos buenos amigos, mil
gracias por conseguir que mi primer viaje a Mrida fuese un alucine.
A todos los amig@s que an continan entesinados o similar. A

Jorge, por ser tan dicharachero y darle color a la vida. Rocco, gracias por
desvariar tanto como yo ininterrumpidamente durante cinco aos. Paola,
mil gracias por todo, por nuestras plticas. A Beln Belliure, porque t s
que sabes subir el nimo, gracias por encontrar siempre un hueco para la
convivencia entre tu vorgine de trabajo y familiar. Csar por prestarse
sin dudarlo a hacer cualquier actividad y poner todo de su parte. Alfredo,
el xalapeo ms ibrico y compaero de aventuras saproxlicas. Alma,
por tu cario y por estar ah desde el principio. Chiara (y familia), por su
trato clido desde el primer curso de doctorado. Valentina, por entender
tan bien mi italiano. Vanessa, por ser tan alegre. A gueda, que siempre
ha sido una tesista ms. A Ingrid, por abrise por fin a la cultura espaola.
Al clan botnico, Alicia, Jons y Josele. NIMO CHIC@S!!! Tambin
recordar al resto de afines al CIBIO, Kiko, Ilse, Pepa, Ana Rosa, Elivania,
mis chilenas Pili y Marta.
Agradecer mucho a mi familia, mis padres Domingo y Nieves, mis

hermanos Domin y Mari, mi cuao Roque, mi sobrinica Luca y mi
sobrinica en camino, abuelo Faustino, to Juanto y primas Irene y Nuria
y al resto de esa larga familia que tengo, por estar esperando a que
regrese cada vez que me voy, por comprenderme y apoyarme, por todo
ese tiempo que no estamos juntos y no me tenis en cuenta. Recordar
especialmente a mis abuel@s Nieves, Rafaela y Toms, a los que pude
conocer y amar mucho tiempo, porque sin entender muy bien lo que
haca siempre se sintieron orgullosos de m y tuvieron palabras de
aliento.
A todos mis amigos de Albatera, quienes empezaron a modelar y

continan modelando la persona que soy, y quienes siempre me han
seguido sin vacilar en mis aventuras por la naturaleza. Gracias por hacer
4
Agradecimientos
hueco siempre que regreso al pueblo, porque cada vez que bajo y me
envolvis en abrazos me hacis sentir la persona ms afortunada del
mundo, y porque siempre que tengo dudas vosotros sois la luz que las
disipa. Gracias Patri, Mario, Eli, Beln, Santi, Sergio, Vero, Marta, Alfredo,
Irene, Paco, Carmen, Tano, Kun, Mado, Maca, Tania, Encar, Juanpe,
Dulce, Mariola, Mamen, Gloria, Irene Sopins, Pilar, Pablo y Miriam
Pacheco.
A Laura, mi alma gemela, quien siempre me valora y estimula

como persona. Gracias por ser la amiga que ms entiende, por ser tan
autntica y soadora, y por avivar continuamente mis ganas de soar.
Gracias a tod@s los amigos de la carrera y afines: Marraya-lex,

Gema, Laura Herrero, Diana, Isabel, David, Mayte, Mar, Isidro, Mriel,
Aitana, Tere, Cristina, Ada, Reyes, etc. A todos y cada uno os debo
muchsimo, gracias por compartir tantas cosas conmigo. Tambin
recordar a los que durante esos aos fueron compaeros de piso y
posteriores amigos, por hacer mi vida muy divertida: Ral, rsula,
Chicano, Miguel, Marina, Anusga, etc.
Agradecer muchsimo a mi gran familia de Alicante, grandes

amigos a los que cada da quiero ms, estis donde estis. Gracias por ser
incombustibles y por enriquecerme tanto como persona: lex-Nico-
lvaro, Pedro, Isa, David, Pazcu, Javi, Borja, Jess, Gema, Nuria, Marta,
Abel, Mara, Maca, Conduc, Phil, Abelius, Tito, Noema sois lo mejor.
A los Jvenes Entomlogos Espaoles, ese gran grupo de

amig@s con muchas ganas de hacer entomologa. Gracias por hacer de
los congresos una autntica convivencia.
A mis variopintos amigos mexicanos, artistas y/o cientficos. Mis

compaeros y amigos del Depa: Ingrid, Juan Carlos y Adi. Gracias por la
acogida, por las historias que vivimos juntos, por las carcajadas, por
acercar tanto el arte a mi vida, y por ensearme a amar vuestra tierra. A
la encantadora Marisa y sus felices hijos, gracias por cobijarme cuando
sala de casa sin llaves. A Nadia, Estefana, Alfosina, Oli, Josu, Alejandro,
y dems gentes de Xalapa y Coatepec, por el da a da tan rico. A Alfonso,
Rosario y sus hijos, por acogerme en vuestras vidas. A Pilar Carb por
acompaarme en el tour pachuqueo.
Gracias
5
RESUMEN
Resumen
Resumen y estructura de la tesis
Los insectos saproxlicos representan una gran biodiversidad en

Europa, y participan en procesos ecolgicos clave en los ecosistemas de
bosque, siendo fundamentales en la descomposicin y reciclado de
nutrientes. La reduccin y fragmentacin de las masas forestales a lo
largo de cientos de aos ha provocado la extincin local de insectos
saproxlicos en toda Europa, desembocando en la necesidad de un marco
legal de proteccin de especies saproxlicas a travs de su inclusin en
Listas Rojas europea o nacionales, o al desarrollo de programas de
conservacin especficos de la entomofauna saproxlica y sus hbitats.
Los bosques mediterrneos son el producto del manejo antrpico,
abarcando desde las prcticas tradicionales hasta recientes cambios de
uso de suelo. A pesar de la importancia ecolgica de la fauna saproxlica y
de su grado de amenaza en Europa, existe un bajo conocimiento de la
diversidad, biologa y ecologa de este grupo funcional en los bosques
mediterrneos.
En los ltimos aos, los bosques mediterrneos han suscitado un

gran inters cientfico, ya que encierran una diversa fauna de insectos
saproxlicos. La diversidad de insectos saproxlicos en los bosques
mediterrneos est en gran medida condicionada por la escasez de
rboles viejos y de sus microhbitats asociados, siendo las oquedades
uno de los ms importantes en trminos de biodiversidad. Sin embargo,
apenas existen estudios en bosques mediterrneos de la Pennsula
Ibrica, existiendo un desconocimiento general de su biodiversidad
saproxlica y, por ende, de su estatus de conservacin. Estudios recientes
dejan ver la existencia de una gran diversidad de insectos saproxlicos en
distintos bosques mediterrneos de la Pennsula Ibrica, con un alto
9
Resumen
componente de especies raras o endmicas, y donde confluyen especies

de distribucin centroeuropea y norteafricana. Por tanto, resulta de gran
inters estudiar la fauna saproxlica asociada a un microhbitat tan
particular y limitado como son las oquedades de los rboles en bosques
mediterrneos ibricos.
Esta tesis doctoral en primer lugar busca conocer qu especies de

Coleoptera y Diptera: Syrphidae constituyen la comunidad saproxlica de
las oquedades de los bosques mediterrneos presentes en el Parque
Nacional de Cabaeros (Espaa). En segundo lugar, se persigue evaluar
qu mtodos de muestreo son ms efectivos para realizar inventarios y
seguimientos de la fauna saproxlica ligada a las oquedades de bosques
mediterrneos. Por ltimo, buscamos determinar qu factores ecolgicos
influyen en la distribucin y diversidad de los insectos saproxlicos. La
seleccin del Parque Nacional de Cabaeros como rea de estudio se
debe a que es un ejemplo de ecosistemas mediterrneos bien
preservados, que cuenta con 20000 hectreas de bosques. Hemos
trabajado con tres de los bosques mediterrneos ms representativos de
Cabaeros: 1) bosque caducifolio mixto de robles acidfilos Quercus
pyrenaica y Q. faginea, 2) bosque de ribera de fresno Fraxinus
angustifolia, y 3) bosque esclerfilo de encina Q. rotundifolia, donde
seleccionamos 30, 27 y 30 oquedades, respectivamente. A partir de esta
seleccin inicial se han desarrollado la totalidad de los captulos de esta
tesis.
Esta tesis doctoral est estructurada en cuatro captulos seguidos

de una discusin y de las conclusiones generales.
10
Resumen
En el captulo 1 se realiza una introduccin general sobre los

insectos saproxlicos, los grupos taxonmicos ms representativos y los
tipos de gremios saproxlicos en funcin de sus hbitos trficos, as como
su importancia ecolgica en los ecosistemas forestales. Del mismo modo,
se facilita informacin acerca del conocimiento actual y estrategias de
conservacin del grupo en Europa y en la Pennsula ibrica. De acuerdo
con esta informacin de partida se establecen la justificacin y objetivos
propuestos en esta tesis. En este captulo tambin se describe el rea
donde se desarrollan nuestras investigaciones, as como los grupos
taxonmicos seleccionados para responder a los objetivos planteados.
En los captulos 2 al 4 y en los Apndices 1-4 se recogen los

principales resultados derivados de esta tesis, los cuales presentan una
estructura de artculos cientficos y se encuentran ya publicados o en
distintas fases de revisin.
En el captulo 2 se evala la efectividad de tres mtodos de

muestreo para capturar colepteros saproxlicos en los bosques
mediterrneos ms maduros del rea de estudio. La finalidad es conocer
qu son ms adecuados para estudiar la diversidad de familias y especies
de colepteros saproxlicos, as como para evaluar la diversidad ecolgica
de los distintos gremios saproxlicos dentro de las oquedades. El
conocimiento del mtodo que proporciona una mejor caracterizacin de
la comunidad saproxlica ligada a las oquedades, ha permitido su
aplicacin en el desarrollo de los captulos subsiguientes.
En el captulo 3 se analiza qu propiedades o patrones tpicos de

redes ecolgicas especializadas estn presentes en la interaccin
oquedad arbrea-insecto saproxlico, considerando tres diferentes
11
Resumen
grados de interaccin: 1) red completa; 2) subredes de acuerdo al uso de

los recursos trficos de la madera; y 3) subredes de acuerdo al gremio
saproxlico. Adems, se analizan las diferencias en la arquitectura y
patrones de interaccin entre las subredes consideradas, y se estudian
sus posibles implicaciones en la estabilidad de estas redes ante
perturbaciones ambientales, a travs de la simulacin de extinciones
aleatorias y dirigidas del microhbitat oquedad en el bosque
mediterrneo. El anlisis de redes ecolgicas nos permite profundizar
sobre cmo afectan las relaciones interespecficas en la biodiversidad,
estructura, dinmica y estabilidad de esta comunidad saproxlica.
En el captulo 4 se estudia la diversidad y composicin de los

gremios de insectos saproxlicos: xilfagos, saprfagos, saproxilfagos,
xilomicetfagos, depredadores y comensales en las oquedades
seleccionadas en los diferentes tipos de bosque mediterrneo. Tambin
se analiza cmo distintas variables microambientales (ecolgicas y
biolgicas) difieren entre los tipos de bosques, y cmo stas determinan
diferencias en la distribucin de los gremios saproxlicos.
En los captulos 2 y 4 se describen diferentes medidas de

conservacin de la fauna saproxlica asociada a los boques mediterrneos
y sus oquedades a escala local.
De acuerdo al conjunto de resultados obtenidos se realiza una

discusin general. En el apartado de conclusiones generales, se
compendian las principales conclusiones derivadas de cada captulo.
En los Apndices 1-4 quedan recogidos otros trabajos cientficos

que se han desarrollado dentro del contexto de esta tesis, y que aportan
12
Resumen
informacin complementaria sobre la distribucin, hbitats de desarrollo

o status de conservacin de algunos insectos saproxlicos.
13
Captulo 1
Introduccin general
Introduccin general
Captulo 1. Introduccin general
1.1. Los insectos saproxlicos y su importancia ecolgica
Los organismos saproxlicos son aquellos que, en al menos una

parte de su ciclo biolgico, dependen de la madera muerta o en proceso
de descomposicin asociada tanto a rboles moribundos o muertos (en
pie o cados) como a rboles vivos, o de hongos que colonizan dicha
madera, o bien se encuentran asociadas a la presencia de otras especies
estrictamente saproxlicas (Speight, 1989; Alexander, 2008). Dentro de
esta amplia definicin se incluyen especies que habitan multitud de
microhbitats ligados a la madera, como oquedades, corteza, savia,
acumulaciones de agua, etc. (Speight, 1989), as como aquellas que
dependen de diferentes fases de descomposicin particulares, de sus
productos, o de sus agentes causantes (Stokland et al., 2012). La
diversidad de microhbitats que ofrece la madera es muy heterognea
entre tipos de bosques, dentro de un mismo bosque o incluso dentro de
un mismo rbol (Irmler et al., 1996; Schmidl et al., 2008; Winter &
Mller, 2008). Entre los organismos que explotan estos recursos se
encuentran numerosos grupos taxonmicos (Alexander, 2002), siendo los
insectos el grupo ms diversificado. En particular, Coleoptera y Diptera
(junto con los Hymenoptera) son considerados los dos rdenes ms
diversos dentro de este grupo funcional, y un alto nmero de familias de
colepteros y dpteros presentan representantes saproxlicos (Bouget &
Brustel, 2009; Stokland et al., 2012).
Los insectos saproxlicos pueden agruparse en distintos gremios
segn su rgimen alimenticio: xilfago, saprfago/saproxilfago,
xilomicetfago, detritvoro, depredador y comensal (Dajoz, 1998),
existiendo una gran variabilidad de requerimientos biolgicos dentro de
17
Captulo 1
cada uno de estos gremios trficos. De manera general, los estados

larvarios presentan rgimen saproxlico mientras que los adultos son
florcolas (Figura 1), aunque existen numerosas excepciones en las que
tanto la larva como el adulto presentan el mismo rgimen alimenticio,
especialmente entre xilomicetfagos y depredadores (Bouget et al.,
2008). Las comunidades de insectos saproxlicos juegan un papel
ecolgico decisivo en los ecosistemas de bosque, dado que las fases
larvarias favorecen la descomposicin y reciclaje del material vegetal
(Davies et al., 2008), degradando compuestos orgnicos con estructuras
qumicas complejas (como polisacridos o lignina) en un sustrato ms
fcilmente asimilable (Mic et al., 2011), mientras que los adultos
participan en la polinizacin de las especies vegetales. Por ltimo, su
elevada diversidad contribuye en gran medida al mantenimiento de las
cadenas trficas en los ecosistemas forestales (Dajoz, 1998; Thompson &
Rotheray, 1998).
18
Introduccin general
Figura 1. A-B: larva saprfaga y adulto florcola de Callicera spinolae

Rondani, 1844. C-D: larva saproxilfaga y adulto florcola de Cetonia
aurataeformis Curti, 1913 (Fotos: M.A. Marcos, E. Mic, J. Ordez).
1.2. Situacin en Europa y en la Pennsula Ibrica
La necesidad de conservar la biodiversidad de invertebrados

saproxlicos en Europa queda por primera vez manifiesta en el Consejo
de Europa de 1989. Es en este Consejo donde se define el concepto de
saproxlico, y se pone de manifiesto la problemtica y la necesidad de
conservacin de las comunidades saproxlicas en Europa, reconociendo
adems el papel que este grupo funcional tiene como bioindicador de la
19
Captulo 1
calidad/estado de conservacin de los bosques, as como su importancia

ecolgica en la dinmica de los ecosistemas forestales (Speight, 1989).
Los Coleoptera son sin duda el grupo de insectos saproxlicos ms
conocido en Europa, y se estima que entre el 22-56% del total de
especies de colepteros presentan hbitos saproxlicos (Grove, 2002),
siendo adems el grupo de insectos con ms representantes saproxlicos
protegidos de Europa. La Lista Roja Europea contempla 436 especies de
colepteros saproxlicos, e incluye especies pertenecientes a los distintos
biotopos de Europa, abarcando desde las reas ms secas de bosque
mediterrneo en el sur a la tundra rtica en el extremo norte (Nieto &
Alexander, 2010). Entre los Diptera, la familia Syrphidae es una de las
ms estudiadas, registrando ms de 100 especies saproxlicas con
distintas reas de distribucin en Europa (Speight et al., 2010). Sus
representantes presentan notorias diferencias en sus requerimientos
trficos y en los microhbitas que habitan (Speight et al., 2010; Rotheray
& Gilbert, 2011; Radenkovi et al., 2013).
Durante los ltimos siglos se ha producido un progresivo cambio
de los usos del bosque que ha conllevado una profunda transformacin
del paisaje y fragmentacin de los hbitats en el norte de Europa. Como
consecuencia de ello se ha producido un negativo impacto en la
comunidad de invertebrados (Speight, 1989), provocando la desaparicin
local de insectos saproxlicos (Siitonen & Martikainen, 1994; Hambler &
Speight, 1996) y la inclusin de muchas otras en listados nacionales de
especies amenazadas (Grdenfors, 2005; Farkac et al., 2005). En la
Regin Mediterrnea, los incendios forestales, el sobrepastoreo y los
cambios de uso de suelo como el abandono de las actividades
tradicionales continan reduciendo drsticamente la superficie de los
bosques mediterrneos (Haslett, 2007). Aunque la necesidad de
20
Introduccin general
conservar este grupo funcional tambin se ha hecho patente en Espaa a

travs de la incorporacin de varias especies saproxlicas en el Libro Rojo
de Invertebrados de Espaa (Verd & Galante, 2005), en general existen
muy pocos estudios sobre la fauna saproxlica de los bosques
mediterrneos ibricos.
La cuenca del Mediterrneo es considerada como un punto
caliente de biodiversidad animal y vegetal a escala global (Mittermeier
et al., 2004, van Swaay et al., 2010), y a pesar de ello, apenas existen
estudios sistemticos que evalen la biodiversidad saproxlica de los
bosques mediterrneos en Europa (Brin & Brustel, 2006; Buse et al.,
2008; Jansson & Coskum, 2008; Da Silva et al., 2009; Ricarte et al., 2009;
Mic et al., en prensa). La Pennsula Ibrica es la regin mediterrnea
ms estudiada en cuanto a invertebrados, y cada ao son descritas
nuevas especies (Haslett, 2007), muchas de ellas con biologas
saproxlicas (algunos ejemplos en Alonso-Zarazaga et al., 2009; Otero et
al., 2010; Violas, 2011; Zapata de la Vega & Snchez-Ruiz, 2012). Sin
embargo, los estudios sobre este grupo funcional se han centrado en
algunos taxones saproxlicos, o bien se ha documentado cualitativamente
la fauna saproxlica de algunas zonas o especies arbreas concretas,
careciendo de un listado nacional de especies saproxlicas y presentando
una ecologa prcticamente desconocida (citas recogidas en Mndez
Iglesias, 2009).
Los bosques ibricos renen una serie de caractersticas que los
hacen nicos frente a los del resto del continente europeo y por lo que
resulta esencial el estudio de su fauna saproxlica. Por una parte, la
Pennsula Ibrica constituye el origen y centro de distribucin de varios
tipos de bosque, como los robledales de Quercus pyrenaica, que slo
alcanzan el sur de Francia y Norte de Marruecos fuera del territorio
21
Captulo 1
peninsular. Por otra parte, su posicin geogrfica permite la presencia de

bosques de distribucin beromagreb de gran singularidad en el contexto
europeo pues se trata del nico pas donde estn presentes, como es el
caso de los quejigares de Quercus faginea subsp. broteroi (Sainz Ollero y
Snchez de Dios, 2011). Adems, otras formaciones vegetales son
exclusivas de pases de la Regin Mediterrnea, como las fresnedas de
Fraxinus angustifolia (distribucin holrtica submediterrnea) (de Bols y
Vigo, 1990b), o los encinares de Quercus rotundifolia (Mediterrneo SW)
(de Bols y Vigo, 1990a). Por ltimo, la explotacin y manejo de los
bosques mediterrneos en Espaa se remonta al siglo VI (Bignal &
McCracken, 2000), lo que ha contribuido notoriamente a la
diversificacin del paisaje mediterrneo y de los hbitats donde se
integra la fauna (Rod et al., 2009; Ortuo & Martnez-Prez, 2011).
1.3. Justificacin
Estudios pioneros han sealado que los bosques mediterrneos

ms representativos del Parque Nacional de Cabaeros albergan una rica
fauna de especies de Coleoptera y Diptera (Syrphidae) saproxlicas con
distribuciones Centroeuropeas y Norteafricanas, concentrando un alto
nmero de endemismos, especies raras o poco conocidas (Ricarte et al.,
2007; Ricarte et al., 2009; Mic et al., en prensa). Sin embargo, apenas
existen estudios que permitan comparar estos resultados con otros
bosques mediterrneos de la Pennsula Ibrica. Los bosques
mediterrneos estudiandos en otras partes de Europa presentan una rica
fauna saproxlica (Brin & Brustel, 2006; Buse et al., 2008; Jansson &
Coskum, 2008; Da Silva et al., 2009) que en gran medida est
condicionada por la escasez de rboles viejos (Speight & Good, 2003) y
22
Introduccin general
de sus microhbitats asociados, siendo las oquedades uno de los ms

importantes en trminos de biodiversidad (Sirami et al., 2008; Atay et al.,
2012). Adems, en estas oquedades se dan cita numerosas especies
saproxlicas exclusivas de colepteros y srfidos (Ranius, 2002; Speight et
al., 2010; Gouix et al., 2012), muchas de las cuales se encuentran
protegidas a nivel europeo (Nieto & Alexander, 2010). Por tanto, la fauna
saproxlica en las oquedades de distintos bosques mediterrneos debe
ser estudiada de un modo sistemtico con el fin de conocer la
biodiversidad saproxlica total en un rea actualmente bien preservada
como es el Parque Nacional de Cabaeros, y posteriormente poder
comparar con los resultados obtenidos en otros bosques mediterrneos
ibricos. Del mismo modo, resulta importante discernir qu factores
ecolgicos determinan diferentes ensambles saproxlicos en diferentes
tipos de bosque mediterrneo, estableciendo as estrategias de
conservacin aplicables a escala local.
1.4. rea de estudio: El Parque Nacional de Cabaeros
El Parque Nacional de Cabaeros fue declarado como tal en 1995

(Figura 2). Se trata de uno de los 14 Parques Nacionales que existen en
Espaa, y abarca 40.586 ha repartidas entre las provincias de Ciudad Real
y Toledo (MAAM, 2012). El tipo de clima es Mediterrneo (con inviernos
suaves y largos periodos de sequa), comprendiendo los pisos
bioclimticos mesomediterrneo y supramediterrneo. La temperatura
media anual oscila entre 12.9 y 15.6 C, y la precipitacin media anual
flucta entre 500 y 750 mm (Vaquero de la Cruz, 1997a).
23
Captulo 1
Figura 2. Panormica del Parque Nacional de Cabaeros (Foto: J.

Ordez).
El Parque est constituido por paisajes mediterrneos, donde las

distintas masas forestales estn contenidas dentro de una matriz
predominante herbcea y arbustiva (Figura 3). Este paisaje vegetal es el
resultado de una compleja trama de relaciones entre sus caractersticas
ambientales, pasadas y actuales, y la determinante actividad desarrollada
durante siglos por el hombre y sus animales. Una de las principales
actuaciones transformadoras del hombre en Cabaeros ha sido el
adehesamiento del bosque, aunque estas actividades cesaron en gran
parte de su extensin desde que fue declarado Parque Nacional en 1995,
por lo que hoy podemos encontrar formaciones forestales maduras.
Entre las principales formaciones arbreas destacan (Figura 4): 1)
Formaciones puras o mixtas de quejigo (Quercus faginea) y roble melojo
(Q. pyrenaica) en el piso mesomediterrneo; 2) Formaciones de ribera
dominada por fresnos (Fraxinus angustifolia); 3) Formaciones arbreas
dominadas por especies esclerfilas como el alcornoque (Q. suber) o la
encina (Q. rotundifolia), o bien formaciones mixtas con quejigo (Vaquero
de la Cruz, 1997b).
24
Introduccin general
Figura 3. Principales tipos de vegetacin, puntos de muestreo y

localizacin de las trampas de emergencia en P.N. de Cabaeros.
25
Captulo 1
Figura 4. Algunas de las formaciones forestales ms representativas:

robledales caducifolios mixtos de melojo y quejigo, bosque ripario de
fresno y encinares perennifolios (Fotos: E. Mic, J. Ordez).
26
Introduccin general
1.5. Grupos taxonmicos objeto de estudio
Los grupos de insectos considerados en esta tesis fueron:
a) Coleoptera saproxlicos. Las 42 familias de colepteros

consideradas en esta tesis fueron: Aderidae, Anobiidae,
Biphyllidae, Buprestidae, Cerambycidae, Cerylonidae, Cetoniidae,
Ciidae, Clambidae, Cleridae, Cryptophagidae, algunos
Curculionidae, Curculionidae Scolytinae, Dasytidae, Dermestidae,
Dynastidae, Elateridae, Endomychidae, Eucinetidae, Helodidae,
Histeridae, Laemophloeidae, Latridiidae, Leiodidae, Lucanidae,
Malachiidae, Melandryidae, Melyridae, Mycetophagidae ,
Nitidulidae, Oedemeridae, Platypodidae, Pselaphidae, Ptiliidae,
Ptinidae, Rhizophagidae, Scraptiidae, Scydmaenidae, Silvanidae,
Tenebrionidae, Trogossitidae, Zopheridae, abarcando
representantes pertenecientes a distintos gremios saproxlicos:
xilfagos, saproxilfagos, xilomicetfagos, depredadores y
comensales.
b) Dpteros saprfagos/saproxilfagos (Diptera: Syrphidae). Dentro
de los srfidos, se conocen tres tipos de alimentacin larvaria: 1)
micofagia/fitofagia, 2) entomofagia (depredadores), y 3) el grupo
funcional objeto de estudio, saprofagia/saproxilofagia (Cole et
al., 2002). Los srfidos saprfagos/saproxilfagos explotan
condiciones hmedas o acuticas en un amplio rango de hbitats
ligados a la madera: exudados de savia, en madera o material
vegetal en descomposicin, o en galeras de otros insectos
barrenadores (Speight et al., 2010). Adems, muchas de estas
especies son raras y/o estn amenazadas de extincin,
27
Captulo 1
constituyndose en importantes indicadores de la calidad de

bosques (Speight, 1986).
El creciente conocimiento que se tiene sobre la taxonoma y

diversidad, as como los hbitats y microhbitats a los que se asocian
estos grupos taxonmicos saproxlicos, permite que los utilicemos en
estudios ecolgicos como especies bioindicadoras de la calidad de los
bosques (Speight, 1989), y en estudios de conservacin como especies
bandera de comunidades saproxlicas completas (New, 2007; Ricarte et
al., 2007).
1.6. Objetivos de la tesis doctoral
El objetivo general de esta tesis es conocer la biodiversidad

saproxlica de Coleoptera y Diptera (Syrphidae) que albergan las
oquedades de los rboles en bosques mediterrneos ms
representativos del Parque Nacional de Cabaeros, y determinar qu
factores ecolgicos y biolgicos influyen en la diversidad, distribucin y
estructura de las comunidades saproxlicas mediterrneas ibricas. Estos
resultados permitirn establecer o/y optimizar estrategias de manejo y
conservacin a escala local basadas en el conocimiento emprico de la
comunidad saproxlica asociada a las oquedades de los rboles. Con este
fin, se han desarrollado los siguientes objetivos especficos:
Evaluar la eficacia de tres mtodos de muestreo para caracterizar

la fauna de colepteros saproxlicos en el bosque mediterrneo.
Determinar qu mtodos son ms adecuados para muestrear la
28
Introduccin general
diversidad taxonmica del ensamble de escarabajos de las

oquedades, as como la diversidad ecolgica de los gremios
saproxlicos.
Tras conocer qu mtodo de muestreo resulta ms
adecuado para caracterizar el ensamble saproxlico en los
bosques seleccionados, se evaluaron diferentes factores
ecolgicos y biolgicos que aparecen recogidos en los objetivos
especficos subsiguientes.
Averiguar cmo se establecen las relaciones multitrficas en la
comunidad saproxlica de colepteros y srfidos en el
microhbitat oquedad. Se examinan qu tipos de patrones de
redes especializados estn presentes en la interaccin oquedad-
insecto saproxlico a lo largo de las distintas subredes de
interaccin que tienen lugar en esta red: 1) red completa; 2)
subredes de acuerdo al uso de los recursos de la madera; 3)
subredes de acuerdo al grupo funcional.
Una vez conocidas las diferencias entre las diferentes
subredes consideradas, evaluar las posibles implicaciones de
stas sobre la estabilidad de la interaccin oquedad-insecto
saproxlico y a travs de simulaciones de extinciones aleatoria y
dirigidas del microhbitat oquedad.
Estudiar cmo vara la diversidad y composicin de los distintos
gremios trficos en las oquedades de los principales tipos de
bosque mediterrneo. Del mismo modo, evaluar las diferencias a
nivel de microescala entre tipos de bosque, considerando
diversas variables ecolgicas y biolgicas de las oquedades, y
discernir qu variables afectan en mayor medida a la distribucin
de cada gremio saproxlico.
29
Captulo 1
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dead wood. Cambridge University Press.
48. Thompson, F.C., Rotheray, G., 1998. Family Syrphidae. En:
Papp, L., Darvas, B. (Eds.), Contributions to a Manual of
Paleartic Diptera. Science Herald, Budapest, Hungary. pp. 81-
139.
49. van Swaay, C.A.M., Cuttelod, A., Verovnik, R., Warren, M.S.,
Wiemers, M., Wynhoff, I. 2010. European Red List of
Butterflies. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of
the European Communities.
50. Vaquero de la Cruz, J., 1997a. Clima. En: Garca Canseco, V.
(Ed.). Parque Nacional de Cabaeros. Ecohbitat, Madrid. pp.
77-94.
51. Vaquero de la Cruz, J., 1997b. Flora vascular y vegetacin. En:
Garca Canseco, V. (Ed.). Parque Nacional de Cabaeros.
Ecohbitat, Madrid. pp. 95-154.
52. Verd, J.R., Galante, E., eds. 2005. Libro Rojo de los
Invertebrados de Espaa. Direccin General de Conservacin
de la Naturaleza, Madrid (versin online).
53. Violas, A., 2011. Stagetus micoae n. sp. del Parque Nacional
de Cabaeros, Ciudad Real, Espaa (Coleoptera: Anobiidae:
Dorcatominae). Heteropterus Revista de Entomologa 11: 13-
19.
36
Introduccin general
54. Winter, S., Mller, G.C., 2008. Microhabitats in lowland

beech forests as monitoring tool for nature conservation.
Forest Ecology and Management 255: 1251-1261.
55. Zapata de la Vega, J.L., Snchez-Ruiz, 2012. Catlogo
actualizado de los Elatridos de la Pennsula Ibrica e Islas
Baleares (Coleoptera: Elateridae). Arquivos Entomolxicos 6:
115-271.
37
Captulo 2
Effectiveness of three sampling methods to survey

saproxylic beetle assemblages in Mediterranean
woodland
Efectividad de tres mtodos de muestreo para evaluar el ensamble

de escarabajos saproxlicos en el bosque mediterrneo
Quinto, J., Marcos-Garca, M.A., Brustel, H., Galante, E., Mic, E. Journal
of Insect Conservation, en revision.
Efectividad de trampas
Abstract
The choice of sampling methods to survey saproxylic beetles is a key

aspect to set conservation strategies for one of the most endangered
assemblages in Europe. We evaluated the efficiency of three sampling
methods: baited tube traps (TT), window traps in front of a hollow
opening (WT), and emergence traps covering tree hollows (ET) to study
richness and diversity of saproxylic beetle assemblages at species and
family levels in Mediterranean woodlands. We also examined trap
efficiency to report ecological diversity, and changes in the relative
richness and abundance of species forming trophic guilds: xylophagous,
saprophagous/saproxylophagous, xylomycetophagous, predators and
commensals. WT and ET were similarly effective in reporting species
richness and diversity at species and family levels, and provided an
accurate profile of both the flying active and hollow-linked saproxylic
beetle assemblages. WT and ET were the most complementary methods,
together reporting more than 90% of richness and diversity at both
species and family levels. Diversity, richness and abundance of guilds
were better characterized by ET, which indicates higher efficiency in
outlining the ecological community of saproxylics that inhabit tree
hollows. TT were the least effective method at both taxonomic levels,
sampling a biased portion of the beetle assemblage attracted to trapping
principles, however they could be used as a specific method for families
such as Bostrichiidae, Biphyllidae, Melyridae, Mycetophagidae or
Curculionidae Scolytinae species. Finally, ET and WT combination allows
a better characterization of saproxylic assemblages in Mediterranean
woodland, by recording species with different biology and linked to
different microhabitat types.
41
Captulo 2
Keywords
Trap efficiency, tube trap, window trap, emergence trap, Mediterranean

woodland, Coleoptera
42
Introduction
Saproxylic insects sensu Speight 1989, updated by Alexander

2008 are considered to be the most important group in woodland
ecosystems because they depict the highest richness and abundance of
species, with Coleoptera as one of the most representative orders (Dajoz
2001; Schlaghamersky 2003; Bouget et al. 2008a). Nevertheless, forestry
practices carried out in Europe during the last centuries have jeopardized
their habitats (Speight 1989; Dajoz 2001; Siitonen 2001), and forest fires,
grazing (Haslett 2007) or local changes in land uses still continue to
devastate woodlands in the Mediterranean region. Consequently,
saproxylic species are one of the most threatened groups of organisms
(Jonsell et al. 1998; Alexander 2004). They also perform a crucial
ecological role, by contributing to the maintenance of trophic chains
(Schlaghamersky 2003), and participating in the decomposition of woody
material (Davies et al. 2008; Mic et al. 2011a). Despite their importance,
saproxylic beetles are so diverse taxonomically and inhabit in so many
woody substrates and microhabitats within woodlands that few studies
involve an accurate representation of the whole community, resulting in
little attention to community attributes such as species richness, diversity
and evenness or abundance of trophic guilds.
Many saproxylic beetles present low dispersal ability (Thomas

2000; Ranius and Hedin 2001; Ewers and Didham 2006), and some are
small and cryptic (Bouget et al. 2008a), or specific to microhabitats
offered by dead wood or living trees within the woodland matrix (Dajoz
1980, Sirami et al. 2008; Winter and Mller 2008; Marcos-Garca et al.
2010). This is why combined method techniques are usually required to
obtain reliable information on saproxylic communities (Martikainen and
43
Captulo 2
Kouki 2003; Ozanne 2005; Alinvi et al. 2007). Many combinations of

methods surveying saproxylic beetle assemblages have already been
used by other authors (kland 1996; Ranius and Jansson 2002; Hyvrinen
et al. 2006; Alinvi et al. 2007; Bouget et al. 2009), leading to the
conclusion that trunk-window traps are suitable for comparisons of
substrates within forest environments (kland 1996), baited-window
traps for comparing communities from different forest environments
(Bouget et al. 2009), or pitfall traps for collecting beetles associated with
tree hollows (Ranius and Jansson 2002; Hyvrinen et al. 2006).
The choice of pertinent standardized sampling techniques is

crucial not only to obtain more complete inventories, but also to acquire
information about species status (Bouget and Brustel 2009a; Sverdrup-
Thygeson and Birkemoe 2009), species interactions (Quinto et al. 2012),
biotic requirements or phenologies (Ranius and Jansson 2002; Hyvrinen
et al. 2006; Alinvi et al. 2007; Gouix and Brustel 2011), and in general to
develop ecological studies addressed to suitable woodland management
based on saproxylic assemblages. Moreover, standardized sampling
techniques are essential for comparing species diversity and abundance
patterns across different studies and sites (Larsen and Forsyth 2005).
However, although many studies have taken into account method
effectiveness for several saproxylic families or target species in Northern
(kland 1996; Ranius and Jansson 2002; Martikainen and Kalia 2004;
Hyvrinen et al. 2006; Alinvi et al. 2007) and Western Europe (Sirami et
al. 2008; Bouget et al. 2009; Gouix and Brustel 2011), very few studies
have been centred on the Southern region (Jansson and Coskum 2008).
As the majority of saproxylic insect diversity, in terms of species richness,
occurs in more southern regions of Europe (Nieto and Alexander 2010),
44
and with Coleoptera as one of the most diversified orders among insects
(Dajoz 1980), it is of vital importance to evaluate trapping techniques to
monitor beetle communities in Mediterranean woodlands for
conservation purposes. This consideration should cover several sampling
methods and taxonomic levels to enable comparison with previous
research.
The aim of this work was to assess the effectiveness of three

sampling methods: window, emergence and baited-tube traps, used to
study saproxylic beetle community patterns (relative richness and
abundance) at species and family levels in Mediterranean woodlands.
We also examine changes in the relative abundance of trophic guilds:
xylophagous, saprophagous/saproxylophagous, xylomycetophagous,
predators and commensals in relation to each sampling method. The
following questions were addressed: i) Which sampling method captures
the greatest abundance and richness of Coleoptera saproxylic species
and families? and ii) Are there differences in the ecological diversity of
guilds among sampling methods?
Methods
Study area
The study was conducted in Cabaeros National Park (Spain), a

protected area of 40,856 ha. The annual temperature average fluctuates
between 12.9 and 15.6 C and annual precipitation averages between
500 and 750 mm. The park constituted a well-preserved Mediterranean
landscape, where heterogeneous forest patches appear inside a matrix of
grassland and scrubland (Vaquero de la Cruz 1997).
45
Captulo 2
Fieldwork was carried out in the most mature woodlands of the

National Park (Mic et al. in prep.), selecting one mixed deciduous
woodland of Pyrenean oak Quercus pyrenaica Willd. and the native oak
Quercus faginea Lam., and one riparian woodland dominated by narrow-
leafed ash Fraxinus angustifolia Vahl. The oak stand (N39 21.338 W4
23.715) presented a mean altitude of 760 m., and the riparian stand (N39
26.944 W4 33.788) a mean altitude of 550 m.
Sampling methods
We tested three sampling techniques used to collect saproxylic

beetles: tube traps (TT), window traps (WT), and emergence traps (ET)
(Figure 1):
TT (Fig. 1a) are an active method traditionally used to evaluate and

control woodland insect pests (Guerrero 1988; Prez Moreno 1997).
They have also been successfully used to detect rare saproxylic
species that are difficult to obtain using other sampling methods in
woodland environments (Alonso-Zarazaga et al. 2002). Some
chemical compounds such as ethanol or acetates act as kairomones
(Prez Moreno 1997; Jonsell et al. 2003; Bouget et al. 2009), and are
common bait for baited-trap designs (Alonso-Zarazaga et al. 2002;
Bouget et al. 2009). We followed a similar model to that described by
Alonso-Zarazaga et al. (2002), composed of an orange PVC tube with
a length of 150 cm and a diameter of 20 cm that was attached to a
collecting pot containing ethylene glycol as preservative. We
perforated three equidistant rows of ten holes along the tube to
facilitate bait dispersion. Inside the tube we hung two 25 ml glass
bottles, one with 70% ethanol and the other with ethyl acetate as
46
active bait. Consequently, several trapping principles were combined

in this method: attractant, colour and silhouette. Two traps were set
in the deciduous woodland and one in the riparian woodland.
WT (Fig. 1b) are interception traps designed to capture flying active
insects (kland 1996). WT installed in front of a hollow opening are
usually preferred among sampling methods to study saproxylic
assemblages living in tree hollows (kland 1996; Ranius and Jansson
2002) (kland 1996; Ranius and Jansson 2002). The trap is made up
of three convergent methacrylate plates mounted above a 20 cm
brown plastic funnel that flows into a brown collecting pot containing
ethylene glycol as preservative. Traps were hung just in front of the
hollow openings, 1.52 m above the ground, a suitable height to
obtain a better characterization of beetle fauna (Bouget et al.
2008a). We selected 21 trees: 14 in the deciduous woodland and 7 in
the riparian woodland.
ET (Fig. 1c) specially modified from Colas (1974) are traps for
collecting species that inhabit tree hollow microhabitats (Gouix and
Brustel 2011; Quinto et al. 2012), and allow recording of saproxylic
species shortly after their emergence from immature stages. The use
of modified ET covering and sealing the hollow opening is quite
recent (Gouix and Brustel 2011; Mic et al. 2011b; Quinto et al.
2012), and their use provides accurate information about species
assemblages inhabiting microhabitats (Bouget and Brustel 2009a).
Tree hollows were covered with black acrylic mesh and sealed up
with staples. Specimens emerged and came into a white collecting
pot containing ethylene glycol as preservative. We selected 15
hollow trees in the deciduous woodland, and 27 in the riparian
woodland. In the selection of tree hollows we considered the real
47
Captulo 2
heterogeneity and abundance of tree hollows in each woodland

type, always taking into account the high degree of protection of this
National Park and the inherent need to protect and conserve this
important and limited microhabitat (Quinto et al. 2012).
Figure 1. Tube trap (a), window trap (b) and emergence trap (c) designs.
(Picture authorship: E. Mic, J. Quinto and J. Ordez, respectively).
The sampling period spanned eight months, which is the typical

active period of Mediterranean insect communities (Ricarte et al. 2009).
We took different years into consideration in order to avoid interference
among sampling methods: TT and ET were active from April to November
in 2006 and 2009, respectively, and WT were active from September-
December 2004 to April-August 2005. In all cases, traps were revisited
monthly at each selected stand.
48
Species identification and classification into trophic guilds
We were assisted by an external taxonomist for species

identification of many families (see Acknowledgments). We included as
many saproxylic families as were identified at species level, arriving to
morphospecies with few exceptions. Classification into trophic guilds:
xylophagous, saprophagous/saproxylophagous, xylomycetophagous,
predators and commensals, was based on biological/ecological
information available in the bibliography, the Frisbee data base (Bouget
et al. 2008b) and information from taxonomists (pers. com.).
Data analysis
In order to check that each selected stand could be considered as

a true replicate, we assessed the similarities between woodland types
and among sampling methods using ANOSIM tests for differences
between groups (Faith et al. 1987). Moreover, we performed two-way
ANOVA analyses to elucidate which factor (stand or type trap) influences
total species richness, by means of Statistica 8.0 (StatSoft 2007).
The completeness of each sampling method was calculated as

the percentage of observed species/families in relation to the number of
predicted species/families, obtained with ACE and Chao1 estimators,
using EstimateS 8.0 (Colwell 2005).
Species/family richness and diversity were compared for each

sampling method and rarefaction curves with 95% confidence intervals
were used for species/family richness, using the minimum abundance
value at each site as a standard sampling size for comparison with
49
Captulo 2
Species Diversity and Richness 3.02 software (Henderson and Seaby

2002). We calculated the number of effective species for species/family
diversity, using the measure of true diversity order 1 (Jost 2006), which
weights each species exactly according to its frequency in the community
(i.e. favouring neither rare nor common species). Given the presence of
rare species (singletons) in all communities, we calculated estimated
diversity using the Chao and Shen estimator (Chao and Shen 2003), with
the program SPADE (Chao and Shen 2010). The same procedure was
followed for trophic guilds.
We compared total species/family richness and abundance

registered for each sampling method with a Kruskal-Wallis with multiple
comparisons test, carried out with Statistica 8.0 (StatSoft 2007).
Moreover, we assessed the efficiency of each method to record any
beetle family separately, conducting ANOVA with Tukey post hoc tests or
Kruskal-Wallis with multiple comparisons tests (depending on the
normality or not of the data). We also assessed the differences in
relative species richness and abundance of trophic guilds among
methods.
Similarities among sampling methods were calculated with the

incidence-based Sorensen similarity index (Magurran 2004) at species
and family levels. A similarity analysis ANOSIM (Faith et al. 1987) was
performed to test the significance of these differences using Primer v.6
software (Clarke and Gorley 2006). Complementarity was studied using
Venn diagrams with VennDiagram package for R-Project (Chen and
Boutros 2011).
50
To discover differences among methods in saproxylic species, the

species distribution distribution was analyzed using a multivariate
detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) with Past software (Hammer
et al. 2001). This software enables to draw convex hulls, which are the
smallest convex set that contains the whole set of points of each trap
type in the Euclidean space, easily visualizing which species/families tend
to be better sampled by each hull/sampling method.
Results
Species/family/guild richness and abundance per method
Woodland types did not affect trap efficiency (trapping

techniques did not differ in species richness between woodland types
neither using two way ANOVA test, F = 0.429, df = 1, p = 0.51 nor using
ANOSIM analyses, R = -0.041, p = 0.733), which mean that trap efficiency
was assessed only according to sampling methods (two-way ANOVAS
test, F = 4.41, df= 2, p = 0.018; ANOSIM analyses, R = 0.423, p < 0.001).
A total of 5,084 saproxylic beetles belonging to 206 species and

46 families were found (Online Resource). ET and WT were the most
effective methods for collecting species richness (125 species each),
capturing a similar number of families (35 and 34, respectively). TT
recorded the highest number of individuals (2,151 individuals), but also
collected the lowest species and family richness (71 species and 29
families). The WT captured the lowest species abundance (1,207
individuals). Differences in species richness and abundance among
sampling methods can be seen in the Online Resource.
51
Captulo 2
The richness estimators showed high sampling completeness for

all three methods, with an accurate replication and sampling effort,
higher than 70% for each of the three methods at species level (ACE, TT =
73.16%, WT = 90.76%, ET = 75.83%; Chao 1, TT = 75.47%, WT = 85.75%,
ET = 75.02%), and higher than 90% at family level (Chao 2, TT = 96.03%,
WT = 95.34%, ET = 94.44%; Chao 1, TT = 91.69%, WT = 92.82%, ET =
96.45%).
When sampling size was standardized for 1,244 individuals at

species level, the WT saproxylic community significantly had the greatest
species richness, followed by ET, whereas TT reported the lowest species
richness, as seen in the rarefaction curves (Figure 2). Moreover, at the
lowest abundance value at family level (34 families), WT and ET reported
statically similar values of family richness, whereas TT again offered the
lowest value. We found the same pattern when we compared true
diversity at species and family level, ET presenting the highest number of
effective species/families (Figure 2), followed closely by WT, whereas TT
reported the lowest number of effective species/families, which means
that ET is the best method to study the diversity of both species and
families.
52
Figure 2. Rarefaction curves showing the differences among sampling

methods in inventory the saproxylic species richness (a) and species
families (b).
The Kruskal-Wallis test indicated significant differences in species

richness only between TT and ET (H (2, N = 24) = 6.48, p = 0.034).
Regarding species abundance, no differences were found among
methods, nor did the total family richness and abundance present
significant differences (H (2, N = 24) = 0.77, p = 0.681). The analysis of
species abundance for each beetle family showed differences among
sampling methods (Table 1), where ET was more effective in monitoring
the family abundance of Aderidae, Cetoniidae, Helodidae, Ptiliidae ,
53
Captulo 2
Scraptiidae and Scydmaenidae with both WT and TT being statistically

different. TT and ET were statically different in recording Latridiidae,
Lucanidae, Nitidulidae and Tenebrionidae families. Finally, TT and WT
differently recorded Ptinidae and Curculionidae Scolytinae families. The
variation of the total species richness and abundance of beetle families
per sampling method is shown in Figure 3.
FAMILY TT WT ET
Aderidae 0 (0)a 0 (0)a 8 (3.6)b
Anobiidae 0 (0)a 6 (3.8)a 5.3 (3.7)a
Biphyllidae 11.8 (8.2)a 0.3 (0.2)a 3.1 (2.1)a
Bostrichidae 3.8 (2.7)a 0.1 (0.1)a 0 (0)a
Bothrideridae 0 (0)a 0.1 (0.1)a 0 (0)a
Buprestidae 2.8 (1.5)a 0.8 (0.4)a 0 (0)a
Cerambycidae 1 (0.4)a 1.4 (0.6)a 3.9 (2.4)a
Cerylonidae 0 (0)a 0 (0)a 0.1 (0.1)a
Cetoniidae 0.1 (0.1)a 1.6 (0.7)a 17.9 (7.4)b
Ciidae 0.1 (0.1)a 0 (0)a 0 (0)a
Clambidae 0.1 (0.1)a 0 (0)a 0.1 (0.1)a
Cleridae 0.3 (0.3)a 2.3 (1.6)a 0.1 (0.1)a
Corylophidae 0.4 (0.2)a 0.3 (0.2)a 0 (0)a
Cryptophagidae 3.9 (2.8)a 7.1 (3.4)a 23.3 (9.3)a
Curculionidae Scolytinae 153 (66.7)a 10.1 (6.4)b 26.8 (11.9)ab
Dasytidae 1.8 (1.1)a 12.9 (10.3)a 0.3 (0.2)a
Dermestidae 9.1 (5.2)a 20 (10.9)a 9.4 (5.2)a
Dynastidae 0 (0)a 0 (0)a 0.9 (0.7)a
Elateridae 0.5 (0.4)a 6.4 (4)a 15.6 (7.8)a
Endomychidae 0.1 (0.1)a 0.3 (0.2)a 0.9 (0.4)a
Helodidae 0 (0)a 0 (0)a 20.9 (8.4)b
Histeridae 6.3 (3.1)a 2.4 (1.5)a 11 (4)a
Laemophloeidae 1.9 (1.3)a 0 (0)a 0.8 (0.4)a
Latridiidae 0 (0)a 0.4 (0.3)ab 2.6 (0.9)b
Lucanidae 0.3 (0.2)a 0.8 (0.4)ab 4.5 (1.8)b
Malachiidae 0 (0)a 1.1 (0.6)a 2.4 (1.6)a
Melandryidae 0 (0)a 0.4 (0.3)a 0.6 (0.5)a
54
Melyridae 19.6 (19.5)a 5.6 (3)a 0 (0)a

Mordellidae 3.5 (2.3)a 1.9 (0.9)a 0 (0)a
Mycetophagidae 42.4 (22.6)a 1.4 (0.9)a 1.8 (0.9)a
Nitidulidae 1.3 (0.6)a 5.9 (1.5)ab 13.8 (5.6)b
Oedemeridae 0.3 (0.2)a 0.1 (0.1)a 0.8 (0.4)a
Platypodidae 0 (0)a 0.3 (0.2)a 0 (0)a
Prionoceridae 0 (0)a 2.8 (2)a 0 (0)a
Pselaphidae 0 (0)a 0 (0)a 0.4 (0.3)a
Ptiliidae 0 (0)a 0 (0)a 1.4 (0.7)b
Ptinidae 2.3 (0.8)a 26.8 (8.3)b 9.9 (3.5)ab
Rhizophagidae 0 (0)a 0 (0)a 0.1 (0.1)a
Salpingidae 0 (0)a 0.3 (0.3)a 0 (0)a
Scraptiidae 0.4 (0.4)a 5 (2.9)a 7.5 (5.1)b
Scydmaenidae 0 (0)a 0 (0)a 1 (0.3)b
Silvanidae 0.3 (0.3)a 0.4 (0.2)a 1 (0.4)a
Tenebrionidae 0.9 (0.7)a 23.4 (16.4)ab 18.1 (9.7)b
Tetratomidae 0 (0)a 0.1 (0.1)a 0 (0)a
Trogossitidae 0.6 (0.4)a 0 (0)a 0.3 (0.3)a
Zopheridae 0.4 (0.3)a 2.6 (1.2)a 1.8 (0.7)a
Table 1. Mean number (SE) of species abundance for each beetle family
per trap type, and statistic differences among methods (p < 0.05).
Clear differences in the ability of sampling techniques to report

ecological diversity of guilds were found (Table 2), Moreover, ET
performed the best characterization of saproxylic assemblage functional
diversity (4.92 0.02; CI: 4.88, 4.97), closely followed by WT (4.65 0.05;
CI: 4.56, 4.75), whereas TT reported the lowest functional diversity (2.19
0.05; CI: 2.09, 2.29) (see Table 2 for more detail in this respect).
55
Table 2. Mean number (SE) of species richness and abundance of saproxylic guilds per trap type, and statistic differences
among methods (p < 0.05). x: xylophagous, sx: saprophagous/saproxylophagous, xm: xylomycetophagous, p: predators,
c: commensals.
Richness Abundance
TT WT ET TT WT ET
x 5.6 (2.4)a 16.8 (6)ab 21.5 (4.4)b 11.5 (5.3)a 24.6 (9.2)ab 46.4 (15.2)b
sx 3.5 (1.4)a 22.3 (7)b 19.9 (5.8)b 6.3 (3.6)a 49.5 (19.1)b 40 (12.4)b
xm 10 (3.1)a 9.6 (3.8)a 26.8 (7)b 211.8 (91.6)a 16.9 (8.2)b 49.1 (15.7)ab
p 5.1 (2.3)a 23.4 (12.3)a 18.3 (6.2)a 29 (23.4)a 33.3 (18.4)a 33.9 (13.9)a
c 2.5 (0.9)a 14.4 (4.2)b 15.4 (4.1)b 10.4 (5.4)a 26.6 (11.1)ab 46.5 (13.4)b
Figure 3. Differences in species richness and abundance per family and sampling method. The number of species is reflected in
the first vertical axis (left), and the number of individual (expressed as logarithm) in the second vertical axis (right).
Captulo 2
Similarity and complementarity
The ANOSIM showed strong differences among sampling

methods in monitoring species/family composition (R = 0.383, p < 0.001
and R = 0.389, p < 0.001, respectively). At species level, TT and ET
presented the lowest similarity (34.87%), whereas ET-WT and TT-WT
pairs were more similar (48.8% and 43.08%, respectively). At family level,
WT-ET and TT-ET were the most dissimilar pairs (69.57% and 71.88%,
respectively), and TT-WT pairs were the most alike (79.37%). The Venn
diagram showed the main dissimilarities in species/family composition
among sampling methods (Figure 4), ET were the method that reported
the highest number of unique species/families (57 species/8 families),
followed by WT (46 species/5 families). The number of unique species
captured with TT was also high (21 species), whereas one unique family
was recorded. This representation also revealed that the most
complementary method for monitoring species/family richness was the
WT-ET pair (90.43% and 97.83%, respectively), followed by TT-ET (78.47%
and 89.13%, respectively) and TT-WT pairs (73.21% and 84.44%,
respectively). Almost 12% of the species and 44% of the families (25
species and 20 families) were shared by the three sampling methods.
Regarding European Red List saproxylic beetles (Nieto and Alexander
2010), the Endangered Limoniscus violaceus was effectively recorded
using ET and the Vulnerable Ischnodes sanguinicollis (Elateridae) with ET
and WT.
58
Figure 4. Venn diagrams showing the main differences in species (a) and
family (b) richness among sampling methods.
Species distribution among methods
DCAs showed differences among sampling methods in

monitoring the distribution of saproxylic assemblages of Coleoptera at
species level (Figure 5), and the cumulative percentage of the variance
explained 23.61% of the distribution.
59
Figure 5. Detrended correspondence analyses according to species distribution. The species names for the labels of the species
distribution are included in the Online Resource.
The DCA spaced the convex hulls (one per method) out in the
ordination, clearly embracing different sections of the species
distribution (species falling into them). The ET hull embraced higher
numbers of species; mainly species only recorded using this method, and
included species with high numbers of individuals such as Soronia
oblonga, Epuraea fuscicollis (Nitidulidae), Pseudocistela ceramboides,
Probaticus anthracinus (Tenebrionidae), Ptinus timidus (Ptinidae),
Megapenthes lugens (Elateridae), and Troglops furcatus (Malachiidae).
WT were effective in monitoring species presenting high numbers of
individuals such as Attagenus trifasciatus (Dermestidae), Isomira
hispanica, Mycetochara quadrimaculata (Tenebrionidae), Dignomus
dilophus (Ptinidae), and Lobonyx aeneus (Prionoceridae). Finally, only TT
were widely effective for monitoring Xyleborinus saxesenii (Curculionidae
Scolytinae) and Falsomelyris granulata (Melyridae).
Moreover, species surrounding one or two hulls may also be

associated with one or two methods. Accordingly, Prionocyphon
serricornis (Helodidae), Aderus populneus (Aderidae), Anaspis regimbarti,
Scraptia testacea (Scraptiidae), Cetonia aurateiformis (Cetoniidae),
Cryptophagus punctipennis, C. reflexus, C. saginatus (Cryptophagidae),
Dorcus parallelepipedus (Lucanidae), Enicmus brevicornis, Latridius
assimilis (Latridiidae) and Ischnomera xanthoderes (Oedemeridae) were
mainly associated with ET, whereas Cryptophagus pallidus
(Cryptophagidae), Dasytes pauperculus, Mauroania bourgeoisi
(Dasytidae), Dignomus irroratus (Ptinidae), Scraptia ophthalmica
(Scraptiidae) were associated with WT, and Litargus connexus
(Mycetophagidae), Placonotus testaceus (Laemophloeidae) and Scobicia
chevrieri (Bostrichidae) with TT. Considering species linked to two hulls,
61
Captulo 2
Ampedus aurilegulus, the Vulnerable Ischnodes sanguinicollis

(Elateridae), Cryptophagus aurelii, C. micaceus, C. scanicus
(Cryptophagidae), Mycetochara linearis (Tenebrionidae), Mycetophagus
quadriguttaus (Mycetophagidae), and Xyleborus monographus
(Curculionidae Scolytinae) were similarly recorded with both ET and WT.
These results enhanced the specificity of each trap type in monitoring
different sections of the saproxylic community at species level.
Discussion
Effectiveness of traps for monitoring species richness and diversity
The information that samples provide about rarity, population

density, activity of insects or differences in the quality of habitats used to
be a common source of error inherent to the design and purpose of each
sampling method (Martikainen and Kaila 2004), affecting their results
and interpretation (Longino et al. 2002; Hyvrinen et al. 2006). The use of
different trap types in different years also can lead to a misinterpretation
of results due to the known year variation of the saproxylic species
between years (Martikainen and Kalia 2004). Therefore, it is necessary
take into account that the results from this study may be partially biased.
However, the selected stands and sampling period was the same, so we
expect less effect of inter-year variation at family level, whereas at
species level is more expectable that species abundance was more
variable than species richness between years. All the three sampling
methods showed high completeness effort (estimators over 70 and 90 %
at species and family levels, respectively). Instead, clear differences in
62
the performance of the three trap types at species, family and guild
levels were found.
Sampling methods for monitoring microhabitats tend to capture

a greater proportion of specialist species. Examples of these are direct
sampling (Ranius and Jansson 2002; Alinvi et al. 2007), trunk-window
traps (Hyvrinen et al. 2006; Sverdrup-Thygeson and Birkemoe 2009),
pitfall traps inside tree hollows (Ranius and Jansson 2002; Hyvrinen et
al. 2006; Brin et al. 2012), or ET covering parts of logs (Alinvi et al. 2007),
deadwood pieces (Brin et al. 2011), stumps (Brin et al. 2012) or tree
hollows (Gouix and Brustel 2011). ET effectively monitored species
richness and diversity at species and family levels, and reported a high
proportion of species/families strongly linked to tree hollow
microhabitats as well as presenting different life cycles, trophic habits,
behaviour or phenology, such as many Aderidae, Cryptophagidae,
Cetoniidae, Elateridae, Helodidae, Histeridae, Latridiidae, Ptiliidae,
Scraptiidae or Tenebrionidae species. These results highlighted ET
efficiency in characterizing the saproxylic beetle fauna developing,
coexisting or interacting inside tree hollows.
In contrast, WT clearly respond to habitat surroundings (Bouget

et al. 2009; Sverdrup-Thygeson and Birkemoe 2009; Sverdrup-Thygeson
et al. 2010), and the presence of tourist species is also possible (Bouget
and Brustel 2009b). This trap predominantly catch flying adults (Saint-
Germain et al. 2006; Alinvi et al. 2007) arriving from a wide range of
woody resources within the woodland environment, such as dead wood
on the ground, decaying aerial branches, bark or tree hollows (Ranius
and Jansson 2002; Hyvrinen et al. 2006; Saint-Germain et al. 2006; Alinvi
et al. 2007; Sverdrup-Thygeson and Birkemoe 2009). Accordingly, WT
63
Captulo 2
were the most effective method for reporting species richness and
diversity with least sampling effort, and many Cryptophagidae,
Dasytidae, Elateridae, Malachiidae, Prionoceridae, Ptinidae, Scraptiidae,
Tenebrionidae and Zopheridae species were correctly monitored,
matching up with species usually reported using this method (Ranius and
Jansson 2002, Hyvrinen et al. 2006; Brin 2008; Violas et al. 2012), and
heterogeneously linked to many woody resources. In many cases species
were closely bound to tree hollow microhabitats (Bouget et al. 2008b;
Violas et al. 2012). Therefore, not only a general outline of the flying
active species of the woodland was obtained using this method, but also
of the dispersive species emerging from tree hollows.
Finally, the combined effect of bait and visual cues such as colour
or silhouette of the TT strongly attract a wide variety of dead wood and
hardwood associated beetles (Jonsell et al. 2003; Bouget et al. 2008a;
Bouget et al. 2009), consequently severely affecting the capture
frequency of a biased proportion of the community (Allemand and
Aberlenc 1996; Bouget et al. 2008a). The TT was the least effective
method at both species and family levels and mainly recorded a few
species that were highly abundant, which suggested that they are all
attracted to similar chemical/visual cues. Many Curculionidae Scolytinae
and Cerambycidae species, and their associated fauna are attracted to
volatiles such as isoprenoid monoterpenes (kairomones) and the alcohol
or acetate derivates emitted by stressed, dead or dying host trees
(Shibata et al. 1996; Erbilgin and Raffa 2001; Jonsell et al. 2003; Allison et
al. 2004; Schlyter 2007; Miller and Rabaglia 2009), and are similarly
attracted to bait imitating these chemical compounds (Berti and
Flechtmann 1986; Allemand and Aberlenc 1996; Prez Moreno 1997;
64
Bouget et al. 2009). Moreover, many predator species prey on adults of

several species of bark beetles, and their larvae feed on bark beetle
progeny (Erbilgin and Raffa 2001), which explains to a great extent the
strong attraction of Melyridae, Histeridae and Trogossitidae species to
the chemical compounds that were used.
The effective number of species allows for a more intuitive

interpretation, and offers easily comparable values of species diversity
(Moreno et al. 2011). The functional diversity of trophic guilds in terms of
effective numbers was most efficiently reported using ET, closely
followed by WT, which also recorded the highest species richness and
abundance of all the saproxylic trophic guilds (except predators). ET
cutting off tree hollows are a specific method directed at recording the
saproxylic fauna that inhabit tree hollows (Gouix and Brustel 2011), by
capturing an accurate number of species and individuals that coexist in
this microhabitat, whereas WT installed in front of tree hollows also
provides wide saproxylic diversity (kland 1996), performing a good
characterization of mobile saproxylics linked both to hollows or
surrounding microhabitats. These results highlight that the combination
of ET and WT provide a more complete outline of the functional
heterogeneity of saproxylic assemblages in Mediterranean woodland, by
recording species with different biology and linked to different
microhabitat types.
65
Captulo 2
Complementarity among methods
Combined method techniques are usually required to obtain

reliable and complementary information on saproxylic communities
(Martikainen and Kouki 2003; Ozanne 2005; Alinvi et al. 2007). The
saproxylic species/families richness and diversity recorded for the three
sampling methods showed a different structure of the local saproxylic
assemblage. ET and WT recorded similar numbers of species/family
richness but also presented a high number of unique species/families,
and therefore they were the most dissimilar and complementary
methods. The main determinant was the ability of both methods to
capture a high proportion of species of the community (kland 1996;
Ranius and Jansson 2002; Martikainen and Kalia 2004; Hyvrinen et al.
2006; Alinvi et al. 2007; Jansson 2009; Sverdrup-Thygeson et al. 2010 for
WT, and Gouix 2011 for ET), because each method was originally
designed to study different woodland environments: WT for woodland
patches (kland 1996; Ranius and Jansson 2002; Martikainen and Kalia
2004; Hyvrinen et al. 2006), and ET for tree hollow microhabitats
(Bouget and Brustel 2009a; Gouix and Brustel 2011; Gouix 2011). These
results suggest that depending on the target species/families, the WT
installed in front of hollow openings and the ET covering tree hollows are
highly complementary methods for studying this beetle assemblage, and
provide more accurate studies on population dynamics, dispersive
behaviour, habitat and microhabitat preferences, etc.
In contrast, TT determined lower complementarity with both ET

and WT, revealing a generally low performance of this method for
studying species and family richness. The multiple attractive principles
that occur in this TT design model these notable differences, due to the
66
fact that they tend to capture species particularly attracted to bait,

colour and/or silhouette effects (Prez Moreno 1997; Erbilgin and Raffa
2001; Jonsell et al. 2003; Allison et al. 2004; Schlyter 2007; Bouget et al.
2009; Miller and Rabaglia 2009). Therefore, they can only report and/or
provide higher frequency of captures of species/families susceptible to
trapping principles. Nevertheless, our results showed that a relatively
high number of species were only captured using TT (21 species),
indicating the affinity of TT for collecting those beetle fauna.
Selection of sampling methods
WT are widely considered to be the most efficient method for

standardized studies concerning saproxylic beetle assemblages because
they provide the most individuals and/or species richness (kland 1996;
Ranius and Jansson 2002; Martikainen and Kalia 2004; Hyvrinen et al.
2006; Alinvi et al. 2007; Jansson 2009; Sverdrup-Thygeson et al. 2010),
and give an outline of the local species pool (Ranius and Jansson 2002)
without requiring a long sampling period (Bouget et al. 2008a). However,
tree hollows house a wide range of microhabitats (Alexander 2008;
Sirami et al. 2008; Winter and Mller 2008; Marcos-Garca et al. 2010)
that support a high proportion of hollow-specialist species (Dajoz 1980)
with low dispersive behaviour (Thomas 2000; Ranius and Hedin 2001;
Ewers and Didham 2006) that WT could not report. ET make it possible to
conduct standardized and replicable studies to monitor or detect target
saproxylic species occurring in tree hollows (Gouix and Brustel 2011;
Mic et al. 2011b) and also to survey entire saproxylic communities and
their ecological interactions (Gouix 2011; Quinto et al. 2012). Our
67
Captulo 2
approach represents the first occasion that the efficiency of this ET

model has been tested in comparison with other sampling methods, and
is more effective in reporting species/family richness and diversity than
conventional WT models and offers deeper knowledge of beetle
assemblages related to tree hollows.
The selection or combination of methods for monitoring

saproxylic beetle assemblages for conservation purposes should be
thorough, without negatively affecting their habitat and populations
(Buler and Mller 2009), and should comprise an optimized number of
traps/methods adapted to the target species/family and reflect the
heterogeneity of the studied woodland environment. This choice may
determine the recording of a particular species. As an example, the
Endangered Limoniscus violaceus (Elateridae) has only been captured
with ET in the studied area, in agreement with Gouix and Brustel (2011)
who showed that ET was the most efficient method to capture this
species, whereas other trapping techniques were inefficient.
In addition, species abundance is more powerful than species

lists for understanding community dynamics and distribution patterns in
ecological studies (Larsen and Forsyth 2005) and, for instance, the
addition of shared and unique species from ET and WT held a special
complementarity to report higher richness and abundance of many
species-rich families such as Cryptophagidae, Elateridae, Ptinidae,
Scraptiidae and Tenebrionidae. Due to these arguments, we recommend
a combination of the easily standardized and replicable ET and WT to
suitably characterize and compare the saproxylic fauna developing in
tree hollows and their subset of flying active species. These non-intrusive
methods also avoid interference with the habitat, and allow urgent
68
decisions to be taken when any protected species appear in order to

safeguard their populations, such as the removal of traps when the
required presence for any protected species has been achieved at a
location (Gouix and Brustel 2011), preserving habitat and populations in
this way.
Our results showed how trap efficiency varies according to the

target beetle species and families, therefore the selection and/or
combination of methods should consider this sensitivity, adapting the
sampling technique/s to the section of the saproxylic beetle assemblage
under study. These findings will be fundamental to carry out rigorous
ecological studies and to establish conservation strategies in
Mediterranean woodlands and in other woodland types taking into
account this important saproxylic functional group.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful for the assistance given by A. Violas, A.

Verdugo, F. Soldati, O. Rose, J. C. Otero, M. A. A. Zarazaga, A. Herrmann,
J. L. Zapata, J. P. Tamisier, G. Liberti, C. Prez, R. Allemand, T. Noblecourt,
P. Leblanc, and L. Chkir. We should also like to thank the research
Projects CGL2008-04472, CGL2009-09656 and CGL2011-23658 of the
Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation, and LIFE-07/NAT/00762 of
the European Commission LIFE-Nature. Cabaeros Park Administration
for their continuous collaboration and assistance; A. P. Martnez-Falcn
and A. Garca-Lpez for their good advice with the analyses; T. Jover and
R. Briones for their help with the databases.
69
Captulo 2
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Online Resource. Appendix. Relative species/family richness and abundance of saproxylic beetles. TT: tube trap; WT: window
trap; ET: emergence trap. The trophic guild for each species is reflected in the eighth column, being x: xylophagous, sx:
saprophagous-saproxylophagous, xm: xylomycetophagous, p: predators, c: commensals. The DCA labels are presented in the
last column.
Family Species TT WT ET Total Guild dca

Aderidae Aderus populneus 0 0 18 18 x 1
Otoletus neglectus 0 0 46 46 x 2
Anobiidae Dorcatoma ajenjoi 0 0 4 4 xm 3
Oligomerus brunneus 0 20 19 39 x 4
Rhamna semen 0 2 10 12 xm 5
Stagetus andalusiacus 0 26 0 26 x 6
Stagetus elongatus 0 0 7 7 x 7
Stagetus micoae 0 0 2 2 x 8
Biphyllidae Diplocoelus fagi 94 2 25 121 xm 9
Bostrichidae Bostrichus capucinus 3 0 0 3 x 10
Lichenophanes numida 0 1 0 1 x 11
Scobicia chevrieri 27 0 0 27 x 12
Xylopertha praeusta 1 0 0 1 x 13
Bothrideridae Bothrideres interstitialis 0 1 0 1 p 14
Buprestidae Acmaeodera degener 9 2 0 11 x 15
Acmaeoderella adspersula 5 1 0 6 x 16
Agrilus hastulifer 1 0 0 1 x 17
Anthaxia chaerodrys 0 1 0 1 x 18
Anthaxia salicis 0 2 0 2 x 19
Anthaxia scutellaris 1 0 0 1 x 20
Chrysobothris affinis 6 0 0 6 x 21
Cerambycidae Alocerus moesiacus 0 3 0 3 x 22
Cerambyx welensii 0 1 3 4 x 23
Chlorophorus pilosus 2 0 0 2 xm 24
Chlorophorus ruficornis 0 1 0 1 x 25
Phymatodes testaceus 3 3 0 6 x 26
Prinobius myardi 0 0 11 11 x 27
Stenopterus ater 1 0 0 1 xm 28
Stenurella nigra 0 1 0 1 x 29
Stictoleptura trisignata 0 1 16 17 x 30
Trichoferus fasciculatus 2 0 1 3 x 31
Trichoferus pallidus 0 1 0 1 x 32
Cerylonidae Cerylon histeroides 0 0 1 1 xm 33
Cetoniidae Cetonia aurataeformis 1 8 124 133 sx 34
Potosia cuprea 0 0 13 13 sx 35
Potosia opaca 0 3 6 9 sx 36
Valgus hemipterus 0 2 0 2 sx 37
Ciidae Cis striatulus 1 0 0 1 xm 38
Clambidae Calyptomerus sp 0 0 1 1 xm 39
Cybocephalus rufifrons 1 0 0 1 xm 40
Cleridae Korynetes geniculatus 0 1 0 1 p 41
Opilo abeillei 0 4 0 4 p 42
Opilo domesticus 0 13 1 14 p 43
Pseudoclerops mutillarius 1 0 0 1 p 44
Thanasimus formicarius 1 0 0 1 p 45
Corylophidae Arthrolips indescreta 0 1 0 1 xm 46
Arthrolips obscura 3 1 0 4 xm 47
Cryptophagidae Atomaria fuscata 3 0 0 3 xm 48
Atomaria pusilla 0 0 1 1 xm 49
Cryptophagus angustus 0 1 0 1 x 50
Cryptophagus aurelioi 0 2 7 9 sx 51
Cryptophagus dentatus 26 9 16 51 sx 52
Cryptophagus distinguendus 0 0 1 1 sx 53
Cryptophagus micaceus 0 9 31 40 p 54
Cryptophagus pallidus 0 18 0 18 sx 55
Cryptophagus punctipennis 0 0 17 17 x 56
Cryptophagus reflexus 0 0 66 66 xm 57
Cryptophagus saginatus 0 2 12 14 xm 58
Cryptophagus scanicus 2 14 35 51 xm 59
Cryptophagus spadiceus 0 1 0 1 c 60
Micrambe micoae 0 1 0 1 sx 61
Curculionidae Scolytinae Dryocoetes villosus 3 1 0 4 x 171
Hylesinus crenatus 0 1 0 1 x 172
Hylesinus fraxini 0 4 0 4 x 173
Xyleborinus saxesenii 1198 12 25 1235 xm 174
Xyleborus dryographus 12 4 8 24 xm 175
Xyleborus monographus 11 59 181 251 xm 176
Dasytidae Aplocnemus brevis 2 7 0 9 p 62
Aplocnemus limbipennis 0 6 1 7 p 63
Danacea lata 0 3 0 3 p 64
Danacea pici 0 2 0 2 p 65
Dasytes pauperculus 0 45 0 45 p 66
Dasytes terminalis 1 2 0 3 p 67
Enicopus rugosicollis 1 0 0 1 p 68
Mauroania bourgeoisi 0 36 1 37 p 69
Psilothrix illustris 10 2 0 12 p 70
Dermestidae Anthrenus angustefasciatus 2 6 2 10 c 71
Anthrenus festivus 57 44 6 107 c 72
Anthrenus minutus 0 2 39 41 c 73
Anthrenus scrophulariae 0 1 0 1 c 74
Anthrenus verbasci 0 0 3 3 c 75
Attagenus incognitus 8 17 1 26 c 76
Attagenus schaefferi 0 0 1 1 c 77
Attagenus trifasciatus 0 83 14 97 c 78
Dermestes bicolor 0 0 1 1 c 79
Dermestes erichsonii 0 0 1 1 c 80
Dermestes undulatus 0 0 5 5 c 81
Globicornis nigripes 0 2 0 2 c 82
Orphilus niger 5 3 2 10 c 83
Trogoderma versicolor 1 2 0 3 c 84
Dynastidae Oryctes nasicornis 0 0 7 7 sx 85
Elateridae Ampedus aurilegulus 0 19 43 62 p 86
Ectamenogonus montandoni 0 0 7 7 p 87
Elater ferrugineus 0 0 22 22 p 88
Elathous platiai 0 3 0 3 p 89
Ischnodes sanguinicollis 0 8 15 23 p 90
Lacon punctatus 4 4 9 17 p 91
Limoniscus violaceus 0 0 2 2 sx 92
Megapenthes lugens 0 3 17 20 p 93
Procraerus tibialis 0 14 10 24 p 94
Endomychidae Mycetaea hirta 0 0 4 4 xm 95
Symbiotes gibberosus 1 2 3 6 xm 96
Helodidae Prionocyphon serricornis 0 0 167 167 c 97
Histeridae Abraeus perpusillus 0 0 17 17 p 98
Aeletes atomarius 0 0 6 6 p 99
Atholus corvinus 1 0 11 12 p 100
Atholus duodecimstriatus 0 0 1 1 p 101
Eubrachium hispidulum 0 0 2 2 p 102
Euspilotus perrisi 0 0 1 1 p 103
Gnathoncus communis 7 0 21 28 p 104
Gnathoncus nannetensis 0 9 6 15 p 105
Gnathoncus rotundatus 0 2 0 2 p 106
Kissister minimus 36 3 3 42 p 107
Margarinotus brunneus 0 0 1 1 p 108
Margarinotus merdarius 0 3 7 10 p 109
Margarinotus uncostriatus 0 0 2 2 p 110
Merohister ariasi 0 1 2 3 p 111
Paromalus flavicornis 0 1 5 6 p 112
Platylomalus complanatus 0 0 1 1 p 113
Platylomalus gardineri 1 0 1 2 p 114
Platysoma elongatum 1 0 0 1 p 115
Platysoma filiforme 2 0 1 3 p 116
Teretrius parasita 2 0 0 2 p 117
Laemophloeidae Cryptolestes ferrugineus 0 0 4 4 xm 118
Laemophloeus nigricollis 0 0 1 1 xm 119
Placonotus testaceus 15 0 1 16 xm 120
Latridiidae Corticaria obscura 0 0 1 1 c 121
Enicmus brevicornis 0 0 3 3 xm 122
Enicmus rugosus 0 2 2 4 xm 123
Latridius assimilis 0 1 15 16 xm 124
Lucanidae Dorcus parallelepipedus 1 4 36 41 x 125
Pseudolucanus barbarossa 1 2 0 3 x 126
Malachiidae Anthocomus fenestratus 0 3 6 9 p 127
Attalus anticus 0 1 0 1 p 128
Axinotarsus marginalis 0 1 0 1 p 129
Cyrtosus cyanipennis 0 3 0 3 p 130
Hypebaeus albifrons 0 0 1 1 p 131
Malachius bipustulatus 0 1 0 1 p 132
Troglops furcatus 0 0 12 12 p 133
Melandryidae Conopalpus brevicollis 0 1 0 1 xm 134
Orchesia micans 0 2 5 7 xm 135
Melyridae Falsomelyris granulata 157 45 0 202 p 136
Mordellidae Mediimorda batteni 9 6 0 15 x 137
Mordella brachyura 3 7 0 10 x 138
Mordellistena confinis 2 0 0 2 x 139
Variimorda fagniezi 14 0 0 14 x 140
Variimorda theryi 0 2 0 2 x 141
Mycetophagidae Litargus balteatus 0 0 1 1 xm 142
Litargus connexus 339 3 4 346 xm 143
Mycetophagus fulvicollis 0 1 0 1 xm 144
Mycetophagus quadriguttatus 0 7 9 16 xm 145
Nitidulidae Amphotis marginata 0 2 1 3 c 146
Epuraea fuscicollis 3 0 27 30 c 147
Epuraea ocularis 0 0 2 2 c 148
Meligethes reitteri 1 4 0 5 c 149
Soronia oblonga 6 41 79 126 c 150
Oedemeridae Chrysanthia reitteri 1 0 0 1 x 151
Ischnomera xanthoderes 0 1 6 7 x 152
Oedemera barbara 1 0 0 1 x 153
Platypodidae Platypus cylindrus 0 2 0 2 p 154
Prionoceridae Lobonyx aeneus 0 22 0 22 x 155
Pselaphidae Euplectus sp 0 0 1 1 c 156
Geopsephalus sp 0 0 1 1 c 157
sp1 (Goniaceritae tribe) 0 0 1 1 p 158
Ptiliidae sp2 0 0 11 11 xm 159
Ptinidae Dignomus dilophus 2 22 0 24 x 160
Dignomus irroratus 10 154 4 168 sx 161
Dignomus lusitanus 0 1 0 1 x 162
Ptinus bidens 0 9 2 11 sx 163
Ptinus hirticornis 1 8 1 10 sx 164
Ptinus palliatus 0 1 0 1 x 165
Ptinus pyrenaeus 0 2 0 2 c 166
Ptinus spitzyi 5 9 0 14 sx 167
Ptinus timidus 0 8 72 80 x 168
Rhizophagidae Rhizophagus unicolor 0 0 1 1 p 169
Salpingidae Salpingus aeneus 0 2 0 2 p 170
Scraptiidae Anaspis incognita 0 4 0 4 x 177
Anaspis regimbarti 0 0 3 3 x 178
Anaspis trifasciata 0 1 0 1 x 179
Pentaria defarguesi 0 0 1 1 x 180
Scraptia dubia 2 9 0 11 x 181
Scraptia ophthalmica 0 24 0 24 x 182
Scraptia schotti 0 0 2 2 x 183
Scraptia testacea 1 2 54 57 x 184
Scydmaenidae Paleostigus palpalis 0 0 1 1 c 185
Scydmaenus cornutus 0 0 2 2 c 186
Stenichus godarti 0 0 5 5 c 187
Silvanidae Ahasverus advena 2 0 1 3 xm 188
Airaphilus sp 0 0 1 1 xm 189
Airaphilus elongatus 0 3 0 3 xm 190
Silvanus bidentatus 0 0 2 2 xm 191
Uleiota planata 0 0 4 4 xm 192
Tenebrionidae Corticeus fasciatus 0 1 0 1 c 193
Isomira hispanica 3 59 1 63 sx 194
Mycetochara linearis 0 22 20 42 sx 195
Mycetochara quadrimaculata 2 78 51 131 sx 196
Prionychus fairmairei 1 10 13 24 sx 197
Probaticus anthracinus 0 3 20 23 sx 198
Probaticus granulatus 0 1 0 1 sx 199
Pseudocistela ceramboides 0 2 30 32 sx 200
Stenohelops sublinearis 1 9 1 11 sx 201
Tenebrio sp 0 2 9 11 c 202
Tetratomidae Tetratoma baudueri 0 1 0 1 xm 203
Trogossitidae Temnochila caerulea 5 0 1 6 p 204
Tenebroides marrocanus 0 0 1 1 p 205
Zopheridae Colobicus hirtus 0 4 2 6 p 206
Colydium elongatum 0 5 2 7 p 207
Endophloeus marcovichianus 3 11 10 24 xm 208
Synchita variegata 0 1 0 1 xm 209
TOTAL ABUNDANCE 2151 1207 1726 5084
Captulo 3
Breaking down complex saproxylic communities:

Understanding sub-networks structure and implications
to network robustness
Explorando las comunidades saproxlicas: Un acercamiento a la

estructura de las subredes y sus implicaciones en la estabilidad
Quinto, J., Marcos-Garca, M.A., Daz-Castelazo, C., Rico-Gray, V.,

Brustel, H., Galante, E., Mic, E., 2012. Breaking down Complex
Saproxylic Communities: Understanding sub-networks structure and
implications to network robustness. PLoS ONE 7: e45062.
Interaccin oquedad-insecto saproxlico
Abstract
Saproxylic insect communities inhabiting tree hollow microhabitats

correspond with large food webs which simultaneously are constituted
by multiple types of plant-animal and animal-animal interactions,
according to the use of trophic resources (wood- and insect-dependent
sub-networks), or to trophic habits or interaction types (xylophagous,
saprophagous, xylomycetophagous, predators and commensals). We
quantitatively assessed which properties of specialised networks were
present in a complex networks involving different interacting types such
as saproxylic community, and how they can be organised in trophic food
webs. The architecture, interacting patterns and food web composition
were evaluated along sub-networks, analysing their implications to
network robustness from random and directed extinction simulations. A
structure of large and cohesive modules with weakly connected nodes
was observed throughout saproxylic sub-networks, composing the main
food webs constituting this community. Insect-dependent sub-networks
were more modular than wood-dependent sub-networks. Wood-
dependent sub-networks presented higher species degree, connectance,
links, linkage density, interaction strength, and were less specialised and
more aggregated than insect-dependent sub-networks. These attributes
defined high network robustness in wood-dependent sub-networks.
Finally, our results emphasise the relevance of modularity, differences
among interacting types and interrelations among them in modelling the
structure of saproxylic communities and in determining their stability.
91
Captulo 3
Keywords
Coleoptera, Syrphidae (Diptera), types of interaction, tree hollow

microhabitats, modularity, interacting patterns, ecological patterns,
extinction simulations
92
Introduction
Network analysis is a valuable tool for studying the diversity of

species and interactions in large trophic networks [1]. A high number of
ecological communities have been studied under this perspective,
discovering specialised interacting patterns as nestedness in mutualistic
networks [2,3] or modularity in antagonistic networks [4], providing
insight into the function and evolution of the components of the system
[5]. Specialized interacting patterns act like a variable modelling the
network structure of interactions, reducing the effective interspecific
competition and enhancing the number of coexisting species [6]. The
biotic environment of co-occurring species critically determines the way
in which species adapt to new environments [7], as antagonistic and
facilitative interactions between species determining the response to
environmental perturbations [8].
Research on ecological communities has been dominated by

small-scale studies [9], and restricted to a single type of interaction [4],
while only recently, spatio-temporal scales of ecological communities
[10-12] or complex networks with different types of interaction [13,14]
have been addressed with network analysis. Ecological network studies
are largely focussed on qualitative data, assuming that all interacting
species are equally important [15]. However, specialised network
patterns are best defined at quantitative scale in both mutualistic and
antagonistic communities [16], and the relative abundances of the
components of the networks influences structural patterns as asymmetry
[17].
93
Captulo 3
One of the most complex communities in terrestrial

environments develops inside tree hollows, which provide a diverse
range of microhabitats within forest ecosystems [18-21]. In each tree
hollow, saproxylic insect assemblages with a high number of species with
several types of interaction coexist: dependence or not of woody
resources or/and feeding guilds. Moreover, from a functional
perspective, saproxylic insects include a large number of taxa that play a
key role in the decomposition of woody material in forest ecosystems
[22]. Nevertheless, the diversity of their interactions is poorly understood
[23] and consequently saproxylic insect communities [24] have to be
studied form the point of view of interacting networks.
Here we provide a first approach to characterise and to analyse

specialized interacting patterns occurring in quantitative tree hollow-
saproxylic insect food webs, using network analyses. We used empirical
data related to trophic structure of the complex community to break
down quantitative saproxylic food webs inhabiting hollow microhabitats
of Mediterranean forests in Cabaeros National Park (Spain).
Mediterranean forests have a large number of woody species compared
to central or northern Europe [25] and host a high animal diversity [26],
where saproxylic insects make up the highest percentage of their
biodiversity. In order to incorporate the high amount of the components
of the tree hollow/saproxylic insect interaction, we have included the
most representative tree species of the woodland in the studied area.
Among the Coleoptera and Diptera (Syrphidae) saproxylic species
coexisting in tree hollows, we considered three levels of interaction: 1)
complete network (the whole saproxylic community), 2) sub-networks
defined according to the use or not of woody resources (direct or indirect
94
saproxylics), and 3) sub-networks according to their feeding guild

(xylophagous, saprophagous, xylomycetophagous, predators and
commensals). In particular we addressed the following questions: i) How
are saproxylic sub-networks organized either defined by the use of
resource and by the feeding guild or according to specialised patterns of
interaction, as nestedness or modularity? ii) Are there differences in
interacting and ecological patterns among sub-networks; and iii) Which
are the implications of these properties in network robustness, from
random and directed simulations of the lost of tree hollow
microhabitats?
Methods
Study site and sampling
The study was conducted in Cabaeros National Park (39 23

47 N; 4 29 14 W; altitude varies between 560 and 1448 m), a natural
area of 40856 ha located in central Spain. The climate is Mediterranean,
the annual average temperature fluctuates from 12.9 to 15.6 C and the
annual precipitation averages between 500 and 750 mm [27]. The park is
constituted by extensive areas of well-preserved Mediterranean
landscape, with various woodland types [27]. Field work was carried
out in the most representative Mediterranean forests of the National
Park: sclerophyllous forest of holm-oak Quercus rotundifolia Lam., mixed
deciduous forest dominated by Pyrenean oak Quercus pyrenaica Willd.
and the native oak Quercus faginea Lam., and riparian forest of narrow-
leafed ash Fraxinus angustifolia Vahl. To capture saproxylic insects
breeding and inhabiting tree hollows we used emergence traps specially
95
Captulo 3
modified from Colas [28]. Every tree hollow was covered with acrylic
mesh and sealed up with staples. Specimens emerged and come into a
white collecting pot containing ethylene glycol as preservative [21,28]. In
every forest type we selected 30, 30 and 27 hollow trees, respectively.
The first indispensable necessity for study basic specialized patterns
occurring on saproxylic communities inhabiting this ecological niche was
to represent the real heterogeneity and abundance of tree hollows in
each woodland type, always having account the high degree of
protection of this National Park and the inherent need to protect and
conserve this important and limited microhabitat. We considered a
maximum of 30 tree hollows representing the natural proportion per
woodland type, including multiple ecological variables able to model
saproxylic communities at microhabitat scale in the studied area, as
hollow size, hollow position, tree diameter, etc. [30,18,19]. This passive
method of capture allows recording saproxylic species shortly after their
emergence from immature stages, offering a representative outline of
the linkage of any recorded species to this microhabitat, being the
interaction strength a good surrogate of this linkage. Collecting tubes
were replaced every month throughout a year (February 2009 - March
2010).
Identification of selected taxa
We selected Coleoptera and Diptera as study groups at the

hollow level, because they are the best known and represented groups in
forests [30-32], allowing us to study the network properties from a
quantitative point of view. We considered the Syrphidae as a bioindicator
96
of species and interaction richness among the Diptera, because i) they

have been traditionally used next to beetles in studies concerning
saproxylic insects [e.g. 33,34], and present a high number of saproxylic
species around Europe [33], using a wide range of microhabitats [35],
what has led them to be used as indicators of woodland quality [24,34],
to be flagships for the conservation of the wider community of saproxylic
organisms [35] or to be included in national red lists [e.g. 36], and ii) they
represent the best studied family (or just the unique) of Diptera in the
study site, presenting high number and abundance of mainly exclusive
saproxylic species highly strengthened with tree hollow microhabitats
[20].
Identification of Coleoptera families was done using Delvare and

Aberlenc keys [37], and for species identification of many families we
also counted with the help of invited specialists (see Acknowledgments).
Syrphids were identified using the van Veen [38] and Speight keys [39].
Classification into levels of interaction
Saproxylic communities are complex networks involving different

types of interactions that depend on different trophic resources available
inside tree hollow microhabitats. Because of the large number of both
tree hollows and species nodes, we began breaking down the crude
network into smaller sub-networks, recording biological/ecological
information available for this saproxylic functional group, using the
bibliography, the Frisbee data base [40] and experts information (see
Acknowledgements). Clear facultative associations and species with
unknown biology were removed for the analyses. For this objective, we
97
Captulo 3
classified the saproxylic entomofauna according to the main ecological

guilds described by Speight [24] and Bouget et al. [41]: xylophagous,
xylomycetophagous, saprophagous, predators and commensals (Table
S1). Finally, based on the use of trophic resources on hollow trees, we
classified the whole saproxylic community in two basic levels: 1)
according to the type of interaction, a) direct saproxylic insects (wood-
dependent), feeding on woody resources, as dead or dying wood, sap run
or wood-inhabiting fungi, and b) insect-dependent sub-networks (insect-
dependent), inhabiting tree hollows but mainly depending on the
activity or presence of other saproxylic insects for their development:
predators and commensals., and 2) according to trophic guilds: i)
xylophagous, ii) saprophagous, iii) xylomycetophagous (wood-dependent
sub-networks), and iv) predators and v) commensals (insect-dependent
sub-networks).
Network analysis and statistics
Modularity
We used Aninhado [3] to analyse the existence of nestedness

patterns (nestedness as NODF estimator), generating 1000 replicates for
each saproxylic sub-network with a CE null model. CE considers that the
probability of an interaction is proportional to the generalisation level of
both species, so allowing evaluating the influence of abundances to
nestedness pattern.
To study modularity we used netcarto [5] and Pajek [42]. For a

given partition of the nodes of a network into modules, the modularity M
of this partition is [43-45]:
98
(1)
where is the number of modules, L is the number of links in the

network, is the number of links between nodes in module s, and is
the sum of the degrees of the nodes in module s. This heuristic module
identification algorithm finds the minimum partition into modules. A
good partition of a network must comprise many within-module links
and as few as possible between-module links. Equation (1) does that by
imposing that M = 0 if nodes are placed at random into modules or if all
nodes are in the same cluster [5,43-45]. We assessed the simulated
annealing procedure to find the optimal partition with largest modularity
of the network into modules [46]. This stochastic optimization technique
enables to find low-cost configuration without getting trapped in high-
cost local minima, by means of the introduction of computational
temperature T. When T is high, the system can explore configurations of
high cost whereas at low T the system only explores low-cost regions. By
starting at high T and slowly decreasing T, the system descends gradually
towards deep minima, eventually overcoming small cost barriers. When
identifying modules, the objective is to maximize the modularity, and
thus the cost is C = M, where M is the modularity as defined in equation
(1). At each temperature, we perform a number of random updates
(1000, f (iteration factor) = 0.1, c (cooling factor) = 0.995) and accept
them with probability p [47]:
(2)
where Cf is the cost after the update and Ci is the cost before the update.
99
Captulo 3
We also used netcarto to heuristically describe the differences

on the composition and interrelations among modules along 25
randomisations maximizing modularity (subjective benchmark). We
considered that the partition with a lesser number of modules could be
used as the minimum partition with largest optimisation of modularity
for each randomised sub-network, from we can know the main minimal
subsets of interacting nodes or sub-modules of any modular network.
Based on the connectivity in these resultant sub-modules, we yielded
and studied the cartographic representation of the complex network
[43]. We obtained the within-module degree for each node. If Ki is the
number of links of node i to other nodes in its module si, is the
average of K over all the nodes in si, and is the standard deviation of
K in si, then:
(3)
is so-called Z-score (Z 2.5 determines hub nodes, and Z < 2.5 non-hubs
nodes), which measures how well-connected node i is to other nodes in
the module. To assess the connection of a node to modules other than
its own, we obtained the P-score or participation coefficient Pi of each
node i as:
(4)
where Kis is the number of links of node i to nodes in module s, and ki is

the total degree of node i. The P-score of a node ranges between 0 if all
the links are done within-module and 1 if the links are uniformly
distributed along the set of sub-modules. According to these values, we
then classified each node into system independent universal roles:
100
kinless hub (R7), connector hub (R6), provincial hub (R5), non-hub kinless
(R4), non-hub connector (R3), peripheral (R2) and ultra-peripheral (R1),
analysing their number and distribution along sub-modules and
implications on modularity patterns.
Interacting patterns
We used R-bipartite [48] to quantitatively assess interacting and

distributional patterns between trophic levels of each sub-network and
the set of tree hollows assessed. Network attributes analysed were links
(mean number of links per species [defined as the sum of links divided by
the number of species]), species degree (the sum of the diversity of links
per species), interaction strength (sum of dependencies for each
species), connectance (the proportion of realised links of the total
possible in each network [defined as the sum of links divided by the
number of cells in the matrix]), linkage density (a quantitative measure
defined as the mean number of interactions per species), H2 (a measure
of network specialisation [which ranges between 0: no specialisation, and
1: complete specialisation]), V-ratio (Variance-ratio of species numbers
to individual numbers within species for the higher trophic level [values
larger than 1 indicate positive aggregation or association, values between
0 and 1 indicate disaggregation of species]).
Robustness to microhabitat extinction
We assessed microhabitat relevance throughout the simulation

of primary extinction (slope-estimation derived from randomly removing
101
Captulo 3
tree hollow nodes of the lower trophic level) and secondary extinctions
approach [49] [slope of the secondary extinction sequence to species in
the higher trophic level, following an extermination of the least
interconnected tree hollows in the lower trophic level]). We only
performed network robustness to species extinctions for insects (higher
trophic level) because the set of tree hollows (lower trophic level) is not
really affected by removing saproxylic insects. We also studied sub-
network robustness [50] as a measure of the system to the random and
directed lost of tree hollows (the area below a extinction curve, where R
= 1 correspond to a curve that decreases very mildly up to the point at
which almost all animal species are eliminated, whereas with R = 0 the
curve decreases abruptly as soon as any species is lost). The analyses
were carried out separately for each sub-network.
Results
Characterisation of saproxylic sub-networks
We recorded 3680 individuals of Coleoptera belonging to 135

species and 41 families, and 462 individuals of Syrphidae: Diptera
belonging to 22 species (Table S1). The complete network was
constituted by 244 nodes, corresponding with 157 insect species nodes
and 87 tree hollow nodes. The number of saproxylic insect and tree
hollow nodes for the rest of the saproxylic sub-networks is reflected in
Table 2.
102
Modularity and sub-modularity
The results showed a lack of nested patterns in the studied sub-

networks, implying low nestedness values (less than 25% in all cases, P >
0.05) (Table 2). Quite the opposite, in all the levels of interaction
evaluated we found a modular structure of interactions, which were
characterised by the presence of a unique module in the largest sub-
networks evaluated at global scale: 1) complete network, 2) direct
saproxylic network, indirect saproxylic network, and 3) xylophagous,
saprophagous, xylomycetophagous sub-networks. Furthermore, in
predator and commensal sub-networks we found two and three
modules, respectively, which were characterised by a main module
housing the majority of interactions, and few isolated modules
constituted by pairs of interacting species.
103
Table 2. Ecological and network attributes modelling saproxylic sub-networks. SP: number of interacting insect species nodes
(higher trophic level); TH: number of interacting tree hollow nodes (lower trophic level); NODF: nestedness as NODF
estimator; M: number of isolated modules; L/S: links per species; C: connectance; LD: linkage density; H2: specialisation; V-
ratio: variance ratio; PE: extinction slope of higher trophic level for a random extinction (100 replicates); RPE: robustness for a
random extinction; SE: secondary extinction slope of the higher trophic level for a selective extinction of the least
interconnected nodes (100 replicates); RSE: robustness for a directed extinction. * Values impossible to obtain because the
matrix size blocks the running of the programme.
Network metrics
Network SP TH NODF M L/S C LD H2 V-ratio PE RPE SE RSE
Red 158 87 13.11 1 4.82 0.086 * * 14.72 * * * *
Direct 104 86 15.37 1 4.69 0.099 * * 16.38 * * * *
Indirect 54 73 11.76 1 2.284 0.074 6.618 0.55 8.97 2.72 0.72 7.48 0.87
Xylophagous 21 80 24.24 1 2.614 0.157 10.32 0.45 20.02 2.1 0.67 6.66 0.86
Saprophagous 45 81 13.93 1 2.575 0.089 7.562 0.54 10.87 2.73 0.72 8.43 0.88
Xylomycetophagous 38 82 17.57 1 2.525 0.097 11.3 0.36 19.27 2.57 0.71 7.88 0.87
Predators 26 66 12.38 2 1.576 0.086 5.568 0.6 6.65 1.5 0.59 4.6 0.79
Commensals 28 61 14.23 3 1.629 0.085 6.241 0.6 11.53 1.74 0.63 5.12 0.83
For the modularity comparison with randomised networks using

simulated annealing procedure, all the sub-networks analysed were
statistically significant: complete network (M = 0.255, p = 0.005), direct
(M = 0.256, p = 0.006), indirect (M = 0.404, p = 0.009), xylophagous (M =
0.319, p = 0.009), saprophagous (M = 0.371, p = 0.009),
xylomycetophagous (M = 0.35, p = 0.009), predator (M = 0.497, p =
0.012), and commensal network (M = 0.471, p = 0.012). The analyses of
these sub-networks revealed the existence of a variable number of sub-
modules in all the assessed sub-networks (Table 3). The complete
network was composed of five to eight sub-modules, but seven sub-
modules was the most supported result (48%). Direct sub-network was
composed of six to eight sub-modules, but six and seven modules were
the most supported (44% and 48%, respectively). Indirect sub-network
was composed of six to eight sub-modules (seven and eight modules
were the more supported 40% and 48% respectively). The xylophagous
sub-network was composed of five to seven, being six sub-modules the
most supported result (84%); saprophagous sub-network by five to nine
sub-modules, being seven sub-modules the most frequent value (64%);
xylomycetophagous sub-network of five to seven sub-modules (six sub-
modules showed a support of 68%); predator sub-network of seven to 10
sub-modules (eight and nine sub-modules were the best supported 36%
and 40%); commensal sub-network of seven to 10, being nine sub-
modules, the most common configuration (50% of the results).
105
Captulo 3
Number of sub-modules
Network 5 6 7 8 9 10
Complete network 4 28 48 20 - -
Direct - 44 48 8 - -
Indirect - 12 40 48 - -
Xylophagous 12 84 4 - - -
Saprophagous 4 4 64 24 4 -
Xylomycetophagous 12 68 20 - - -
Predators - - 4 36 40 20
Commensals - - 4 16 52 28
Table 3. Variation of number of sub-modules. Number of sub-modules

present in each sub-network, expressed as the percentage of times with
the same number of sub-modules from the 25 randomisations arbitrarily
considered.
Analyses and characterisation of sub-modules and roles
The complete network was composed at least by five main

interacting sub-modules, in which tree hollows, wood- and insect-
dependent species comprised subsets of closely interacting nodes along
randomisations. However, the node composition for each sub-module
changed along the 25 randomisations considered for the whole network,
being more or less variable depending on the sub-module considered.
Sub-modules 2, 3, and 4 were the most cohesive sub-modules, and their
constituting nodes appeared together in 76%, 88%, and 68% of the times,
respectively; whereas sub-modules 1 and 5 were less cohesive, appearing
together in 29.17% and 31.71% of the times, respectively.
Sub-module 2 was defined by the high number of saprophagous

species interacting with a close subset of tree hollows of the three
106
studied tree species, where Cetoniidae species were related with

Tenebrionidae species and with uncommon Syrphidae species. The
xylophagous guild was mainly represented by generalist Cryptophagidae
species and the xylomycetophagous guild by Laemophloeidae, Latridiidae
and Curculionidae species. Associated fauna was characterised of
predator species belonging to Elateridae, Trogossitidae, Melyridae and
Rhizophagidae. Sub-module 3 was mainly constituted of
xylomycetophagous species interacting with holm-oak and ash tree
hollows, where generalist species of Scolytiidae and Biphylidae coexisting
with specialist Latridiidae, Endomychidae and Silvanidae species. The
saprophagous guild was composed of hoverfly species commonly present
in thermophylous forests. Sub-module 4 was characterised by a high
number of both saprophagous and xylomycetophagous species
interacting in tree hollows in deciduous forests. Saprophagous guild was
composed by Cryptophagidae, Curculionidae and Syrphidae Diptera
species. The xylomycetophagous guild was represented by Anobiidae,
Cryptophagidae, Cerylonidae, Latridiidae, Mycetophagidae, Silvanidae,
Tenebrionidae and Zopheridae species. Indirect fauna was characterised
by predator species belonging to Elateridae and Cryptophagidae families,
and by commensal species belonging to Nitidulidae. See Table S2 for
know in detail the node composition of these five main sub-modules.
Complete network was composed by six ecological roles (Figure

1), corresponding with 6 hub nodes: one connector hub (R6), and five
kinless hub (R7); and 238 non-hub nodes: 59 ultra-peripheral (R1), 72
peripheral (R2), 91 non-hub connector (R3) and 15 non-hub kinless (R4).
No provincial hub nodes (R5) were present in this ecological network. The
distribution of roles was similar among sub-modules. The higher
107
Captulo 3
proportion of nodes belonged to non-hubs with ecological roles R1

(24.18%), R2 (29.91%) and R3 (37.3%), comprising the 91.39% of the
nodes, and thereby the density landscape was displaced towards non-
hub region, indicating the high proportion of weakly connected nodes
throughout sub-networks. See Table S2 for Z-score, P-score and role for
each node.
108
Figure 1. Ecological role diagram. Ecological role diagram for the saproxylic guilds and tree hollows, showing their role
distribution along ecological regions in the z-P parameter space. This representation showed that the higher proportion of
nodes belonged to non-hubs R1 (24.18%), R2 (29.91%), and R3 (37.3%), corresponding with the 91.39% of the nodes, what
implicates a constant predominance of weak connections and a similar role composition along sub-modules and saproxylic
trophic guilds. The number of hub nodes was low, and they normally corresponded with kinless hub (R7) tree hollow nodes
heterogeneously connected along sub-modules. So role-to-role connectivity often happened among R1-R2-R3 and in less
extent among R7-R1/R2/R3.
Captulo 3
Interacting and distributional patterns
We observed a high variability in the distribution of interactions

among the analysed sub-networks. Nodes in the direct sub-network
usually presented a higher number of links, connectance, species degree,
and interaction strength than indirect sub-networks. Moreover, the three
feeding guilds depending on woody resources: xylophagous,
saprophagous, xylomycetophagous, also presented higher values in these
network metrics than indirect feeding guilds depending on the presence
or activity of other saproxylic insects: predators and commensals. These
woody-linked trophic levels showed a higher linkage density, because the
abundances of both tree hollows and species in these sub-networks were
two to three times higher than in saproxylic insect-dependent sub-
networks.
All the wood-dependent sub-networks were composed by a

higher number of generalist species than saproxylic insect-dependent
sub-networks, and these generalist species usually presented higher
interaction strength. The xylomycetophagous species Xyleborus
monographus was the most generalist species, interacting with 61 tree
hollows (> 70% of possible interactions). The xylophagous guild had the
highest number of generalist species, and jointly with saprophagous guild
held the highest heterogeneity of associations. The indirect, predator,
and commensal trophic levels were composed by a relative lesser
number of interactions, and also showed a lower number of generalist
species. The commensal guild was more generalist than predators, and
presented higher interaction strength in their connexions, as
Prionocyphon serricornis (Helodidae), Epuraea fuscicollis and Soronia
oblonga (Nitidulidae). As a common pattern, all the trophic levels were
110
constituted by a high proportion of low-linked insects species (1-3 links),

ranging from 40 to 48% in woody-linked sub-networks, and from 57 to
68% in saproxylic insect-linked sub-networks. These set of interactions
were heterogeneously distributed along the tree hollows.
On the other hand, the most interconnected tree hollow nodes

corresponded with large tree hollows, which commonly housed a higher
diversity and amount of trophic resources, microhabitats or hosts/preys,
and where a diverse team of generalist insect species coexist and
interacts, being less than the 36% specialist insect species (1 to 3
interactions). The level of specialisation (H2) differed among guilds
(Table 2), being insect-dependent sub-networks (H2 = 0.545) and overall
predator and commensal guilds the most specialised sub-networks (H2 =
0.601 in both cases). Among wood-dependent sub-networks,
xylomycetophagous guild was the less selective in their distributional
pattern (H2 = 0.364). Variance-ratio values were larger than 1 in all
cases, indicating positive aggregation of species or competence among
species belonging to same trophic guild, being predators the least
aggregated guild (V-ratio = 6.65), and xylophagous and
xylomycetophagous the most aggregated guilds (V-ratio > 19).
Robustness to species extinctions
Saproxylic sub-networks were moderately robust to tree hollow

nodes extermination in both random and directed extinction simulations
(see robustness values in Table 2), and most of the insect species
survived even if 50% of the tree hollows were eliminated (Figure 2). Both
wood- and insect-dependent sub-networks were more vulnerable to a
111
Captulo 3
random sequence of losses of tree hollows, presenting lower robustness

values than a direct extermination of the least interconnected tree
hollows. The wood-dependent sub-network and the feeding guilds
constituting them: xylophagous, saprophagous and xylomycetophagous
sub-networks, were more robust than insect-dependent sub-networks
and their trophic guilds: predators and commensals sub-networks, in
both random and directed cascading extinctions.
112
Figure 2. Sub-networks robustness. Random (1-5) and directed (6-10)

extinction curve obtained for each feeding guild: xylophagous (X),
saprophagous (SX), xylomycetophagous (XM), predators (P), and
commensals (C), showing a relative high network robustness to both
random and directed extinction simulations in all the trophic levels
considered, being wood-dependent guilds more robust than insect-
dependent guilds.
113
Captulo 3
Discussion
Results show for first time how a quantitative complex network

such as saproxylic community with different types of interaction are
organised in interacting food webs , and represent a step forward to
understand how sub-networks conforming complex networks may be
related. All the saproxylic sub-networks assessed presented a modular
pattern of interactions, determining at global scale one large module and
a low number of small isolated modules in some of them. Depending on
the sub-network, these large modules comprised different numbers of
constituent sub-modules, appearing higher number of sub-modules in
insect-dependent sub-networks. Wood-dependent sub-networks were
more heterogeneously connected: more links, higher species degree,
connectance and linkage density, and presented higher interaction
strength than insect-dependent sub-networks. Moreover, insect-
dependent sub-network and overall their constitutive feeding guilds:
predators and commensals, were the most specialised and least
aggregated sub-networks. As a consequence, wood-dependent sub-
networks (including xylophagous, saprophagous and
xylomycetophagous) presented higher network robustness in both
random and directed extinction simulations.
Specialised interacting patterns
The majority of the nodes in all the saproxylic sub-networks were

within a large and densely interconnected module at global scale,
indicating that insect species of a functional module were usually
coexisting in a similar subset of tree hollows. Moreover, the number of
114
small modules of a sub-network was related with the number of

participating nodes, and insect-dependent sub-networks (with lesser
numbers of nodes) presented higher numbers of small isolated modules
than wood-dependent sub-networks. This architecture of one large and
few isolated modules also occurs in other ecological networks presenting
two interaction types [13].
Modularity analysis revealed the existence of closely interacting

sub-modules, shaping thereby the main interacting food webs for this
saproxylic community. The study of modularity values and number of
sub-modules for each sub-network along randomisations, showed a
slight variation for modularity values, number of sub-modules and node
associations among partitions, indicating the predominance of this
specialised pattern along saproxylic sub-networks, and therefore,
concluding that the number of randomisations considered using
simulating annealing seemed to be a suitable procedure to assess the
variation of modularity in complex networks. In the complete network,
not all the resulting sub-modules were equally conclusive and solid, but
modularity analyses pointed out at least three cohesive sub-modules for
this ecological community. This relative high proportion of within-module
links also occurs in other modular complex networks [51], showing the
number of modules of a networks [5] and determining the ecological
niche of their constituent species [11] and therefore preferential
interrelations for this saproxylic network, as for instance the high species
richness of saprophagous species inhabiting deciduous tree hollows in
the sub-module 2, the high species number of saprophagous and
xylomycetophagous coexisting and interacting with deciduous tree
hollows in sub-module 4, or generalist xylomycetophagous species
115
Captulo 3
interacting with saprophagous hoverflies in ash and holm-oak tree

hollows in sub-module 3.
The connectivity of the nodes of a complex network enables to

classify nodes into universal roles according to their pattern of intra- and
inter-module connections [5,43]. Ecological role distribution was
characterised of a variable high proportion of non-hubs nodes,
depending on the sub-module size or number of nodes, which entailed a
general composition of weak but heterogeneously connected nodes. By
this reason, a similar composition of non-hubs nodes occurred among
sub-modules, and nodes of the same feeding guild tended to have similar
ecological roles [see 52], therefore presenting similar topological
properties [5]. The role composition obtained for this modular network
could be associated with the high abundance and heterogeneity of tree
hollows characteristic of Mediterranean forests [20], providing a diverse
range of microhabitats and availability of trophic resources that allow to
establish at least several weak interconnections for each insect species
conforming this saproxylic community. In fact, the most interconnected
nodes of the whole network mainly corresponded with a limited
proportion of big tree hollows (corresponding with the highest internal
volumes along the matrix of tree hollows studied, ranging from 0.1 to
0.28 m3), which in general housed high amount of trophic
resources/microhabitats as dead and decay wood, and therefore
hosts/preys for indirect fauna. That big tree hollows are commonly
associated with aged trees, which hold the highest numbers of saproxylic
species inhabiting Mediterranean forests [53,22]. The role composition
was determinant in supporting associations between pairs of sub-
modules along randomisations, implying the relevance of weak
116
connections in maintaining the modular structure and their constant role

composition. The heterogeneity inherent to this microhabitat suggests
the existence of other fundamental ecological patterns determining the
species distribution and modelling interacting patterns, such as the
influence of microenvironmental variables associated to tree hollow.
Because we have a solid database recording the variation of a large set of
ecological variables, our next step would be to conscientiously examine
this topic elsewhere.
Interacting patterns conditioning modularity
The wood-dependent sub-network (including xylophagous,

saprophagous and xylomycetophagous) presented higher species degree,
connectance, links, linkage density, interaction strength than the insect-
dependent sub-network (predators and commensals), comprising a
higher heterogeneity of interactions. The resemblances among related
sub-networks may be explained not only by the bound of the interaction,
but by the similar abundances of weakly connected nodes
(corresponding with the high amount of non-hub nodes) among guilds
and throughout the matrix of tree hollow and insect species nodes,
constituting a high diversity of interactions among nodes and sub-
modules. Both wood- and insect-dependent interactions are coexisting
in space and time in tree hollows, but they differ in the dependence on
microhabitats for their development or establishment of the interaction.
These biological and ecological aspects resulted in great differences in
the species composition and interacting patterns of each sub-network
and sub-module, driving the differences observed in modular patterns
117
Captulo 3
(as modularity values or number of sub-modules) of the resulting food

webs involving different types of interaction. Antagonistic interactions
tend to be organised in modules even when they are densely connected
[16]. The xylophagous sub-network presented lower modularity values
and number of sub-modules, and were more densely connected among
them than the predator sub-network, emphasising clear differences in
modularity patterns according to the boundary of the antagonistic
interaction. The architecture and interacting patterns between
commensal and predator guilds were similar, indicating that their shared
dependence on wood-dependent sub-networks determines analogous
network properties. In any case, weakly connected and highly modular
antagonistic and mutualistic networks are related with a high interaction
intimacy [54], which effect on network architecture depends on the
interaction type (mutualistic vs. antagonistic) [11], and as our results
highlight also on other types of interactions.
By other side, the specialisation index (H2) showed that insect-

dependent sub-networks were more specialised in the distribution of
their connections, what can be heavily determined by their dependence
on the distribution and abundance of wood-dependent species.
Variance-ratio showed the existence of competence patterns among
species of the same feeding guild, so we can expect a stronger
competence among ecologically related species coexisting in the same
sub-module, as showed by Rezende et al. [52] for phylogenetically and
ecologically related species among predators. Sirami et al. [18] suggested
that saproxylic assemblages in Mediterranean forests are especially
dependent on the availability of trophic resources at local habitat. Here,
we also suggested that the distributional patterns structuring saproxylic
118
communities were also influenced by the boundary of the interaction

and interrelations occurring along functional modules housed in tree
hollow microhabitats.
Implications to robustness in saproxylic networks
Saproxylic trophic levels were moderately robust to species

extinction in both random and directed cascading extinction of tree
hollows, being slightly more vulnerable to a random sequence of losses.
In a random simulation, the high amounts of weak and heterogeneously
connected insect nodes determined lower network robustness, being
more sensitive to disappear with the removal of tree hollow nodes.
Otherwise a directed removal of nodes gradually affected the dense
distribution of these weak nodes. The high proportion of non-hubs
connecting the most of nodes among sub-modules and sub-networks
seemed to be conditioning relative good robustness to species
extinctions, highlighting the importance of effective communication
[55] between insect species and tree hollows in the network of
interactions. Stability and species coexistence of trophic networks is
enhanced in modular and weakly connected architectures [4] retaining
the impacts of a perturbation within a single module and minimising
impacts on other modules [56]. On the contrary, food webs with a low
level of modularity (densely connected species connected to each other)
may confer higher robustness [57]. Accordingly, we found that sub-
networks with a lower number of sub-modules, corresponding to wood-
dependent sub-networks, presented higher network robustness. Finally,
we observed a strong association among connectance, robustness and
119
Captulo 3
type of interaction. Wood-dependent feeding guilds with quite different

species richness always presented higher connectance and higher
robustness values than insect-dependent sub-networks of predators and
commensals, for instance Dunne et al. [58] concluded that food-web
robustness does not relate to species richness, but increases significantly
with greater connectance. Therefore, robustness in saproxylic sub-
networks seems to be conditioned by the presence of effective nodes,
weak connections, a suitable number of sub-modules and the network
connectance.
Usually if a portion of an ecosystem loses biodiversity as a result

of some catastrophic event or severe anthropogenic modification, it will
eventually regain species through linkage with adjacent ecosystems [59].
Our results highlight that saproxylic biodiversity is more dependent and
specialised in trees with large holes, as in Ranius and Jansson [60], Mic
et al. [29] and Gouix [53], where a higher richness and abundance of
trophic resources, microhabitats or host/preys are available. These
results are only focussed on the robustness according to the analysed
network of interactions, and do not consider other critical characteristics
characteristic to this Mediterranean forests, as isolation and low area of
mature forests, or the limited proportions of tree hollows in them.
Impoverishment linked to traditional habitat management based on
removing old trees, dead or fallen wood, abruptly limits the microhabitat
variability, and leads to habitat lost and isolation [61], affecting tree
hollow-insect species interaction. Microhabitat impoverishment could
also lead to an ecological disruption because of their important
ecological role in forest ecosystems, i.e. fragmentation and nutrient
recycling of wood decay [62] and performing in the maintenance of the
120
trophic chains [31].
Our results emphasise the importance of the study of

interrelations in understanding the distributional and interacting
patterns modelling saproxylic communities in tree hollow microhabitats
in Mediterranean forests. Conservation of one of the most complex and
diverse terrestrial communities, such as saproxylic assemblages, needs a
much better knowledge of species, processes and interactions.
Acknowledgements
We want to thank to all our colleagues that have taken part in

this work: A. Violas, A. Verdugo, F. Soldati, O. Rose, J.C. Otero, M.A.A.
Zarazaga, A. Herrmann, J.L. Zapata, J.P. Tamisier, G. Liberti, C. Prez, R.
Allemand, T. Noblecourt, P. Leblanc, L. Chkir, A. Ricarte, G. Rotheray,
and Z. Nedeljkovic. To R. Guimer by their comments for the
interpretation of results. To Cabaeros Park Administration by their
collaboration and provided services in the field work.
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Supplementary material
Table S1. Species list, abundance and labels. Species list and abundance only considering saproxylic species. Saproxylic trophic
guild of each species and their labels: xylophagous (C), saprophagous (A), xylomycetophagous (B), predator (E), and
commensal (D).
Abundance Trophic guild label

DIPTERA
Syrphidae
Brachyopa insensilis Collin, 1939 10 A1
Brachypalpoides lentus (Meigen, 1822) 2 A2
Brachypalpus valgus (Panzer, 1798) 4 A3
Callicera aurata (Rossi, 1790) 2 A4
Callicera spinolae Rondani, 1844 29 A5
Ceriana vespiformis (Latreille, 1804) 9 A6
Criorhina floccosa (Meigen, 1822) 8 A7
Criorhina pachymera Egger, 1858 4 A8
Ferdinandea aurea Rondani, 1844 24 A9
Ferdinandea cuprea (Scopoli, 1763) 3 A10
Ferdinandea fumipennis Kassebeer, 1999 1 A11
Ferdinandea ruficornis (Fabricius, 1775) 6 A12
Mallota cimbiciformis (Fallen, 1817) 33 A13
Mallota dusmeti Andru, 1926 97 A14
Mallota fuciformis (Fabricius, 1794) 3 A15
Milesia cabroniformis (Fabricius, 1795) 1 A16
Myathropa florea (Linnaeus, 1758) 203 A17
Myolepta difformis Strobl in Czerny & Strobl, 1909 10 A18
Myolepta dubia (Fabricius, 1805) 1 A19
Myolepta obscura Becher, 1882 4 A20
Sphiximorpha subsessilis (Illiger in Rossi, 1807) 1 A21
Spilomyia digitata (Rondani, 1865) 6 A22
COLEOPTERA
Aderidae
Aderus populneus (Panzer, 1796) 38 C1
Cnopus minor (Baudi, 1877) 1 C2
Otolelus neglectus (Jacquelin du Duval, 1863) 48 C3
Anobiidae
Dorcatoma vaulogeri agenjoi Espaol, 1978 17 B1
Oligomerus brunneus (Olivier, 1790) 28 C4
Rhamna semen Peyerimhoff de Fontenelle, 1913 27 B2
Biphyllidae
Diplocoelus fagi Gurin-Mnville, 1838 33 B3
Buprestidae
Acmaeodera degener 14-punctata (Scopoli, 1763) 2 C5
Eurythyrea quercus (Herbst, 1780) 1 C6
Cerambycidae
Alocerus moesiacus (Frivaldsky, 1838) 15 C7
Cerambyx welensii (Kster, 1846) 3 C8
Prinobius myardi Mulsant, 1851 12 C9
Stictoleptura trisignata (Fairmaire, 1852) 38 C10
Trichoferus fasciculatus (Faldermann, 1837) 1 C11
Cerylonidae
Cerylon histeroides Fabricius, 1792 1 B4
Cetoniidae
Cetonia aurataeformis Curti, 1913 245 A23
Potosia cuprea (Fabricius, 1775) 34 A24
Potosia opaca (Fabricius, 1787) 14 A25
Ciidae
Cis striatulus Mellie 1848 1 B5
Cis villosulus Marsham, 1802 1 B6
Clambidae
Calyptomerus sp 1 B7
Clambus sp 4 B8
Cleridae
Opilo domesticus (Sturm, 1837) 7 E1
Cryptophagidae
Atomaria (Anchicera) pusilla (Paykull, 1798), 2 B9
Cryptophagus cylindrus Kiesenwetter, 1858 4 A26
Cryptophagus dentatus (Herbst, 1793) 23 A27
Cryptophagus distinguendus Sturm, 1845 2 A28
Cryptophagus fallax Balfour-Browne 1953 1 A29
Cryptophagus micaceus Rey, 1889 142 E2
Cryptophagus punctipennis Brisout de Barneville, 1863 54 C12
Cryptophagus reflexus Rey, 1889 268 C13
Cryptophagus saginatus Sturm, 1845 36 B10
Cryptophagus scanicus (Linnaeus, 1758) 119 B11
Curculionidae
Camptorhinus simplex Seidlitz, 1867 1 A30
Camptorhinus statua (Rossi, 1790) 82 A31
Gasterocercus hispanicus Alonso-Zarazaga, Jover y Mic, 2009 1 B12
Curculionidae (Scolytiinae)
Xyleborinus saxesenii (Ratzeburg, 1837) 37 B13
Xyleborus dryographus (Ratzeburg, 1837) 9 B14
Xyleborus monographus (Fabricius, 1792) 321 B15
Dasytidae
Aplocnemus brevis (Rosenhauer, 1856). 1 E3
Aplocnemus consobrinus (Rosenhauer, 1856) 1 E4
Aplocnemus limbipennis Kiesenwetter, 1865 1 E5
Mauroania bourgeoisi (Pic, 1894) 3 E6
Dermestidae
Anthrenus (Anthrenus) angustefasciatus Ganglbauer, 1904 3 D1
Anthrenus (Anthrenus) festivus Erichson, 1846 8 D2
Anthrenus (Florilinus) minutus Erichson, 1846 40 D3
Anthrenus (Florilinus) verbasci (Linnaeus, 1767) 5 D4
Attagenus incognitus Hava, 2003 5 D5
Attagenus schaefferi (Herbst, 1792) 1 D6
Attagenus trifasciatus (Fabricius, 1787) 17 D7
Dermestes (Dermestes) bicolor Fabricius, 1781 1 D8
Dermestes (Dermestinus) erichsonii Ganglbauer, 1904 1 D9
Dermestes (Dermestinus) frischii Kugelann, 1792 1 D10
Dermestes (Dermestes) hispanicus Kalik, 1952 4 D11
Dermestes (Dermestinus) undulatus Brahm, 1790 22 D12
Orphilus niger (Rossi, 1790) 2 D13
Dynastidae
Oryctes nasicornis (Linnaeus, 1758) 7 A32
Elateridae
Ampedus aurilegulus (Schaufuss, 1862) 35 E7
Ectamenogonus montandoni Buysson, 1888 7 E8
Elater ferrugineus Linnaeus, 1758 33 E9
Elathous platiai Zapata & Snchez-Ruiz 2007 1 E10
Ischnodes sanguinicollis (Panzer, 1793) 63 E11
Lacon punctatus (Herbst, 1779) 11 E12
Limoniscus violaceus (Mller, 1821) 2 A33
Megapenthes lugens (Redtenbacher, 1842) 20 E13
Procraerus tibilais (Boisduval & Lacordaire, 1835) 12 E14
Endomychidae
Mycetaea hirta (Marsham, 1802) 7 B16
Symbiotes gibberosus (Lucas, 1849) 6 B17
Eucinetidae
Nycteus meridionalis Laporte de Castelnau, 1836 1 B18
Helodidae (Scirtidae)
Prionocyphon serricornis (Mller, 1821) 203 D14
Laemophloeidae
Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens, 1831) 7 B19
Laemophloeus nigricollis Lucas, 1849 2 B20
Placonotus testaceus (Fabricius, 1787) 2 B21
Latridiidae
Corticaria obscura Brisout, 1863 2 D15
Dianerella ruficollis (Marsham, 1802) 1 B22
Enicmus brevicornis (Mannerheim, 1844) 4 B23
Enicmus rugosus (Herbst, 1793) 4 B24
Lathridius assimilis (Mannerheim, 1844) 25 B25
Leiodidae
Agathidium (Neoceble) nigriceps Brisout, 1872 2 B26
Lucanidae
Dorcus parallelepipedus (Linnaeus, 1785) 43 C14
Malachiidae
Anthocomus fenestratus Linder, 1864 16 E15
Axinotarsus marginalis (Laporte de Castelnau, 1840) 6 E16
Hypebaeus albifrons (Fabricius, 1775) 3 E17
Troglops furcatus Abeille de Perrin, 1885 52 E18
Melandryidae
Orchesia micans (Panzer, 1794) 8 B27
Melyridae
Falsomelyris granulata (Fabricius, 1792) 2 E19
Mycetophagidae
Litargus balteatus Le Conte, 1856 1 B28
Litargus connexus (Geoffroy, 1785) 11 B29
Mycetophagus quadriguttatus Mller, 1821 73 B30
Nitidulidae
Amphotis marginata (Fabricius, 1781) 2 D16
Carpophilus sp 1 D17
Epuraea fuscicollis (Stephens, 1832) 137 D18
Epuraea ocularis Fairmaire, 1849 2 D19
Soronia oblonga C.Brisout de Barneville, 1863 141 D20
Oedemeridae
Ischnomera xanthoderes (Mulsant, 1858) 113 C16
Platypodidae
Platypus cylindrus (Fabricius, 1792) 1 C17
Pselaphidae
Euplectus sp 1 D21
Geopsephalus 1 D22
tribu Goniaceritae 1 E20
Ptiliidae
sp 1 46 B31
Ptinidae
Dignomus irroratus (Kiesenwetter, 1851) 4 A34
Ptinus (Cyphoderes) bidens Olivier, 1790 13 A35
Ptinus (Cyphoderes) hirticornis Kiesenwetter, 1867 3 A36
Ptinus (Ptinus) spitzyi Villa & Villa, 1838 1 A37
Ptinus (Ptinus) timidus Brisout de Barneville, 1866 274 C15
Rhizophagidae
Rhizophagus unicolor Lucas, 1846 1 E21
Scraptiidae
Anaspis regimbarti Schilsky, 1895 11 C18
Pentaria defarguesi Abeille de Perrin, 1885 1 C19
Scraptia schotti Leblanc, 2010 2 C20
Scraptia testacea Allen, 1940 80 C21
Scydmaenidae
Cephenium (Cephenium) sp. 1 D23
Palaeostigus palpalis (Latreille, 1804) 5 D24
Scydmaenus (Cholerus) cornutus Motschulsky, 1845 3 D25
Stenichnus (Cyrtoscydmus) godarti (Latreille, 1806) 5 D26
Silvanidae
Ahasverus advena (Waltl, 1834) 2 B32
Airaphilus sp 1 B33
Oryzaephilus surinamensis (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 B34
Silvanus bidentatus Fabricius, 1792 2 B35
Uleiota planata (Linnaeus, 1761) 7 B36
Tenebrionidae
Corticeus fasciatus (Fabricius, 1790) 1 D27
Eledonoprius armatus (Panzer, 1799) 7 B37
Probaticus anthracinus (Germar, 1813) 37 A38
Probaticus granulatus (Allard, 1876) 1 A39
Stenohelops sublinearis (Kraatz, 1870) 4 A40
Tenebrio punctipennis Seidlitz, 1896 33 D28
Tenebrionidae (Alleculinae)
Isomira hispanica Kiesenwetter, 1870 11 A41
Mycetochara linearis (Illiger, 1794) 20 A42
Mycetochara quadrimaculata (Latreille, 1804) 110 A43
Prionychus fairmairei (Reiche, 1860) 17 A44
Pseudocistela ceramboides (Linnaeus, 1761) 43 A45
Trogossitidae
Tenebroides marrocanus Reitter, 1884 3 E23
Temnochila caerulea (Olivier, 1790) 3 E24
Zopheridae
Colobicus hirtus (Rossi, 1790) 2 E25
Colydium elongatum (Fabricius, 1787) 6 E26
Endophloeus marcovichianus (Piller & Mitterpacher, 1783) 22 B38
Captulo 3
Table S4. Node composition. Node composition for the five main sub-
modules present at the complete network, with node names and their
respective labels in the diagrams. k: number of links of a node; Z-score:
within-module degree of a node; P-score: Participation coefficient
(between-module degree); role: ecological region.
Sub-module Node name Label k Z-score P-score Role

Fr2 5 29 1.284666 0.813317 R4
Fr9b 13 22 2.893541 0.735537 R6
Fr19 17 20 0.732798 0.765 R3
Fr8 18 20 1.758715 0.685 R3
Fr25 21 17 1.758715 0.602076 R2
Qi17 36 13 0.292384 0.686391 R3
VBQp8b 38 13 0.048853 0.733728 R3
Fr9a 45 11 0.048853 0.677686 R3
Qi23 47 11 0.292384 0.61157 R2
Fr16 56 9 0.390826 0.493827 R2
Fr26 57 9 -0.293119 0.641975 R3
Fr9c 64 8 0.048853 0.53125 R2
Fr21 69 7 0.732798 0 R1
Qi20a 70 7 -0.536036 0.693878 R3
Fr3 80 4 -0.635092 0.375 R2
Qi18 85 3 -0.737034 0.666667 R3
Qi19b 86 3 -0.812176 0.444444 R2
C15 91 35 2.44266 0.796735 R3
C16 92 35 2.501504 0.752653 R7
C21 98 26 0.732798 0.810651 R4
A43 100 23 1.07477 0.763705 R3
E11 105 19 0.732798 0.698061 R3
A42 121 12 0.732798 0.611111 R2
A25 126 10 0.390826 0.58 R2
D3 132 9 0.390826 0.518519 R2
D7 133 9 -0.251577 0.765432 R3
B27 141 6 -0.631579 0.722222 R3
A41 143 6 -0.259896 0.5 R2
1 C9 145 5 -0.293119 0.32 R2
140
A6 157 4 -0.635092 0.375 R2

A8 158 4 -0.977064 0.625 R3
E6 168 3 0.300273 0 R1
E23 170 3 -0.812176 0.444444 R2
D26 174 3 -0.737034 0.666667 R3
C3 175 2 -0.737034 0.5 R2
B32 181 2 -0.894737 0.5 R2
C19 203 1 -1.319036 0 R1
C20 204 1 -0.737034 0 R1
A16 218 1 -0.428222 0 R1
A21 220 1 -1.319036 0 R1
E4 227 1 -0.737034 0 R1
E20 231 1 -1.319036 0 R1
D22 242 1 -0.428222 0 R1
Fr10 4 30 3.77366 0.762222 R7
Fr23 6 28 1.07477 0.795918 R3
Fr29 12 22 0.5581 0.785124 R3
VSQp7 14 22 1.968036 0.549587 R2
VSQp14 20 19 1.498057 0.542936 R2
VSQp4 23 17 0.5581 0.698962 R3
Qi2 26 15 0.292384 0.72 R3
VBQp15 27 15 0.32311 0.684444 R3
VBQp6 28 15 1.028079 0.506667 R2
Qi1 31 14 0.754732 0.806122 R4
VBQp2 34 14 0.32311 0.693878 R3
Qi8 41 12 0.016244 0.680556 R3
VSQf16 50 11 0.5581 0.396694 R2
VSQp2 55 10 -0.368421 0.72 R3
Fr17 74 6 -0.635092 0.611111 R2
Qi12a 78 5 -0.251577 0.64 R3
C13 89 51 1.968036 0.80892 R4
A23 90 39 1.968036 0.78238 R3
C12 102 22 1.028079 0.727273 R3
B25 110 16 0.088121 0.757813 R3
B10 115 14 0.793089 0.530612 R2
2 A24 116 14 0.754732 0.785714 R3
141
Captulo 3
A45 117 14 0.32311 0.673469 R3

A44 119 13 0.32311 0.591716 R2
E7 139 7 -0.381858 0.612245 R2
D24 152 5 -0.851837 0.72 R3
B23 154 4 -0.851837 0.625 R3
A34 160 4 -0.851837 0.625 R3
A40 167 3 -0.894737 0.666667 R3
D4 172 3 -0.251577 0.444444 R2
C5 176 2 -0.812176 0 R1
B20 178 2 -0.754732 0.5 R2
B21 179 2 -0.894737 0.5 R2
A2 183 2 -0.851837 0 R1
A7 185 2 -0.851837 0 R1
A9 186 2 -0.851837 0 R1
A28 189 2 -1.319036 0.5 R2
E24 192 2 -0.251577 0 R1
C2 198 1 -0.754732 0 R1
C6 199 1 -1.086826 0 R1
C11 201 1 -1.086826 0 R1
C17 202 1 -1.088316 0 R1
B12 208 1 -1.086826 0 R1
B34 214 1 -0.754732 0 R1
A32 223 1 -1.086826 0 R1
A37 224 1 -1.086826 0 R1
E10 229 1 -1.088316 0 R1
E19 230 1 -0.754732 0 R1
E21 232 1 -1.086826 0 R1
D11 237 1 -1.088316 0 R1
D13 238 1 -0.894737 0 R1
D21 241 1 -0.754732 0 R1
VSQf12 8 27 1.263068 0.72428 R3
Fr12 29 14 0.818927 0.806122 R4
Qi15 32 14 1.120804 0.530612 R2
Fr24 39 12 0.251577 0.805556 R4
Qi4a 40 12 0.016244 0.736111 R3
3 Qi19a 46 11 0.292384 0.628099 R3
142
Qi4b 48 11 0.568524 0.545455 R2

Fr6 51 10 -0.293119 0.78 R3
Qi25 52 10 0.568524 0.46 R2
Qi3 53 10 -0.259896 0.74 R3
Qi13 58 9 0.292384 0.518519 R2
Qi5a 59 9 0.292384 0.493827 R2
Fr28 61 8 0.292384 0.375 R2
Fr5 62 8 0.048853 0.5625 R2
Fr7 63 8 -0.635092 0.75 R3
Fr11 67 7 -0.616847 0.693878 R3
Fr20 68 7 -0.635092 0.693878 R3
Qi24 71 7 0.292384 0.244898 R2
Qi26 72 7 0.016244 0.44898 R2
Qi7 73 7 -0.259896 0.571429 R2
Fr27 75 6 0.048853 0.277778 R2
Qi22 76 6 0.016244 0.277778 R2
Qi11 77 5 -0.536036 0.56 R2
Qi14 79 5 -0.536036 0.48 R2
Qi5b 81 4 -0.085644 0.5 R2
Qi6 82 4 -0.251577 0.625 R3
Qi21 87 3 -0.812176 0.444444 R2
B15 88 61 4.710623 0.779898 R7
D14 95 28 0.844664 0.80102 R4
B3 96 27 2.100687 0.748971 R3
A17 99 24 1.416743 0.756944 R3
B13 103 22 0.818927 0.805785 R4
B2 109 16 0.844664 0.671875 R3
C10 114 14 0.568524 0.673469 R3
C7 124 11 1.120804 0.31405 R2
A5 125 10 0.568524 0.48 R2
A14 130 9 0.568524 0.345679 R2
A18 137 7 -0.251577 0.77551 R3
E1 138 7 0.016244 0.44898 R2
A13 142 6 -0.259896 0.444444 R2
D2 151 5 -0.851837 0.72 R3
B8 153 4 -0.259896 0 R1
B6 163 1 -0.737034 0 R1
143
Captulo 3
A36 166 3 -0.737034 0.666667 R3

E16 169 3 -0.812176 0.444444 R2
B5 206 1 -1.088316 0 R1
B7 207 1 -1.319036 0 R1
B16 209 1 -0.085644 0.444444 R2
B22 211 1 -1.088316 0 R1
B35 215 1 -1.319036 0 R1
A39 225 1 -1.088316 0 R1
E3 226 1 -1.088316 0 R1
D9 235 1 -1.086826 0 R1
VBQp3 2 43 3.578947 0.756084 R7
VSQf15 7 28 1.210526 0.80102 R4
VBQp14 10 25 0.684211 0.784 R3
VBQp1 15 21 0.5581 0.770975 R3
VSQf13 16 20 2.263158 0.55 R2
VSQp10 19 19 0.390826 0.803324 R4
VSQf9 22 17 0.016244 0.795848 R3
VSQp1 24 16 0.421053 0.742188 R3
Fr22 30 14 0.754732 0.826531 R4
VSQf6 35 14 0.599511 0.806122 R4
VBQp5 37 13 -0.105263 0.745562 R3
VBQp17 42 12 0.684211 0.611111 R2
VBQp7 43 12 1.33758 0.680556 R3
VBQp16 49 11 0.947368 0.446281 R2
VSQf5 54 10 1.33758 0.66 R3
Qi20b 65 8 -0.536036 0.71875 R3
VBQp12 66 8 -0.368421 0.71875 R3
Qi12b 83 3 -0.631579 0.444444 R2
A31 93 29 1.210526 0.763377 R3
B11 94 28 0.421053 0.811224 R4
D20 97 27 1.210526 0.776406 R3
E9 107 17 0.048853 0.816609 R4
D18 108 17 -0.21838 0.795848 R3
B30 111 16 0.088121 0.75 R3
A27 112 16 0.300273 0.84375 R4
4 A38 113 16 1.473684 0.570313 R2
144
C4 120 12 0.157895 0.736111 R3

E15 122 12 0.421053 0.680556 R3
A35 127 10 0.256933 0.78 R3
E2 128 10 0.157895 0.68 R3
B38 129 9 0.157895 0.567901 R2
E12 131 9 0.251577 0.765432 R3
A1 135 8 -0.105263 0.625 R3
B1 146 5 -0.631579 0.72 R3
B19 148 5 -0.631579 0.64 R3
B29 149 5 -0.21838 0.72 R3
B36 150 5 -0.251577 0.64 R3
B24 155 4 -0.368421 0.375 R2
A3 156 4 -0.977064 0.625 R3
A22 159 4 -0.251577 0.625 R3
D5 162 4 -0.259896 0 R1
B37 182 2 -0.631579 0 R1
A4 184 2 -0.631579 0 R1
A20 187 2 -0.737034 0.5 R2
A26 188 2 -0.737034 0.5 R2
D15 196 2 -0.428222 0.5 R2
B4 205 1 -0.894737 0 R1
B33 213 1 -1.088316 0 R1
A12 217 1 -0.894737 0 R1
A29 221 1 -0.894737 0 R1
A30 222 1 -0.894737 0 R1
D17 239 1 -0.894737 0 R1
D19 240 1 -0.428222 0 R1
D23 243 1 -0.754732 0 R1
D27 244 1 -0.894737 0 R1
VSQp8 1 46 4.367864 0.810019 R7
VBQp10 3 37 2.438015 0.749452 R3
Qi9 9 25 0.793089 0.768 R3
VSQf3 11 23 0.947368 0.73724 R3
Fr18 25 15 0.793089 0.577778 R2
VBQp13 33 14 -0.259896 0.765306 R3
5 VBQp8a 44 12 -0.146868 0.722222 R3
145
Captulo 3
Fr1 60 8 -0.635092 0.65625 R3

Qi16 84 3 -0.812176 0.444444 R2
C1 101 22 1.263068 0.702479 R3
E18 104 20 1.120804 0.715 R3
B31 106 17 -0.085644 0.795848 R3
C14 118 13 0.088121 0.674556 R3
D28 123 12 -0.146868 0.722222 R3
B14 134 8 -0.368421 0.71875 R3
E14 136 8 -0.293119 0.65625 R3
C18 140 6 -0.616847 0.666667 R3
E13 144 6 -0.146868 0.277778 R2
B17 147 5 0.256933 0.56 R2
E8 161 4 -0.977064 0.625 R3
A10 164 3 -0.428222 0.666667 R3
A15 165 3 -0.631579 0.444444 R2
E26 171 3 -0.634787 0.666667 R3
D25 173 3 -0.851837 0.444444 R2
B9 177 2 -0.851837 0 R1
B26 180 2 -0.428222 0.5 R2
A33 190 2 -0.737034 0.5 R2
E17 191 2 -0.428222 0.5 R2
E25 193 2 -0.428222 0.5 R2
D1 194 2 -1.319036 0.5 R2
D12 195 2 -0.428222 0.5 R2
D16 197 2 -0.428222 0.5 R2
C8 200 1 -0.428222 0 R1
B18 210 1 -1.086826 0 R1
B28 212 1 -0.428222 0 R1
A11 216 1 -0.428222 0 R1
A19 219 1 -0.894737 0 R1
E5 228 1 -1.086826 0 R1
D6 233 1 -0.428222 0 R1
D8 234 1 -0.428222 0 R1
D10 236 1 -1.086826 0 R1
146
Captulo 4
Influence of tree hollow microenvironmental variables

on saproxylic guild diversity in Mediterranean
woodlands
Influencia de las variables microambientales sobre la diversidad de

los gremios saproxlicos en bosques mediterrneos
Javier Quinto, Estefana Mic, M ngeles Marcos-Garca, Ana Paola

Martnez-Falcn, Eduardo Galante. Forest Ecology and Management,
enviado.
Influencia de las microvariables y el tipo de bosque
Abstract
Saproxylic diversity assessment is a major goal for conservation

strategies in woodlands. This assessment should consider historical
woodland management and environmental factors that structure
ecological communities, with particular emphasis on those linked to
microhabitats. We assessed the diversity of six saproxylic guilds, which
included: i) saprophagous (SA) Syrphidae (Diptera), and ii) xylophagous
(X), saproxylophagous (SX), saprophagous (SA), xylomycetophagous (XM),
predators (P) and commensals (C) Coleoptera, co-occurring in tree
hollows located in three different types of Mediterranean woodlands, in
Cabaeros National Park (Spain). We also evaluated the influence of
hollow microenvironmental variables (understood as the physical and
biotic characteristics of a hollow and tree individual) on saproxylic guild
distribution. We found that the type of Mediterranean woodland highly
influenced the diversity and composition of hollow saproxylic guilds, and
those woodlands that provided greater heterogeneity of hollow
microhabitats determined higher guild diversity, which was found in
historically less managed woodlands (with no current management).
Nevertheless, the population of certain species or even the diversity of
complete guilds was enhanced in woodlands that were still managed. On
the other hand, hollow volume was the main determining factor for
saproxylic guild richness and abundance in general, and large hollow
volume was related to higher diversity (except for saprophagous richness
and abundance, and commensal richness), which highlights the
importance of multi-habitat hollow trees. Moreover, saproxylic guilds
also responded to other different microenvironmental variables,
indicating different ecological preferences among guilds. Finally, we
149
Captulo 4
discussed the possible implications on conservation and management

strategies in Mediterranean woodlands.
Keywords
Woodland management, functional guilds, Coleoptera, Syrphidae,

Quercus, Fraxinus
150
Introduction
Factors influencing saproxylic insect community structures

represent a significant topic for conservation programmes in the world.
Many studies have related saproxylic insect assemblages to local
vegetation structure and composition, altitude and landscape
composition or woodland management (kland et al. 1996; Grove, 2002;
Saint-Germain et al. 2007; Fayt et al. 2006; Ulyshen and Hanula, 2009).
However, saproxylics are closely tied to tree microhabitats, such as
hollows, bark, fungi, sap runs, insect workings, etc. (Warren and Key,
1991; Jonsell et al. 1998; Speight et al. 2010; Gouix, et al. 2012), and few
studies have determined the influence of microhabitat variability within
and among woodlands (Winter and Mller, 2008; Saint-Germain et al.
2010; Gouix and Brustel, 2011).
Tree hollows in standing living trees are relevant microhabitats

for saproxylics (Alexander, 2008; Mller and Btler, 2010), and are one of
the most important within Mediterranean woodlands (Sirami et al. 2008;
Marcos-Garca et al. 2010). Tree hollows are mainly formed after the
colonisation of heart-rot fungi (Stokland et al. 2012); then processes of
rot penetrate the bark and heartwood of a tree (Kitching, 2000) with
decomposition breakdown occurring at different rates (Irmler et al.
1996). Other important factors for tree hollow formation are physical
damage to the trunk or branches caused by natural causes (e.g. branches
broken by the weight of snow, wind action, lightning, fire or the actions
of nesting vertebrates) or more commonly due to anthropogenic action
(high variation of pruning types according to traditional uses of tree
species) (Kitching, 2000; Stokland et al. 2012). Therefore, hollows can
occur in different parts of the tree, and present an exclusive formation
processes conjunction that is influenced to a high extent by the
151
Captulo 4
traditional management performed on each woodland type. Regardless

of their origin, tree hollows offer temperature and humidity regimes
characterised by stability (personal data) and high diversity of trophic
resources (Marcos-Garca et al. 2010; Mic et al. 2011; Quinto et al.
2012), which determine a rich saproxylic fauna of tree hollow specialist
species (Jonsell et al. 1998; Ulyshen and Hanula, 2009, Gouix and Brustel,
2011; Quinto et al. unpub. res.). Studies concerning microhabitat
heterogeneity are necessary to attain a better understanding of the
diversity and distribution of the whole saproxylic assemblage in different
Mediterranean woodlands, hence optimising conservation strategies for
saproxylics at local scale.
It is well known that different saproxylic feeding guilds can be

identified according to their use of trophic resources: xylophagous,
saproxylophagous, saprophagous, xylomycetophagous, predators and
commensals (Speight, 1989; Bouget et al. 2005). A key point is that in
each tree hollow many representatives of each guild interact among
themselves as well as with tree hollow trophic resources, in a different
way and to a different degree (Quinto et al. 2012). So, the diversity of
different feeding guilds is expected to be affected in a different way by
the microenvironmental characteristics of the hollow. However, the way
in which these guilds interact (among themselves and with the hollow)
and how this interaction affects their diversity are still scarcely
understood. In this study we focused on the tree hollow
microenvironmental variables (understood as physical and biotic
characteristics of the hollow and the tree individual) in order to
understand how these parameters contribute to community structure at
local scale, by analysing tree hollow diversity patterns among different
guilds in Mediterranean woodlands in Cabaeros National Park (Spain).
152
We addressed the following questions: How do tree hollow guild richness

and ecological diversity change among types of Mediterranean
woodlands (different tree species and management)? We expected to
find that woodland type was highly relevant in Mediterranean saproxylic
assemblages, where different trophic guilds are not affected equally by
woodland type. Secondly, do microenvironmental factors determine
tree hollow guild distribution? We hypothesised that guilds were
dependent on different microenvironmental variables and that
consequently some kinds of tree hollows would also benefit different
trophic guilds.
Methods
Study area
This study took place in the Cabaeros National Park (Spain), a

large natural area of 40,856 ha constituted by Mediterranean
ecosystems, where various woodland types are located inside a
predominantly grassland and scrubland matrix (Vaquero de la Cruz,
1997). We selected three of the most representative Mediterranean
woodlands of the Park for our study: a sclerophyllous woodland of holm-
oak Quercus rotundifolia Lam. (N39 26.758 W4 31.865), where altitude
ranged between 665 and 689 m; one riparian woodland of narrow-leafed
ash Fraxinus angustifolia Vahl. (N39 26.839 W4 33.822), with altitude
ranging between 574 and 506 m; and finally, one mixed acidophilus
deciduous woodland of Pyrenean oak Quercus pyrenaica Willd. and the
native oak Quercus faginea Lam. (N39 21.336 W4 23.697), where altitude
ranged between 747 and 771 m.
153
Captulo 4
Cabaeros National Park is a fairly recently protected area (since

1995) with ancient management history over hundreds of years, and
where different tree species have received different traditional uses
(Figure 1). The selected sclerophyllous oak woodland is located in a
buffer area of the park, where lateral branch clear-cuttings are still
allowed for collecting firewood, constituting an evergreen but
moderately open stand with trees that mainly house rounded tree
hollows with small openings. Although no management activity is
currently permitted in the riparian ash woodland, main axis cuttings at
the first crosstree occurred until 1995, which has derived in trees with
large diameters, fine branches and many hollows in upper parts that
extend from the top to the base of the trunk. Finally, only collection of
naturally produced firewood took place in the deciduous oak woodland
before 1995 and nowadays, all anthropogenic activities are forbidden, so
that this constitutes the most natural woodland. Therefore, historical
woodland management/tree species may determine differences in
microhabitat configuration in different woodland types.
154
Figure 1. Woodland types: DO: deciduous oak, RA: riparian ash, SO: sclerophyllous oak. Picture authorship: E. Mic.
Captulo 4
Selection of tree hollows took place taking hollow availability for

each woodland type into account, and a reasonable number of tree
hollows were chosen, given that the study was to take place in a
protected area. This choice was intended to represent the real variability
and abundance of microhabitats in each woodland type, and finally, 30
tree hollows in the sclerophyllous oak and in the deciduous oak
woodland were selected, as well as 27 in the riparian ash woodland.
Sampling method
We used emergence traps: covered and sealed the tree hollows

with black acrylic mesh and attached a collecting pot containing ethylene
glycol to the exterior of the mesh (Quinto et al. unpub. res.). This
passive method allowed saproxylic species to be recorded shortly after
their emergence from immature stages, and has been used effectively to
characterise whole saproxylic beetle communities (Quinto et al. unpub.
res.), as well as particular beetle species linked to tree hollows (Gouix
and Brustel, 2011). Pots were replaced every month for a year (February
2009 - March 2010).
Study groups and classification into trophic guilds
We surveyed the saproxylic Syrphidae (Diptera) and 42

Coleoptera families, and external taxonomists collaborated in the
identification of species and immature stages (see Acknowledgments).
We only considered Syrphidae from the Diptera for the following
reasons: i) they use a wide range of woody microhabitats (Speight et al.
156
2010) and present high numbers of saproxylic species in Europe

(Thompson and Rotheray, 1998), and ii) they represent the best studied
family of Diptera in Cabaeros National Park (Ricarte and Marcos-Garca,
2008; Ricarte et al. 2009; Marcos-Garca et al. 2010; Quinto et al. 2012),
with high numbers and abundance of mainly exclusive saproxylic species,
highly associated with tree hollow microhabitats (Speight et al. 2010).
Each species was classified into trophic guilds according to
biological/ecological information in the available bibliography, the
Frisbee data base (Bouget et al. 2008) and information from
taxonomists (pers. com.). We considered the classification of five trophic
guilds described by Bouget et al. (2005) and Speight (1989): xylophagous
(X), saproxylophagous (SX), xylomycetophagous (XM), predators (P) and
commensals (C). Saproxylophagous beetles mainly benefit from woody
substrates such as wood or litter in their early decaying stages (Mic et
al. 2011; Stokland et al. 2012). Syrphidae was considered separately from
saproxylophagous guilds; its saproxylic species are aquatic or semi-
aquatic, only suited to processing liquids, and clearly exploit different
breeding sites in tree hollows, such as soft decayed heartwood, tree
exudates, or water bodies with many types of compost wherever rich
organic mud has accumulated (Rotheray and Gilbert, 2011). For this
reason, Syrphidae constituted an independent guild called saprophagous
(S).
Microenvironmental variables
We assessed a diverse range of qualitative and quantitative

ecological and biological variables able to model saproxylic communities
157
Captulo 4
at microhabitat scale, following the bibliography and our empirical

knowledge on Mediterranean woodlands. The variables evaluated were:
- Tree diameter (Diam): quantitative ecological. Tree diameter is

one of the most reported variables that affect saproxylic species
diversity in many woodland types with different woodland
management (kland et al. 1996; Grove 2002; Ranius, 2002a;
Sirami et al. 2008) and is even related to the presence of certain
beetle (Buse et al. 2008) or hoverfly species (Rotheray and
MacGowan, 2000). We measured the tree perimeter at 0.30 and
P
1.30 cm, and applied the equation d ia m (cm), where P is

the mean perimeter of the two considered heights.
- Hollow volume (Volth): quantitative ecological. It is expected that
large hollows can house greater heterogeneity of microsites
and/or diversity and amount of trophic resources required by
each (Marcos-Garca et al. 2010; Mic et al. 2011; Quinto et al.
2012). We homogenised the volume of each hollow as a cylinder
with a circular base, and then V o lth r 2 h (cm3), where r is
the radius at hollow opening level (the unique measurable radius
in many cases) and h the total height of the tree hollow.
- Wood mould volume inside the hollow (Volom): quantitative
ecological. Wood mould is the principal substrate in tree hollows,
whose quality mainly depends on the type of fungal
decomposition process and what kind of microclimatic conditions
prevail, determining a rich wood mould fauna that is
taxonomically very diverse (Stokland et al. 2012). High amounts
of wood mould are related to higher frequency of wood mould
fauna (Ranius and Nilsson, 1997). We estimated the volume of
158
organic matter contained in each hollow when we installed traps.

We considered the volume of organic matter as a semi-sphere,
2 3
and then V o lo m r (cm ), where r is the radius of the
3
upper level of organic matter.

- Height hollow-ground (Height): quantitative ecological. Height
(cm) was measured from the lower hollow opening point to the
ground. There are some studies that have addressed vertical
stratification of saproxylic beetles (Ranius, 2002a; Gibb et al.
2006; Hjltn et al. 2007; Ulyshen and Hanula, 2007; Vodka et al.
2009) and hoverfly species (Birtele and Hardersen, 2012) in
temperate woodlands, and generally, it has been found that the
adult fauna of the canopy is distinct from that from the
understory. Nevertheless, few studies have focused on vertical
aspects in the selection of breeding substrates in tree hollows
(Ranius and Nilsson, 1997; Ranius, 2002a), or the distribution of
the immature stages of different species.
- Hollow opening area (Area): quantitative ecological. This value
was calculated considering the opening area as an ellipse, with
A rea ab (cm2), where a and b are one-half of the ellipse's
major and minor axes respectively (height and width of the
hollow opening or vice versa). Hollows with small openings can
buffer relative humidity and temperature better (personal
measurements with data loggers located outside and inside tree
hollows), perhaps determining differences in the saproxylic
assemblage.
- Hollow orientation (Orient): qualitative ecological. Sun-exposure
conditions favour the presence of saproxylic beetle species
159
Captulo 4
specifically linked to open or shaded substrates (Kappes and

Topp, 2004; Lindhe et al. 2005; Sverdrup-Thygeson and
Birkemoe, 2009), even determining different species
assemblages (Hjltn et al. 2007). It is known that in temperate
forests the abundance of hollow specialist species is higher in
hollows with openings facing the sun (Ranius and Nilsson, 1997).
As the Mediterranean climate has long periods of droughts, it is
expected that hollow orientation also has a determining effect
on the structure of Mediterranean saproxylic assemblages. We
measured the orientation of each tree hollow using an
orienteering compass, and considered the eight cardinal and
intermediate directions (from north to northwest) and a ninth
factor of variation reflecting horizontal hollows (with no
orientation).
- Accumulated water (Water): qualitative ecological. Water-filled
tree hollows are important aquatic environments for insects
reported from most parts of the world (Kitching, 2000). The
internal hollow shape determines the accumulation of variable
water volumes and their permanence in time. This favours the
appearance of the immature stages of strictly aquatic saproxylic
beetles and flies, strongly linked to different water environments
occurring in different tree hollows, such as the beetle
Prionocyphon serricornis, which is linked to large and deep
hollows with high leaf litter content, or the hoverfly Myathropa
florea, linked to shallow open hollows with low litter content
(Schmidl et al. 2008). We searched for the presence or not of
accumulated water in each selected tree hollow.
160
- Beetle gallery presence (Scolyt): qualitative biological. We

observed that many tree hollows either had high numbers of
beetle galleries, or none at all, especially those produced by
scolytids. Scolytid species present necessary ectosymbiotic
connections with the specific ambrosia fungi group, which is
highly sensitive to drought. They only develop in moist living
wood and fresh timber, which is only located in colonised
galleries or the body of xylobiont (Krivosheina, 1991). Moreover,
many Curculionidae Scolytinae species and their associated fauna
are naturally attracted to volatiles emitted by stressed, dead or
dying host trees in high densities (Schlyter, 2007). In adition,
several saproxylic species are associated to different insect
workings (from scolytids or other insect groups), such as several
hoverfly species (Reemer, 2005; Speight et al. 2010). As fungi
colonisation of new dying tree species occurs fairly quickly
(Krivosheina, 1991), the presence of many scolytid galleries may
be an indicator of a different fauna favoured by woody
substrates derived from the action of ambrosia fungi. We
recorded the number of hollows that had or did not have these
galleries in each selected tree hollow.
- Cetoniidae faeces presence (Ceton): qualitative biological. The
presence of high amounts of cetonid faeces inside tree hollows
has commonly been observed in Mediterranean woodlands
(Mic et al. 2011). The action of cetonid larvae on woody
substrates produces a richer substrate that is easier to assimilate,
which determines high saproxylic insect diversity (Ranius, 2002b;
Jnsson et al. 2004; Mic et al. 2011, Snchez-Galvn et al.
161
Captulo 4
unpub. res.). We recorded the number of hollows that

presented cetonid faeces for each woodland type.
- Presence or activity of vertebrates (Verteb): qualitative
biological. Many vertebrate groups create or use tree hollows to
nest and constitute an important 'microhabitat group' for many
beetle species (Grdenfors, 2000; Ranius and Jansson, 2002). On
the contrary, vertebrate presence/activity can also act
decreasing the frequency of some key species (e.g. the
ecosystem engineer Osmoderma eremita in Ranius and Nilsson,
1997). Before trap installation, we recorded tree hollows that
presented vertebrate activity (hairs, feathers, nests, etc.) in each
woodland type.
The variation of these parameters in each woodland type is reflected in

Table 1.
162
Table 1. Variation of tree hollow microenvironmental variables per woodland type. Mean number and standard error for each
quantitative ecological variable is provided. For qualitative biological variables we show the number and percentage of tree
hollows in which they were present. DO: deciduous oak woodland, RA: riparian ash woodland, SO: sclerophyllous oak
woodland. *Volth and Volom values are transformed to m3 **Area values to m2. ***Orientation types, corresponding with 1:
north, 2: northeast, 3: east, 4: southeast, 5: south, 6: southwest, 7: west, 8: northwest, and 9: horizontal tree hollow.
DO RA SO
Diam (cm) Mean SE 66.37 2.34 69 2.61 49.35 1.58
3
Volth (m )* Mean SE 0.207 0.027 0.228 0.034 0.072 0.011
3
Volom (m )* Mean SE 0.085 0.009 0.096 0.010 0.034 0.004
Height (cm) Mean SE 120 21.36 149 13.36 138.5 11.63
2
Area (m )** Mean SE 0.106 0.023 0.100 0.019 0.030 0.004
Orient Types*** 1 (23.3%), 4 (23.3%), 3 (25.93%), 5 (25.93%), 4 (23.33%), 3 (16.67%)
7 (13.33%), 9 (13.33%) 6 (11.11%), 9 (11.11%) 1 (13.33%), 6 (13.33%), 8 (13.33%)
Scolyt n (%) 9 (30) 14 (51.85) 2 (6.67)
Ceton n (%) 8 (26.67) 14 (51.85) 4 (13.33)
Water n (%) 10 (33.33) 4 (14.85) 21 (70)
Verteb n (%) 2 (66.67) 5 (18.52) 1 (3.33)
Captulo 4
Data analysis
To evaluate intrinsic differences in tree hollow parameters

among the selected woodlands, the variation of quantitative variables
and total saproxylic species richness and abundance were tested with
one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc tests, using Statistica 8.0
(StatSoft, 2007).
The completeness of guilds in each woodland type was obtained

by using ACE and Chao1 estimators, using EstimateS 8.0 (Colwell, 2005).
Rarefaction curves for guild richness with 95% confidence intervals were
created for each guild. Minimum abundance value was considered as
standard sampling size, using Species Diversity and Richness 3.02
software (Henderson and Seaby, 2002). The number of effective species
for guild diversity was calculated using the formula for true diversity
order 1 (Jost, 2006), which equals the exponential of the Shannon
entropy index:
1
D exp S
i 1
p i ln p i
where 1D is diversity of order 1, pi is the proportional abundance of the i
species in the community, and S is species richness. This measure of
diversity weights each species exactly according to its frequency in the
community (without favouring rare or common species). Diversity was
estimated using the Chao and Shen estimator (Chao and Shen, 2003),
with the program SPADE (Chao and Shen, 2010). To evaluate differences
in species composition among woodlands, we calculated the incidence-
based Sorensen similarity index for each saproxylic guild, and ANOSIM
similarity analysis was performed to test the significance of these
differences using Primer v.6 software (Clarke and Gorley, 2006).
164
Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) was used to examine

relationships between species richness and abundance of guilds and
environmental variables using Canoco, version 4.5 (ter Braak and
milauer, 2002). We used the option for downweighting rare species and
Hills scaling. Global permutation tests (carried out by Monte Carlo
permutation tests with 199 permutations under the full model) were
performed to judge the statistical significance of the relationship
between guilds and microenvironmental variables.
Linear multiple regression (Kleinbaum et al. 1998) was also used
to analyse the relationship between guild species richness, abundance
and explanatory variables. We checked for normality of the variables by
means of a Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Data were logarithmically
transformed (ln) only for overall data that did not pass normality in each
guild. Our main objective was to identify the subset of explanatory
variables that accounted for a biologically important proportion of
variation in guild abundance parameters. Explanatory variables were
found to be statistically significant for explaining the variation in a
specific Y variable when P<0.05. The residuals of the final models
obtained with linear multiple regressions revealed no obvious
suggestions of non-normality or colinearity (Kleinbaum et al. 1998).
Statistical analysis was performed using SigmaStat, version 3.5 (Systat
software, 2006).
165
Captulo 4
Results
Saproxylic guild characterisation
We identified 152 species and 3877 individuals belonging to

Coleoptera and 23 species and 464 individuals belonging to Syrphidae
(Diptera) (Table 2). Saproxylic guilds were composed of xylophagous: 21
species and 1030 individuals; saproxylophagous: 24 species and 724
individuals; saprophagous: 23 species and 464 individuals;
xylomycetophagous: 40 species and 863 individuals; predators: 39
species and 611 individuals; and commensals: 28 species and 649
individuals. The classification of each species into guilds can also be seen
in Table 2.
Differences among woodland types
We found statistical differences in all tree hollow quantitative

variables among woodland types (Diam: F = 23.87, df = 2, p < 0.005;
Volth: F = 11.65, df = 2, p < 0.005; Volmo: F = 17.81, df = 2, p < 0.005;
Area: F = 6.14, df = 2, p < 0.005). The deciduous oak and riparian ash
woodlands were similar in Diam, Volth, Volmo and Area, whereas the
sclerophyllous oak woodland presented significantly lower values (p <
0.05 in all cases). Height was the unique parameter that did not present
differences among woodland types (F = 0.778, df = 2, p = 0.463).
We also found statistical differences in total saproxylic richness (F =

14.16, df = 2, p < 0.005) and abundance (F = 14.84, df = 2, p < 0.005)
among woodland types. As for species richness, deciduous oak woodland
presented significantly higher species richness than riparian ash (p =
166
0.017) and sclerophyllous oak woodlands (p < 0.005), whereas riparian

ash and sclerophyllous oak woodlands were similar (p = 0.066). The same
pattern was seen in species abundance, where deciduous oak woodland
presented significantly higher species abundance than riparian ash (p =
0.014) and sclerophyllous oak woodlands (p < 0.005), and the riparian
ash and sclerophyllous oak woodlands were again similar (p = 0.059).
Guild ecological diversity and composition among woodland types
Richness estimators showed completeness to be higher than 60%

for almost all guilds and woodland types (Table 3). Only the X guild in the
sclerophyllous oak woodland obtained lower completeness for both ACE
and Chao 1. Broadly speaking, saproxylic guilds were better represented
in the deciduous oak woodland.
167
Table 2. Species list, guild classification and abundance among woodland types.
Family Species Guild D R S Total

DIPTERA
Syrphidae Brachyopa grunewaldensis SA 8 1 0 9
Brachyopa insensilis SA 1 1 0 2
Brachypalpoides lentus SA 2 0 0 2
Brachypalpus valgus SA 2 2 0 4
Callicera aurata SA 2 0 0 2
Callicera spinolae SA 3 10 17 30
Ceriana vespiformis SA 0 8 1 9
Criorhina floccosa SA 8 0 0 8
Criorhina pachymera SA 2 1 1 4
Ferdinandea aurea SA 24 0 0 24
Ferdinandea cuprea SA 3 0 0 3
Ferdinandea fumipennis SA 1 0 0 1
Ferdinandea ruficornis SA 6 0 0 6
Mallota cimbiciformis SA 17 3 13 33
Mallota dusmeti SA 18 2 77 97
Mallota fuciformis SA 2 0 1 3
Milesia crabroniformis SA 0 1 0 1
Myathropa florea SA 46 129 29 204
Myolepta difformis SA 4 3 3 10
Myolepta dubia SA 1 0 0 1
Myolepta obscura SA 4 0 0 4
Sphiximorpha subsessilis SA 0 1 0 1
Spilomyia digitata SA 3 1 2 6
COLEOPTERA
Aderidae Aderus populneus X 26 9 4 39
Cnopus minor X 0 0 1 1
Otolelus neglectus X 0 46 1 47
Anobiidae Dorcatoma vaulogeri agenjoi XM 8 3 6 17
Oligomerus brunneus X 20 2 0 22
Rhamna semen XM 13 3 11 27
Stagetus elongatus XM 1 6 1 8
Stagetus micoae XM 0 2 0 2
Biphyllidae Diplocoelus fagi XM 8 19 6 33
Buprestidae Acmaeodera degener X 0 0 2 2
Eurythyrea quercus X 1 0 0 1
Cerambycidae Alocerus moesiacus X 2 0 13 15
Cerambyx welensii X 3 0 0 3
Prinobius myardi X 0 11 1 12
Stictoleptura trisignata X 20 1 17 38
Trichoferus fasciculatus X 1 0 0 1
Cerylonidae Cerylon histeroides XM 1 0 0 1
Cetoniidae Cetonia aurataeformis SX 144 78 22 244
Potosia cuprea SX 6 11 17 34
Potosia opaca SX 1 6 7 14
Ciidae Cis striatulus XM 0 0 1 1
Cis villosulus XM 0 1 0 1
Clambidae Calyptomerus sp XM 0 1 0 1
Clambus sp XM 0 0 4 4
Cleridae Opilo domesticus P 1 1 5 7
Cryptophagidae Atomaria pusilla XM 1 1 0 2
Cryptophagus aurelioi SX 14 4 3 21
Cryptophagus cylindrellus SX 4 0 0 4
Cryptophagus dentatus SX 11 10 2 23
Cryptophagus distinguendus SX 0 1 1 2
Cryptophagus fallax SX 1 0 0 1
Cryptophagus micaceus P 73 54 15 142
Cryptophagus punctipennis X 22 18 14 54
Cryptophagus reflexus X 96 70 103 269
Cryptophagus saginatus XM 24 2 10 36
Cryptophagus scanicus XM 88 14 17 119
Curculionidae Camptorhinus simplex SX 2 0 0 2
Camptorhinus statua SX 89 3 11 103
Gasterocercus hispanicus XM 2 0 0 2
Curculionidae Scolytinae Xyleborinus saxesenii XM 11 20 6 37
Xyleborus dryographus XM 6 3 0 9
Xyleborus monographus XM 165 74 82 321
Dasytidae Aplocnemus brevis P 0 0 1 1
Aplocnemus consobrinus P 0 1 0 1
Aplocnemus limbipennis P 0 1 0 1
Mauroania bourgeoisi P 1 1 1 3
Dermestidae Anthrenus angustefasciatus C 0 2 1 3
Anthrenus festivus C 1 7 0 8
Anthrenus minutus C 0 39 1 40
Anthrenus verbasci C 0 3 2 5
Attagenus incognitus C 1 0 4 5
Attagenus schaefferi C 1 0 0 1
Attagenus trifasciatus C 1 13 3 17
Dermestes bicolor C 1 0 0 1
Dermestes erichsonii C 1 0 0 1
Dermestes frischii C 0 0 1 1
Dermestes hispanicus C 0 0 4 4
Dermestes undulatus C 5 0 17 22
Orphilus niger C 2 0 0 2
Dynastidae Oryctes nasicornis SX 7 0 0 7
Elateridae Ampedus aurilegulus P 28 35 0 63
Ectamenogonus montandoni P 2 5 0 7
Elater ferrugineus P 25 8 0 33
Elathous platiai P 0 0 1 1
Ischnodes sanguinicollis P 21 13 1 35
Lacon punctatus P 4 7 0 11
Limoniscus violaceus SX 0 2 0 2
Megapenthes lugens P 15 8 1 24
Procraerus tibilais P 2 10 3 15
Endomychidae Mycetaea hirta XM 2 2 3 7
Symbiotes gibberosus XM 2 2 2 6
Eucinetidae Nycteus meridionalis XM 1 0 0 1
Helodidae Prionocyphon serricornis C 122 58 23 203
Histeridae Abraeus perpusillus P 24 8 0 32
Aeletes atomarius P 0 6 0 6
Atholus duodecimstriatus P 0 1 0 1
Gnathoncus communis P 34 13 0 47
Gnathoncus nannetensis P 10 4 0 14
Hetaerius ferrugineus P 1 0 0 1
Margarinotus brunneus P 1 0 0 1
Margarinotus merdarius P 12 2 8 22
Margarinotus uncostriatus P 2 0 0 2
Merohister ariasi P 2 1 11 14
Paromalus flavicornis P 23 4 1 28
Platylomalus complanatus P 0 1 0 1
Platylomalus gardineri P 1 0 0 1
Platysoma filiforme P 1 1 0 2
Laemophloeidae Cryptolestes ferrugineus XM 5 0 2 7
Laemophloeus nigricollis XM 1 1 0 2
Placonotus testaceus XM 1 1 0 2
Latridiidae Corticaria obscura C 2 0 0 2
Dianerella ruficollis XM 0 0 1 1
Enicmus brevicornis XM 3 1 0 4
Enicmus rugosus XM 4 0 0 4
Latridius assimilis XM 14 9 2 25
Leiodidae Agathidium nigriceps XM 1 1 0 2
Lucanidae Dorcus parallelepipedus X 34 9 0 43
Malachiidae Anthocomus fenestratus P 11 1 4 16
Axinotarsus marginalis P 0 0 6 6
Hypebaeus albifrons P 3 0 0 3
Troglops furcatus P 25 5 22 52
Melandryiidae Orchesia micans XM 4 2 2 8
Melyridae Falsomelyris granulata P 0 2 0 2
Mycetophagidae Litargus balteatus XM 1 0 0 1
Litargus connexus XM 9 2 0 11
Mycetophagus quadriguttatus XM 51 5 17 73
Nitidulidae Amphotis marginata C 2 0 0 2
Carpophilus sp C 1 0 0 1
Epuraea fuscicollis C 127 0 10 137
Epuraea ocularis C 2 0 0 2
Soronia oblonga C 136 3 2 141
Oedemeridae Ischnomera xanthoderes X 49 24 41 114
Platypodidae Platypus cylindrus X 0 0 1 1
Pselaphidae Euplectus sp C 0 1 0 1
Geopsephalus sp C 0 1 0 1
sp1 (Goniaceritae tribe) P 0 1 0 1
Ptiliidae sp2 XM 36 10 0 46
Ptinidae Dignomus irroratus SX 3 1 0 4
Ptinus bidens SX 10 2 1 13
Ptinus hirticornis SX 1 1 1 3
Ptinus spitzyi SX 1 0 0 1
Ptinus timidus X 174 91 9 274
Rhizophagidae Rhizophagus unicolor P 1 0 0 1
Scraptiidae Anaspis regimbarti X 10 1 0 11
Pentaria defarguesi X 0 1 0 1
Scraptia ophthalmica X 0 2 0 2
Scraptia testacea X 25 41 14 80
Scydmaenidae Cephenium sp C 0 1 0 1
Palaeostigus palpalis C 3 1 1 5
Scydmaenus cornutus C 2 1 0 3
Stenichnus godarti C 0 5 0 5
Silvanidae Ahasverus advena XM 1 1 0 2
Airaphilus sp XM 1 0 0 1
Oryzaephilus surinamensis XM 0 0 1 1
Silvanus bidentatus XM 0 2 0 2
Uleiota planata XM 5 2 0 7
Tenebrionidae Corticeus fasciatus C 1 0 0 1
Eledonoprius armatus XM 7 0 0 7
Isomira hispanica SX 0 1 10 11
Mycetochara linearis SX 4 16 0 20
Mycetochara quadrimaculata SX 21 43 46 110
Prionychus fairmairei SX 8 9 0 17
Probaticus anthracinus SX 34 4 2 40
Probaticus granulatus SX 0 0 1 1
Pseudocistela ceramboides SX 36 7 0 43
Stenohelops sublinearis SX 3 1 0 4
Tenebrio sp C 29 4 1 34
Trogossitidae Tenebroides marrocanus P 0 1 2 3
Temnochila caerulea P 0 1 2 3
Zopheridae Colobicus hirtus P 1 1 0 2
Colydium elongatum P 5 1 0 6
Endophloeus marcovichianus XM 22 0 0 22
TOTAL 2308 1216 817 4341
2
Guilds F R P Model
X richness 4.23 0.4 <0.001 1.42 +0.00Volth
X abundance 4.95 0.4 <0.001 1.12 -2.15Diam +0.93Volth
SX richness 6.67 0.4 <0.001 1.13 +0.00Volth
SX abundance 5.57 0.4 <0.001 -0.33 +0.61Volth -0.21Height
XM richness 9.39 0.6 <0.001 4.05 +0.00Volth +0.00Area
XM abundance 17.9 0.2 <0.001 -0.05 +0.34Area
P richness 7.37 0.5 <0.001 0.55 +0.00Volth -1.13Ceton -1.42Water
P abundance 2.36 0.3 0.002 -0.72 +0.44Volth -0.62Ceton
C abundance 6.65 0.2 0.003 -0.68 +0.35Scolyt
Table 3. Richness estimators values for each saproxylic guild per

woodland type. DO: deciduous oak woodland, RA: riparian ash woodland,
SO: sclerophyllous oak woodland. X: xylophagous, SX: saproxylophagous,
SA: saprophagous, XM: xylomycetophagous, P: predators, C:
commensals. *Guilds with completeness lower than 60%.
Xylophagous
When we standardised at the minimum abundance value (221

individuals), the three woodlands types presented similar xylophagous
species richness (Figure 2a). The Chao and Shen estimator showed
differences in the number of effective species among woodland types.
The deciduous oak and riparian ash woodlands presented similar
effective xylophagous species (7.38 0.33, CI: 6.74, 8.03, and 7.66 0.38,
CI: 6.92, 8.39, respectively), whereas sclerophyllous oak woodland had
lower xylophagous diversity (5.92 0.52, CI: 4.89, 6.94). No significant
differences in guild composition among woodland types were found (R =
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Captulo 4
0.018, p = 0.235), although the similarity percentage varied among

woodland types: deciduous oak and riparian ash woodland (71.43%),
riparian ash-sclerophyllous oak (66.67%) and deciduous oak-
sclerophyllous oak (59.26%).
Figure 2. Rarefaction curves for guild richness and ecological guild

diversity. a: xylophagous; b: saproxylophagous; c: saprophagous; d:
xylomycetophagous; e: predators; f: commensals.
178
Saproxylophagous
At the minimum abundance value (124 individuals), the

deciduous oak and riparian ash woodlands were similar in
saproxylophagous species richness, and both were significantly different
from the sclerophyllous oak woodland (Figure 2b). The Chao and Shen
estimator did not show differences in the effective number of
saproxylophagous species among woodland types (deciduous oak: 8.09
0.56, CI: 6.98, 9.19; riparian ash: 8.08 0.79, CI: 6.54, 9.62;
sclerophyllous oak: 7.35 0.77, CI: 5.85, 8.86). Although there were no
significant differences in the saproxylophagous species composition
among woodlands (R = 0.032, p = 0.184), the similarity percentage varied
among woodland pairs: deciduous oak-riparian ash 78.95%, deciduous
oak-sclerophyllous oak 60.61%, and riparian ash-sclerophyllous oak
77.42%.
Saprophagous
The three woodland types presented significantly different

saprophagous species richness at the minimum abundance value (144
individuals). Deciduous oak woodland presented higher numbers of
species, in a decreasing order, followed by riparian ash and
sclerophyllous oak woodlands (Figure 2c). The Chao and Shen estimator
revealed clear differences in the effective number of saprophagous
species among the three woodland types. Deciduous oak was the
woodland that presented higher effective species (11.51 0.96, CI: 9.62,
13.40), followed by sclerophyllous oak (4.21 0.41, CI: 3.41, 5.01), and
riparian ash (2.96 0.40, CI: 2.18, 3.75). Regarding saprophagous species
179
Captulo 4
composition, all three woodland types were similar (R = 0.039, p = 0.106)

(deciduous oak-riparian ash: 60.61%, deciduous oak-sclerophyllous oak:
55.17%, riparian ash-sclerophyllous oak: 72.73%).
Xylomycetophagous
At the standardised value (174 individuals), all three woodland

types presented significantly different xylomycetophagous species
richness. Riparian ash was the woodland that was richest in
xylomycetophagous species, followed by deciduous oak and
sclerophyllous oak in decreasing order (Figure 2d). The Chao and Shen
estimator did not show differences in effective xylomycetophagous
species between deciduous oak (11.33 0.77, CI: 9.82, 12.85) and
riparian ash woodlands (11.97 1.18, CI: 9.67, 14.28), whereas
sclerophyllous oak woodland presented the lowest number of effective
species of xylomycetophagous (7.87 0.79, CI: 6.32, 9.42). The ANOSIM
showed statistical differences in species composition among woodland
types (R = 0.112, p = 0.014), with deciduous oak-riparian ash as the most
similar woodlands (77.97%), followed distantly by both deciduous oak-
sclerophyllous oak and riparian ash-sclerophyllous oak (56% and 57.78%,
respectively).
Predators
At the minimum abundance value (84 individuals), statistical

differences in predator species richness between riparian ash and
sclerophyllous oak woodlands were found, whereas deciduous oak-
180
riparian ash and deciduous oak-sclerophyllous oak were similar (Figure

2e). No differences in the effective number of predator species were
found between deciduous oak and riparian ash woodlands (14.83 0.95,
CI: 12.96, 16.69 and 15.30 1.56, CI: 12.25, 18.36, respectively), and
sclerophyllous oak woodland presented the lowest diversity of predator
species (11.10 1.48, CI: 8.20, 14.00). The predator species composition
was significantly different among woodland types (R = 0.088, p = 0.015),
deciduous oak-riparian ash were the most similar woodlands (73.68%),
followed by riparian ash-sclerophyllous oak woodlands (56.52%) and
deciduous oak-sclerophyllous oak woodlands (51.16%).
Commensals
The three woodland types presented significantly different

commensal species richness at minimum abundance value (70
individuals) (Figure 2f). Sclerophyllous oak woodland presented higher
effective species of commensals (8.33 1.31, CI: 5.76, 10.91) than the
riparian ash (6.18 0.77, CI: 4.67, 7.68) and deciduous oak woodlands
(5.21 0.28, CI: 4.66, 5.76). The ANOSIM showed strong differences in
the commensal species composition among woodland types (R = 0.168, p
= 0.001), with riparian ash-sclerophyllous oak being the most similar
woodlands (59.26%), followed by deciduous oak-sclerophyllous oak
(50%), whereas deciduous oak-riparian ash were the least similar
woodlands (42.42%).
181
Captulo 4
Influence of microenvironmental variables on guild distribution
The assessed microenvironmental variables explained up to 75%

of the cumulative percentage of variance for guild richness (Monte Carlo
test, eigenvalues = 0.065, F-ratio = 1.48, p-value = 0.014) and 70.6% for
guild abundance (Monte Carlo test, eigenvalues = 0.296, F-ratio = 3.01, p-
value = 0.002) (Figure 3). As regards guild richness, the
xylomycetophagous guild was associated with Area, the saprophagous
guild with Water and Orient, the saproxylophagous guild with Volth and
Ceton, and the xylophagous, commensal and predator guilds with Height
and Ceton. For guild abundance, the xylomycetophagous guild was
associated with Area, the saprophagous guild with Water, the
saproxylophagous and predator guilds with Ceton and Volth, the
xylophagous guild with Scolyt and Area, and the commensal guild with
Orient and Height.
We found a significant and positive relationship between overall
guild species richness and abundance and the Volth variable, except for
saprophagous richness and abundance, and commensal richness. Other
important variables for each dependent variable are presented in Table
4. The main patterns were as follows, for xylophagous abundance, Diam,
Height and Area have a negative relationship with this dependent
variable. For saproxylophagous abundance, Height was of negative
importance in the model. For xylomycetophagous richness and
abundance, another significant variable was Area in a positive
relationship. In predator richness, Ceton and Water were important
variables too but with a negative relationship, and in predator
abundance Ceton also had a relationship in a negative form. Finally,
commensal guild abundance presented a negative relationship with the
182
Scolyt variable. No significant models were found for saprophagous data

(richness and abundance) or for commensal richness.
Figure 3. CCA analysis for total guild richness (a), and total guild
abundance (b).
Discussion
Tree hollow guild diversity among woodland types
We demonstrated that all the saproxylic guilds linked to hollows

were generally better represented in species richness and diversity in the
deciduous oak and riparian ash woodlands (except for the commensal
guild), and that they were also the most similar in species composition
(even when no significant differences were found), and corresponded to
historically less managed woodlands. Woodland management is a key
factor for the species diversity of saproxylic insect assemblages both
within (Johansson et al. 2006; Sirami et al. 2008) and among tree species
(Buse et al. 2008). Different types of management cause significant
differences in woodland and tree characteristics such as trunk diameter,
183
Captulo 4
stem density, dead wood diversity and amount, and types of tree hollows
(Buse et al. 2008; Sirami et al. 2008). These differences determine
substrate availability and supply of microhabitats for certain functional
groups, and in general, lower richness and abundance is shown in
intensively managed woodlands (Gibb et al. 2006; Sirami et al. 2008;
Ulyshen and Hanula, 2009). In contrast, natural-unmanaged mature
woodlands usually present higher diversity of hollow microhabitat types
in living trees (Winter and Mller, 2008).
As an example, many xylomycetophagous beetles are closely

associated to mature standing trees that present fruiting bodies or
inconspicuous mycelia of specific saproxylic fungus species (Wallace,
1954; Jonsell et al. 2001), such as the polypore species (Kalia et al. 1994;
Jonsell et al. 2001; Jonsell and Weslien, 2003). In addition, distinct beetle
assemblages are associated with different polypore species (Kalia et al.
1994; Jonsell et al. 1998) or to their frequency (kland et al. 1996; Mller
et al. 2008), reaching species richness peak in unmanaged woodlands
and in woodlands under low-intensity management (Mller et al. 2008).
Diversity of saprophagous hoverflies also increases with substrate age
(Reemer, 2005), when dead wood becomes a more rewarding food
resource in the course of decomposition, as it reaches adequate values of
C:N ratio and the availability of water or bark cover microsites increases
(Hvemeyer and Schauermann, 2003). Our results suggest that higher
guild diversity is associated with woodlands that provide higher
heterogeneity of tree hollows, favouring the establishment of different
fauna of each guild, which happens in the less managed woodlands
(Winter and Mller, 2008, Ulyshen and Hanula, 2009).
184
On the contrary, the clear-cuttings determine a subsequent

increase in the temperature fluctuation of a tree that is reflected in a
decay progress (Wallace, 1954), and at least in temperate woodlands this
has had a negative influence on species diversity (kland et al. 1996;
Kouki et al. 2001; Hjltn et al. 2007; Johansson et al. 2006), which
favoured the predominance of certain species groups such as bark
beetles Curculionidae Scolytinae (Jonsell and Weslien, 2003), or
xylophagous larvae (Mller et al. 2008). Our results also show that in
Mediterranean woodlands these practices favour other saproxylic guilds
such as the Vulnerable Mallota dusmeti (a thermophilic Syrphidae
species) (Marcos-Garca and Quinto, 2011) and other saprophagous
hoverflies such as M. cimbiciformis or Callicera spinolae, or the whole
commensal guild. The clear-cuttings of lateral branches sporadically
performed in the sclerophyllous oak Mediterranean woodland could
therefore be acting as a homogenising factor of guild diversity, by
determining many but similar hollow microhabitats. This, in general,
results in lower saproxylic guild richness by reducing microclimatic
differences between the hollows and the area outside the evergreen
canopy typical of this woodland type. However, the xylophagous guild
diversity was similarly high in all the assessed woodland types, which
indicates that they are less dependent on types of management practices
(also seen in Mller et al. 2008; Vodka et al. 2009). Therefore, historical
woodland management acts as a driving force for the differences in
microhabitat configuration among types of Mediterranean woodlands in
Cabaeros National Park, and also establishes strong differences in
saproxylic guild diversity and composition.
185
Captulo 4
Determining variables for saproxylic guild diversity
Generally, we found that both guild richness and abundance

were related to higher hollow volumes. Higher occurrences of many
taxonomic groups are associated with large hollow volumes, such as, for
instance, some Cerambycidae species (Fayt et al. 2006), Limoniscus
violaceus (Elateridae) and its co-occurring beetle species (Gouix et al.
2012), or the aquatic fauna adapted to water-filled tree hollows (Schmidl
et al. 2008). Tree hollows are per se heterogeneous multi-habitats
(simultaneously housing several microhabitat types) (Winter and Mller,
2008), and their hollow configuration is unique and highly complex to
standardise. In fact, the use of suitable sampling methods revealed that
many species that are known to depend on specific microhabitats are
recorded in these multi-habitat hollows, even when no microsite
evidence had been found (Quinto et al. unpub. res.). Therefore, large
tree hollow volumes may be related to the availability and variability of
the microhabitat types they contained.
Richness and abundance of the xylophagous guild was influenced
by many ecological and biological variables, which suggested the
coexistence of species with notable differences in their life cycles. A high
number of scolytid galleries reflected current/recent scolytid
overpopulation due to their aggregation tendency (Schlyter, 2007), which
results in a decrease of saproxylic diversity (Kappes and Topp, 2004). The
presence of cetonid faeces could be indicating another negative effect on
xylophagous richness, with a dominance of the fauna typical of more
advanced decay stages linked with cetonids (Ranius and Nilsson, 1997).
The tree diameter, height hollow-ground and opening area also
negatively influenced xylophagous abundance, and in general the total
186
xylophagous richness was not high in tree hollow microhabitats, which

suggested higher preferences for other woodland environments (Quinto
et al. unpub. res.).
All our results indicated that xylomycetophagous guild richness
and abundance were related to large hollow openings and as we have
already indicated, also to larger sized hollows. How large openings
influence xylomycetophagous distribution is still poorly understood. To
examine this correlation it would be appropriate to assess whether the
diversity of saproxylic fungi is affected by this variable. Unfortunately, it
was not possible to take any fungi variables due to limited knowledge
about wood-inhabiting fungi in Mediterranean woodlands and the great
complexity found in temperate woodlands (Nordn et al. 2004; dor et
al. 2006).
Higher numbers of species and individuals of the
saproxylophagous guild were associated with hollows higher from the
ground and with presence of cetonid faeces. Cetonid larvae are able to
digest polysaccharides and lignin, and produce large quantities of faeces
that are rich in nutrients (Mic et al. 2011), which probably facilitates the
establishment of other saproxylic insects (Ranius 2002b; Jnsson et al.
2004; Snchez-Galvn et al. unpub. res.). Saproxylic cetonids are species
that are highly dependent on tree hollows, and their frequency is higher
in hollows with large quantities of wood mould (Ranius and Nilsson,
1997; Mic and Galante, 2003), which varied widely between tree
hollows (Ranius, 2007). Moreover, saproxylophagous larvae were found
more frequently in specific decay types. This highlights the importance of
substrate quality (Saint-Germain et al. 2010). The importance of vertical
stratification of saproxylophagous beetles has rarely been studied
(Ranius and Nilsson, 1997; Ulyshen and Hanula, 2007), although several
187
Captulo 4
saproxylophagous species are significantly related to hollow openings

distant from (Ranius 2002a) or near to the ground (Gouix et al. 2012).
Many saprophagous hoverflies are linked to different
aquatic/humid microsites that occur in tree hollows (Rotheray and
MacGowan, 2000; Fayt et al. 2006; Speight et al. 2010), often presenting
different nutrient requirements (Schmidl et al. 2008; Snchez-Galvn et
al. unpub. res.) or even vertical stratification (Birtele and Hardersen,
2012 based on adults activity). The quantity and quality of breeding
microsites are relevant limiting factors for the saprophagous because
there are usually few trees that are able to provide suitable habitats (as
seen in Rotheray and MacGowan, 2000; Reemer, 2005). Accordingly, our
results demonstrated that the saprophagous guild occupied a low
proportion of tree hollows (less than 70% in all woodlands) and that
hoverfly species commonly coexisted (with up to six species belonging to
five different genera) in tree hollows containing water and that faced
north-east to south-east (higher species abundance). Several authors
have shown that numerous saproxylic assemblages are specifically
adapted to exposed woody substrates (south to west) within temperate
woodlands (Ranius and Nilsson, 1997; Jonsell et al. 1998; Ranius and
Jansson, 2000; Kappes and Topp, 2004; Lindhe et al. 2005), even among
aquatic communities of Syrphidae inhabiting water-filled tree hollows
(Fayt et al. 2006; Schmidl et al. 2008). However, in Mediterranean areas,
water content is one of the most important limiting factors due to the
Mediterranean climate (with long periods of drought), and therefore tree
hollows with a more predictable aquatic environment, less exposed and
containing higher water volume, also tended to have higher
saprophagous richness and abundance.
188
The predator and commensal guilds were negatively influenced

by biological variables. These guilds are composed of species that depend
on other invertebrate presence or activities (not only the concerned
insect groups) as trophic resources. The incidence of hollows with water
presence, cetonid faeces or scolytid presence may indicate particular
hollow environments that benefit certain groups that become more
abundant (Schlyter, 2007; Schmidl et al. 2008, Speight et al. 2010;
Snchez-Galvn et al. unpub. res.), which can lead to more
homogeneous diversity of their associated fauna of predators and
commensals. Nevertheless, specific research focused on their markedly
different trophic requirements is necessary to understand these results
better.
Transcendence for saproxylic diversity conservation

Iberian Mediterranean woodlands are characterised by a
significant number of Central European and North African species
(Ricarte et al. 2009), and their hollow microhabitats contain species-rich
assemblages composed of high proportions of hollow specialist species
(Quinto et al. unpub. res.). Tree hollows can be considered to be one of
the most important Mediterranean microhabitats within woodland
ecosystems in terms of species diversity (Sirami et al. 2008). They act as
isolated islands where different colonising species of each feeding guild
are the result of interacting patterns (Quinto et al. 2012), limited
dispersive behaviour (Ranius and Hedin, 2001; Buse et al. 2008; Irmler et
al. 2010), or as we show in this paper, availability and variability of
hollow microhabitats.
Our results suggest that the type of management carried out in
these Mediterranean woodlands, as well as whether this continued after
189
Captulo 4
1995, when the zone was declared a National Park, have both influenced
the diversity and composition of the hollow guilds to a great extent by
conferring different availability of types and numbers of hollow
microhabitats. Old-unmanaged woodlands with multi-habitat hollow
trees reflect the ecological continuity of woodlands and hold higher
saproxylic guild diversity. Nevertheless, the population of certain
protected species, such as the Vulnerable hoverfly Mallota dusmeti, can
be enhanced by continuous traditional management of trees. Therefore,
tree hollow heterogeneity, within and between woodlands, is highly
relevant for the conservation of saproxylic communities in the most
mature Mediterranean woodlands in Cabaeros National Park
(deciduous oak and riparian ash), and it provides abundant and diverse
trophic resources for a long-time. For these reasons, more efforts should
be directed towards ensuring not only microhabitat availability but also
heterogeneity among woodlands, increasing the level of protection of
mature woodlands with large hollows located within buffer areas, or
considering criteria of woodland structure and microhabitat supply in
future expansions of the park. This growing empirical knowledge on
hollow saproxylic communities provides an integrative understanding of
their local structure and dynamics.
Acknowledgements
Financial support was given by the research Projects CGL2008-

04472, CGL2009-09656 and CGL2011-23658 of the Spanish Ministry of
Science and Innovation, and LIFE-07/NAT/00762 of the European
Commission LIFE-Nature. We should like to thank H. Brustel, A. Violas,
A. Verdugo, F. Soldati, O. Rose, J. C. Otero, M. A. A. Zarazaga, A.
190
Herrmann, J. L. Zapata, J. P. Tamisier, G. Liberti, C. Prez, R. Allemand, T.

Noblecourt, P. Leblanc, L. Chkir, P. Vienna, A. Ricarte, Z. Nedeljkovic and
G. Rotheray for their help with insect group identification. We are also
grateful to Cabaeros National Park Administration for their continued
assistance in our field work, and K. Burke for helping with language
revision.
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general
Discusin general
Discusin general
El desarrollo de esta tesis ha permitido conocer qu especies de

insectos - Coleoptera y Diptera: Syrphidae - componen el ensamble
saproxlico ligado a las oquedades de los rboles, uno de los
microhbitats ms importantes en trminos de biodiversidad de los
bosques mediterrneos (Sirami et al. 2008). Se trata de la primera vez
que se realizan estudios sistemticos en oquedades de bosques
mediterrneos de la Pennsula Ibrica, y en particular, en el Parque
Nacional de Cabaeros (Espaa), considerando simultneamente estos
dos rdenes de insectos bioindicadores de la calidad de los bosques.
Dentro de las comunidades de insectos saproxlicos encontramos una
gran diversidad de especies que pueden ser agrupadas de acuerdo a
regmenes trficos o gremios ecolgicos, principalmente xilfagos,
saprfagos, saproxilfagos, xilomicetfagos, depredadores y comensales.
Los grupos taxonmicos y ecolgicos utilizados en este estudio han
resultado ser muy diversos y abundantes, presentando una alta
variabilidad a lo largo de las oquedades seleccionadas, lo que indica la
idoneidad de este microhbitat para la evaluacin patrones ecolgicos y
de diversidad saproxlica en bosques mediterrneos ibricos.
Los resultados derivados de este estudio taxonmico han

permitido detectar la presencia de numerosas especies de las que no se
tena constancia en el Parque Nacional de Cabaeros (en algunos casos
incluso en la Pennsula Ibrica), o evaluar el estado de las poblaciones de
las distintas especies que componen la comunidad de insectos
saproxlicos asociada a las oquedades. Este microhbitat presenta un alto
componente de especies endmicas (en concordancia con Ricarte et al.,
2009) o raras dentro del contexto europeo, ya sea porque tienen baja
203
Discusin general
capacidad dispersiva, o debido a que son exclusivas del microhbitat

oquedad o los recursos trficos que all se encuentran, como es el caso
de la especie Limoniscus violaceus (Elateridae), principalmente asociado
con oquedades basales (Apndice 3). Adems, las oquedades son el
abrigo de mltiples especies contempladas por la Directiva Habitat o en
el Libro Rojo de Invertebrados de Espaa (Tabla general, Apndice 2, 3 y
4), lo que evidencia la importancia de este microhbitat para la
conservacin de los insectos saproxlicos en los bosques mediterrneos
ibricos, con especial nfasis en sus especies amenazadas. De igual
manera, se ampla el rango de distribucin de numerosas especies, en
algunos casos siendo las citas ms meridionales del continente europeo
(Tabla general), y quedan reflejadas nuevas asociaciones de los insectos
con la especie arbrea, la preferencia por las oquedades o la
coexistencia entre especies (Apndice 1 y 2).
Uno de los principales hndicaps del estudio de las comunidades

de insectos saproxlicos es el bajo nmero de mtodos de muestreo
capaces de caracterizar la alta diversidad taxonmica y biolgica asociada
a los distintos sustratos y microhbitats presentes en los ecosistemas
forestales. Los resultados obtenidos ponen de manifiesto la mayor
eficacia de la trampa de emergencia para caracterizar la diversidad de
especies y familias as como la diversidad funcional de gremios
ecolgicos saproxlicos en las oquedades, capturando una mayor
proporcin de especies fuertemente vinculadas a este microhbitat
(captulo 2). A lo largo de un ao de estudio se registr un total de 22
especies y 464 individuos de Diptera: Syrphidae, y 150 especies y 3873
individuos pertenecientes a 41 familias de Coleoptera (Tabla general).
De forma paralela, el uso de la trampa de emergencia aporta una valiosa
204
Discusin general
informacin sobre ciclos biolgicos, fenologa, periodo de actividad de los

adultos, comportamiento o coexistencia de especies, as como la
preferencia de las especies por el microhbitat de oquedad frente al
resto de sustratos/ambientes presentes en el bosque, por lo que
nuestros resultados amplan en gran medida el conocimiento que se
tena para muchas especies.
Por otra parte, aunque las trampas de ventana proporcionaron

una diversidad de especies y familias similar a las trampas de
emergencia, la composicin de especies vari en gran medida entre estos
tipos de trampa. Estos resultados reflejan una mayor afinidad de la
trampa de ventana para inventariar la porcin del ensamble de
colepteros saproxlicos con capacidad de vuelo, y por tanto
provenientes no slo de las oquedades sino tambin de los distintos
hbitats, sustratos o microhbitats presentes en la matriz de bosque
objeto de estudio. Por estos motivos, las trampas de ventana y de
emergencia son mtodos altamente complementarios, y su uso
combinado proporciona inventarios ms completos del ensamble de
colepteros asociado a las oquedades, registrando una mayor diversidad
de especies y familias saproxlicas con distintas biologas o preferencias
de hbitat. Ambos mtodos permiten una fcil estandarizacin de los
protocolos de muestreo, por lo que resultan excelentes candidatos para
realizar distintos tipos de estudios comparativos entre tipos de bosques
mediterrneos, escogiendo qu mtodo/s utilizar de acuerdo a la porcin
del ensamble saproxlico que se desea estudiar.
Aunque las trampas de tubo presentaron una baja eficiencia para

el estudio de la fauna saproxlica del bosque, cabe destacar que su uso
puede ser de gran utilidad cuando se realizan estudios dirigidos a familias
205
Discusin general
de colepteros tales como Bostrichiidae, Biphyllidae, Melyridae,

Mycetophagidae o Curculionidae Scolytinae, ya que presentan una gran
afinidad por los principios activos qumicos y/o visuales que comprende
este trampa: cebo, color y silueta.
Debido a que las trampas de emergencia permiten obtener un
perfil certero de la diversidad saproxlica ligada a los microhbitats de
oquedad, su uso permite evaluar las interacciones especie-sustrato y
especie-especie. El anlisis de redes ecolgicas con mltiples tipos de
interaccin permite conocer qu patrones determinan la estructura,
dinmica y estabilidad de las interacciones de una comunidad (Fontaine
et al., 2011). Los resultados obtenidos revelaron que la interaccin
oquedad-insecto saproxlico presenta un patrn modular, lo que indica la
existencia de subgrupos de especies de insectos saproxlicos
interactuando con subgrupos de oquedades (captulo 3). De acuerdo con
Lewinshon et al. (2006) un patrn modular puede ser el resultado de la
heterogeneidad del hbitat, divergencias en los regmenes de seleccin,
o agrupaciones filogenticas de especies estrechamente relacionadas. En
este sentido, los mdulos obtenidos para la red global representan las
principales agrupaciones trficas entre especies de insectos
pertenecientes a los distintos gremios ecolgicos, las cuales se
establecen en torno a oquedades de distinta especie arbrea o que
presentan determinadas caractersticas microambientales. Sin embargo,
algunos mdulos resultaron muy cohesivos, lo que es indicativo de una
mayor probabilidad de interaccin entre sus especies-oquedades
constituyentes. Otros por el contrario, presentaron una mayor
variabilidad, lo que viene determinado por la existencia de una gran
proporcin de nodos heterogneamente conectados con los distintos
mdulos. Los resultados obtenidos reflejan adems agrupaciones que no
206
Discusin general
son evidentes a primera vista, por lo que la realizacin de un estudio

heurstico de los mdulos permite conocer la robustez y tamao de los
principales mdulos, identificar asociaciones entre mdulos o detectar
subgrupos cohesivos de menor tamao (Donatti et al., 2011).
De manera general, las subredes que dependen de la madera
como recurso trfico presentaron una mayor diversidad de especies e
interacciones, fueron menos especializadas y obtuvieron una menor
competencia interespecfica que las subredes que dependen de la
presencia de otros insectos saproxlicos como recurso trfico. Estas
subredes se establecen de acuerdo al recurso trfico que explotan o al
gremio ecolgico al que pertenecen, por lo que dependen de manera
distinta de la disponibilidad de microhbitats para su desarrollo biolgico
y para el establecimiento de la interaccin, determinando notorias
diferencias en sus patrones de interaccin.
La naturaleza de la interaccin tambin tiene implicaciones en la
estabilidad de las subredes saproxlicas, y las subredes dependientes de
la madera como recurso trfico fueron ms estables frente a la extincin
aleatoria y dirigida de sus microhbitats. No obstante, cabe resaltar que
el conjunto de las subredes saproxlicas present una elevada robustez
ante ambos tipos de extinciones. De acuerdo con Thbault & Fontaine
(2010), la estabilidad y estructura de las redes ecolgicas dependen en
gran medida del tipo de interaccin, de la diversidad de especies o de las
diferencias en los atributos de interaccin. Por tanto, la estructura de
mdulos interconectados encontrada en la interaccin oquedad-insecto
saproxlico refleja capacidad para amortiguar las perturbaciones
ambientales.
La heterogeneidad de las oquedades acta como un importante
agente modelador de la riqueza de especies y diversidad funcional de los
207
Discusin general
gremios saproxlicos en los bosques mediterrneos estudiados (captulo

4). Cada oquedad es una unidad de estudio nica e independiente,
resultante de un proceso inicial de formacin natural o artificial y de la
conjuncin de distintos procesos de descomposicin posteriores. Por
tanto, es comprensible que los bosques menos manejados (o al menos
actualmente no manejados): los robledales mixtos de Quercus pyrenaica
y Q. faginea, y las fresnedas de Fraxinus angustifolia presenten una
configuracin de microhbitats ms heterognea debido a que albergan
una mayor variabilidad de procesos de formacin y de descomposicin
de los que dependen las distintas especies/gremios saproxlicos, alojando
as una mayor diversidad taxonmica y funcional. Por el contrario, las
actividades tradicionales de manejo como las podas de ramas laterales
que se practican en el encinar de Q. rotundifolia actan como un factor
homogeneizador de las caractersticas de las oquedades, y por ende, de
la diversidad de los gremios trficos, por lo que algunas especies/grupos
se ven beneficiados por este manejo. Dada la alta variabilidad de tipos de
bosque y de manejos que ocurren a lo largo de la Pennsula Ibrica, esta
tesis sienta las bases y da paso a estudios comparativos que permitan
realizar asociaciones entre patrones de diversidad saproxlica y su
relacin con el tipo de bosque mediterrneo.
En esta misma lnea, un mayor volumen de las oquedades
conlleva una mayor riqueza y abundancia de los gremios saproxlicos,
destacando la existencia de oquedades clave o multihbitat donde
tienen lugar mltiples recursos trficos o micrositios (Winter & Mller,
2008) y que determinan comunidades saproxlicas ms complejas.
Adicionalmente, nuestros resultados muestran que los distintos gremios
responden positiva o negativamente a diferentes variables ecolgicas o
biolgicas microambientales, de acuerdo a los requerimientos
208
Discusin general
particulares de las especies que albergan, existiendo por tanto un

entramado de interacciones especie-oquedad y especie-especie que
denotan la complejidad del ensamble entomosaproxlico. Un claro
ejemplo lo constituye el gremio de los srfidos saprfagos, quienes
dependen de oquedades capaces de contener o preservar un mayor
volumen de agua, donde distintas especies de srfidos compiten por
ocupar este microhbitat acutico y explotar sus recursos. Una vez
identificadas las principales variables que afectan a la distribucin y
diversidad de los gremios saproxlicos en las oquedades del bosque
mediterrneo, resultara conveniente realizar estudios futuros
pormenorizados de esas variables con la finalidad de comprender cmo
afectan a la distribucin de las distintas especies constituyentes de los
gremios saproxlicos en el microhbitat de oquedad.
Las oquedades de los bosques mediterrneos ibricos atesoran
una diversa e interesante fauna de insectos saproxlicos, con un alto
componente de especies de Coleoptera protegidas a nivel europeo
(Nieto & Alexander, 2010). En concordancia con estudios realizados en el
sur de Francia (Sirami et al., 2008), las caractersticas particulares de la
oquedad son determinantes de una mayor diversidad saproxlica. Frente
al resto de sustratos o microhbitats presentes en el bosque, las
oquedades de gran volumen favorecen las poblaciones de la especie En
peligro Limoniscus violaceus (apndice), o de la especie Vulnerable
Ischnodes sanguinicollis (ambas Elateridae). Adems, este microhbitat
es muy estable en el tiempo, no depende de la heterogeneidad de la
matriz ambiental, y no sufre alteraciones cuando se practica el manejo
tradicional (Sirami et al., 2008). Bajo este contexto, la conservacin de
esta comunidad y de sus especies emblemticas en los bosques
mediterrneos est en gran medida vinculada con la conservacin de
209
Discusin general
bosques maduros con rboles viejos y oquedades de gran tamao, ya

que a lo largo de los aos proporciona diversidad y cantidad recursos
trficos. No obstante, las poblaciones de otras especies, o incluso la
diversidad de gremios saproxlicos completos, pueden ser potenciadas
por el manejo tradicional. Tal es el caso del dptero Mallota dusmeti
(Syrphidae), catalogado como especie Vulnerable en el Libro Rojo de los
Invertebrados de Espaa (apndice), que obtuvo una mejor
representacin en el encinar de Garbanzuelo (la mayor poblacin
conocida para esta especie protegida), donde las podas generan con el
tiempo numerosas oquedades que permiten la acumulacin de agua y el
desarrollo de las condiciones microclimticas de las que depende esta
especie para su desarrollo. Siendo as, las estrategias para conservar el
ensamble saproxlico y sus especies protegidas en la Pennsula Ibrica
deben contemplar no slo la heterogeneidad de oquedades de los
bosques mediterrneos y su estrecha vinculacin con los tipos de manejo
tradicional, sino que tambin deben implementarse con determinadas
medidas de manejo dirigidas a potenciar sus poblaciones o diversificar
esta comunidad.
Al integrar el conjunto de resultados derivados de esta tesis es
fcil apercibirse de la complejidad biolgica que encierra el sistema
oquedad-insecto saproxlico, suscitando asimismo nuevas preguntas a
resolver, como qu ocurre con los patrones especializados en distintos
tipos de bosque mediterrneo. La red saproxlica es una red compleja
(alto nmero de especies participantes) y ecolgicamente heterognea,
aspectos que favorecen la presencia de un patrn modular. Como
observamos en el captulo 3, estos mdulos estn formados por
subgrupos de insectos que interactan preferentemente con subgrupos
de oquedades de distintas especies arbreas o con distintas
210
Discusin general
caractersticas ecolgicas. Por otra parte, en el captulo 4 hallamos

grandes diferencias en la diversidad y distribucin de los gremios
saproxlicos de acuerdo a la configuracin de oquedades por tipo de
bosque. Dados estos antecedentes, cabe esperar una gran variabilidad en
los patrones de redes cuando descendemos el foco de estudio a la escala
de bosque. Un patrn modular es ms probable en redes de mayor
tamao (Olesen et al., 2007), sin embargo, aun cuando una red compleja
es manifiestamente modular, otros patrones especializados como el
anidamiento pueden ocurrir dentro de los mdulos ms grandes
(Lewinsohn et al., 2006). Por otra parte, el avance continuado de las
metodologas empleadas en el anlisis de redes permite realizar
deducciones cada vez ms precisas, siendo posible evaluar la influencia
que las abundancias relativas tienen sobre los patrones de redes
resultantes. Esta primera exploracin de los patrones de redes ecolgicos
que modelan la interaccin oquedad-insecto saproxlico representa el
primer paso para entender cmo se organizan y relacionan los distintos
tipos de interaccin en el microhbitat de oquedad, siendo el siguiente
paso poder responder a la pregunta: Cmo se organizan los patrones de
interaccin cuando se evalan por separado distintos tipos de bosque
mediterrneo?
Literatura citada
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F.M.D., Dirzo, R., 2011. Analysis of a hiper-diverse seed dispersal
network: modularity and underlying mechanisms. Ecology letters
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2. Fontaine, C., Guimares, P.R. Jr, Kfi, S., Loeuille, N., Memmott,
J., van der Putten, W.H., van Veen, F.J.F., Thbault, E., 2011. The
211
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ecological and evolutionary implications of merging different

types of networks. Ecology Letters 14: 1170-1181.
3. Lewinsohn, T.M., Prado, P.I., Jordano, P., Bascompte, J., Olesen,
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212
Tabla general. Listado de Coleoptera y Diptera (Syrphidae) en las oquedades presentes en los bosques mediterrneos
estudiados. Fr: Fraxinus angustifolia; Qf: Quercus faginea; Qp: Quercus pyrenaica; Qr: Quercus rotundifolia.
Abundancia Especie vegetal

DIPTERA
Syrphidae Brachyopa grunewaldensis Kassebeer, 2000 11 Fr, Qf, Qp
Brachypalpoides lentus (Meigen, 1822) 2 Qf, Qp
Brachypalpus valgus (Panzer, 1798) 4 Fr, Qp
Callicera aurata (Rossi, 1790) 2 Qp
Callicera spinolae Rondani, 1844 30 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Ceriana vespiformis (Latreille, 1804) 9 Fr, Qr
Criorhina floccosa (Meigen, 1822) 8 Qf, Qp
Criorhina pachymera Egger, 1858 4 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Ferdinandea aurea Rondani, 1844 24 Qf, Qp
Ferdinandea cuprea (Scopoli, 1763) 3 Qp
Ferdinandea fumipennis Kassebeer, 1999 1 Qp
Ferdinandea ruficornis (Fabricius, 1775) 6 Qp
Mallota cimbiciformis (Fallen, 1817) 33 Fr, Qf, Qr
Mallota dusmeti Andru, 1926 97 Fr, Qf, Qr
Mallota fuciformis (Fabricius, 1794) 3 Qf, Qp, Qr
Milesia cabroniformis (Fabricius, 1795) 1 Fr
Myathropa florea (Linnaeus, 1758) 204 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Myolepta difformis Strobl in Czerny & Strobl, 1909 10 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Myolepta dubia (Fabricius, 1805) 1 Qf
Myolepta obscura Becher, 1882 4 Qf, Qp
Sphiximorpha subsessilis (Illiger in Rossi, 1807) 1 Fr
Spilomyia digitata (Rondani, 1865) 6 Fr, Qp, Qr
COLEOPTERA
Aderidae Aderus populneus (Panzer, 1796) 39 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Cnopus minor (Baudi, 1877) 1 Qr
Otolelus neglectus (Jacquelin du Duval, 1863) 47 Fr, Qr
Anobiidae Dorcatoma vaulogeri agenjoi Espaol, 1978 17 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Oligomerus brunneus (Olivier, 1790) 22 Fr, Qf, Qp
Rhamna semen Peyerimhoff de Fontenelle, 1913 27 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Stagetus elongatus (Mulsant & Rey, 1861) 8 Fr, Qp, Qr
Stagetus micoae Violas, 2011 2 Fr
Biphyllidae Diplocoelus fagi Gurin-Mnville, 1838 33 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Buprestidae Acmaeodera degener 14-punctata (Scopoli, 1763) 2 Qr
Eurythyrea quercus (Herbst, 1780) 1 Qp
Cerambycidae Alocerus moesiacus (Frivaldsky, 1838) 15 Qp, Qr
Cerambyx welensii (Kster, 1846) 3 Qp
Prinobius myardi Mulsant, 1851 12 Fr, Qr
Stictoleptura trisignata (Fairmaire, 1852) 38 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Trichoferus fasciculatus (Faldermann, 1837) 1 Qp
Cerylonidae Cerylon histeroides Fabricius, 1792 1 Qf
Cetoniidae Cetonia aurataeformis Curti, 1913 244 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Potosia cuprea (Fabricius, 1775) 34 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Potosia opaca (Fabricius, 1787) 14 Fr, Qp, Qr
Ciidae Cis striatulus Mellie, 1848 1 Qr
Cis villosulus Marsham, 1802 1 Fr
Clambidae Calyptomerus sp 1 Fr
Clambus sp 4 Qr
Cleridae Opilo domesticus (Sturm, 1837) 7 Fr, Qp, Qr
Cryptophagidae Cryptophagus aurelioi Otero, 2009 21 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Cryptophagus cylindrellus Johnson, 2007 4 Qp
Cryptophagus dentatus (Herbst, 1793) 23 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Cryptophagus distinguendus Sturm, 1845 2 Fr, Qr
Cryptophagus fallax Balfour-Browne 1953 1 Qp
Cryptophagus micaceus Rey, 1889 142 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Cryptophagus punctipennis Brisout de Barneville, 1863 54 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Cryptophagus reflexus Rey, 1889 269 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Cryptophagus saginatus Sturm, 1845 36 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Cryptophagus scanicus (Linnaeus, 1758) 119 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Curculionidae Camptorhinus simplex Seidlitz, 1867 2 Qf
Camptorhinus statua (Rossi, 1790) 103 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Gasterocercus hispanicus Alonso-Zarazaga, Jover & Mic, 2009 2 Qp
Curculionidae Scolytinae Xyleborinus saxesenii (Ratzeburg, 1837) 37 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Xyleborus dryographus (Ratzeburg, 1837) 9 Fr, Qf, Qp
Xyleborus monographus (Fabricius, 1792) 321 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Dasytidae Aplocnemus brevis (Rosenhauer, 1856). 1 Qr
Aplocnemus consobrinus (Rosenhauer, 1856) 1 Fr
Aplocnemus limbipennis Kiesenwetter, 1865 1 Fr
Mauroania bourgeoisi (Pic, 1894) 3 Fr, Qp, Qr
Dermestidae Anthrenus (Anthrenus) angustefasciatus Ganglbauer, 1904 3 Fr, Qr
Anthrenus (Anthrenus) festivus Erichson, 1846 8 Fr, Qp
Anthrenus (Florilinus) minutus Erichson, 1846 40 Fr, Qr
Anthrenus (Florilinus) verbasci (Linnaeus, 1767) 5 Fr, Qr
Attagenus incognitus Hava, 2003 5 Qf, Qr
Attagenus schaefferi (Herbst, 1792) 1 Qp
Attagenus trifasciatus (Fabricius, 1787) 17 Fr, Qp, Qr
Dermestes (Dermestes) bicolor Fabricius, 1781 1 Qp
Dermestes (Dermestinus) erichsonii Ganglbauer, 1904 1 Qf
Dermestes (Dermestinus) frischii Kugelann, 1792 1 Qr
Dermestes (Dermestes) hispanicus Kalik, 1952 4 Qr
Dermestes (Dermestinus) undulatus Brahm, 1790 22 Qf, Qr
Orphilus niger (Rossi, 1790) 2 Qp
Dynastidae Oryctes nasicornis (Linnaeus, 1758) 7 Qp
Elateridae Ampedus aurilegulus (Schaufuss, 1862) 63 Fr, Qf, Qp
Ectamenogonus montandoni Buysson, 1888 7 Fr, Qp
Elater ferrugineus Linnaeus, 1758 33 Fr, Qf, Qp
Elathous platiai Zapata & Snchez-Ruiz, 2007 1 Qr
Ischnodes sanguinicollis (Panzer, 1793) 35 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Lacon punctatus (Herbst, 1779) 11 Fr, Qf, Qp
Limoniscus violaceus (Mller, 1821) 2 Fr
Megapenthes lugens (Redtenbacher, 1842) 24 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Procraerus tibilais (Boisduval & Lacordaire, 1835) 15 Fr, Qp
Endomychidae Mycetaea hirta (Marsham, 1802) 7 Fr, Qp, Qr
Symbiotes gibberosus (Lucas, 1849) 6 Fr, Qp, Qr
Eucinetidae Nycteus meridionalis Laporte de Castelnau, 1836 1 Qp
Helodidae Prionocyphon serricornis (Mller, 1821) 203 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Histeridae Abraeus perpusillus (Marsham, 1802) 32 Fr, Qf, Qp
Aeletes atomarius (Aub, 1843) 6 Fr
Atholus duodecimstriatus (Schrank, 1781) 1 Fr
Gnathoncus communis (Marseul, 1862) 47 Fr, Qf, Qp
Gnathoncus nannetensis (Marseul, 1862) 14 Fr, Qf, Qp
Hetaerius ferrugineus (Olivier, 1789) 1 Qp
Margarinotus brunneus (Fabricius, 1775) 1 Qf
Margarinotus uncostriatus (Marseul, 1854) 2 Qf
Merohister ariasi (Marseul, 1864) 14 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Paromalus flavicornis (Herbst, 1792) 28 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Platylomalus complanatus (Panzer, 1796) 1 Fr
Platylomalus gardineri (Scott, 1913) 1 Qp
Platysoma filiforme (Erichson, 1834) 2 Fr, Qp
Laemophloeidae Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens, 1831) 7 Qf, Qp, Qr
Laemophloeus nigricollis Lucas, 1849 2 Fr, Qf
Placonotus testaceus (Fabricius, 1787) 2 Fr, Qp
Latridiidae Corticaria obscura Brisout, 1863 2 Qf
Dianerella ruficollis (Marsham, 1802) 1 Qr
Enicmus brevicornis (Mannerheim, 1844) 4 Fr, Qp
Enicmus rugosus (Herbst, 1793) 4 Qf, Qp
Latridius assimilis (Mannerheim, 1844) 25 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Leiodidae Agathidium nigriceps Brisout, 1872 2 Fr, Qp
Lucanidae Dorcus parallelepipedus (Linnaeus, 1785) 43 Fr, Qf, Qp
Malachiidae Anthocomus fenestratus Linder, 1864 16 Fr, Qp, Qr
Axinotarsus marginalis (Laporte de Castelnau, 1840) 6 Qr
Hypebaeus albifrons (Fabricius, 1775) 3 Qp
Troglops furcatus Abeille de Perrin, 1885 52 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Melandryidae Orchesia micans (Panzer, 1794) 8 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Melyridae Falsomelyris granulata (Fabricius, 1792) 2 Fr
Mycetophagidae Litargus balteatus Le Conte, 1856 1 Qp
Litargus connexus (Geoffroy, 1785) 11 Fr, Qf, Qp
Mycetophagus quadriguttatus Mller, 1821 73 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Nitidulidae Amphotis marginata (Fabricius, 1781) 2 Qp
Carpophilus sp 1 Qf
Epuraea fuscicollis (Stephens, 1832) 137 Qf, Qp, Qr
Epuraea (Haptoncus) ocularis Fairmaire, 1849 2 Qf
Soronia oblonga C. Brisout de Barneville, 1863 141 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Oedemeridae Ischnomera xanthoderes (Mulsant, 1858) 114 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Platypodidae Platypus cylindrus (Fabricius, 1792) 1 Qr
Pselaphidae Euplectus sp 1 Fr
Geopsephalus sp 1 Fr
sp 1 (tribu Goniaceritae) 1 Fr
Ptiliidae sp 2 46 Fr, Qf, Qp
Ptinidae Dignomus irroratus (Kiesenwetter, 1851) 4 Fr, Qf, Qp
Ptinus (Cyphoderes) bidens Olivier, 1790 13 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Ptinus (Cyphoderes) hirticornis Kiesenwetter, 1867 3 Qp, Qr
Ptinus (Ptinus) spitzyi Villa & Villa, 1838 1 Qp
Ptinus (Ptinus) timidus Brisout de Barneville, 1866 274 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Rhizophagidae Rhizophagus unicolor Lucas, 1846 1 Qp
Scraptiidae Anaspis regimbarti Schilsky, 1895 11 Fr, Qp
Pentaria defarguesi Abeille de Perrin, 1885 1 Fr
Scraptia ophthalmica Mulsant, 1856 2 Fr
Scraptia testacea Allen, 1940 80 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Scydmaenidae Cephenium (Cephenium) sp 1 Fr
Palaeostigus palpalis (Latreille, 1804) 5 Qp, Qr
Scydmaenus (Cholerus) cornutus Motschulsky, 1845 3 Fr, Qp
Stenichnus (Cyrtoscydmus) godarti (Latreille, 1806) 5 Fr
Silvanidae Ahasverus advena (Waltl, 1834) 2 Fr, Qp
Airaphilus sp 1 Qf
Oryzaephilus surinamensis (Linnaeus, 1758) 1 Fr
Silvanus bidentatus Fabricius, 1792 2 Qr
Uleiota planata (Linnaeus, 1761) 7 Fr, Qp
Tenebrionidae Corticeus fasciatus (Fabricius, 1790) 1 Qp
Eledonoprius armatus (Panzer, 1799) 7 Qp
Isomira hispanica Kiesenwetter, 1870 11 Fr, Qr
Mycetochara linearis (Illiger, 1794) 20 Fr, Qf, Qp
Mycetochara quadrimaculata (Latreille, 1804) 110 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Prionychus fairmairei (Reiche, 1860) 17 Fr, Qp
Probaticus anthracinus (Germar, 1813) 40 Fr, Qf, Qp, Qr
Probaticus granulatus (Allard, 1876) 1 Qr
Pseudocistela ceramboides (Linnaeus, 1761) 43 Fr, Qf, Qp
Stenohelops sublinearis (Kraatz, 1870) 4 Fr, Qp
Tenebrio sp 34 Fr, Qp, Qr
Trogossitidae Tenebroides marrocanus Reitter, 1884 3 Fr, Qr
Temnochila caerulea (Olivier, 1790) 3 Fr, Qr
Zopheridae Colobicus hirtus (Rossi, 1790) 2 Fr, Qp
Colydium elongatum (Fabricius, 1787) 6 Fr, Qp
Endophloeus marcovichianus (Piller & Mitterpacher, 1783) 22 Qf, Qp
Conclusiones
generales
Conclusiones generales
1. El estudio de las oquedades seleccionadas para la realizacin de

esta tesis pone en relieve la elevada biodiversidad saproxlica
asociada con este microhbitat en los bosques mediterrneos
ibricos, contribuyendo en gran medida a la biodiversidad total
de los ecosistemas forestales a escala local.
2. Los mtodos evaluados son eficaces para muestrear distintas
porciones del ensamble saproxlico en los bosques
mediterrneos.
3. La trampa de emergencia es un mtodo efectivo para
caracterizar la diversidad taxonmica y ecolgica del ensamble
saproxlico asociado a las oquedades, y su uso permite conocer
aspectos clave de la biologa de las especies o estudiar las
interacciones saproxlicas.
4. La combinacin de las trampas de emergencia y las trampas de
ventana permite realizar inventarios ms completos de la fauna
saproxlica de los bosques mediterrneos, ya que permiten la
captura de especies con distintas biologas y requerimientos
trficos. El sencillo diseo de estas trampas, la gran diversidad de
insectos que proporcionan, y las facilidades que brindan a la hora
de estandarizar los protocolos de muestreo, las convierte en
excelentes candidatos para realizar estudios comparativos
faunsticos, ecolgicos o de seguimiento de especies saproxlicas.
5. La interaccin oquedad-insecto saproxlico presenta un patrn
modular a lo largo de los distintos niveles considerados,
caracterizado por la presencia de mdulos grandes y cohesivos.
Este patrn modular delimita las principales agrupaciones
225
trficas oquedad-insecto, las cuales se conforman en torno a

distintas especies arbreas o caractersticas ecolgicas de las
oquedades.
6. Las subredes saproxlicas dependientes de la madera como
recurso trfico presentan a) una mayor diversidad de especies, b)
un menor nmero de mdulos, c) una mayor diversidad y
heterogeneidad de interacciones, d) una menor especializacin, y
d) una menor competencia interespecfica que las subredes que
dependen de la presencia de otros insectos saproxlicos.
7. Las diferencias en los patrones de redes entre tipos de
interaccin tiene implicaciones en la estabilidad frente a las
perturbaciones, de modo que las subredes con mayor diversidad
de especies e interacciones fueron tambin las ms robustas. No
obstante, los gremios trficos fueron relativamente resistentes a
la eliminacin simulada de oquedades.
8. La diversidad taxonmica y ecolgica de los gremios saproxlicos
es mayor en los bosques con mayor heterogeneidad de
oquedades: robledales y fresnedas, donde una mayor
variabilidad y cantidad de recursos trficos y micrositios est
disponible para el desarrollo de distintas especies de cada gremio
trfico, correspondiendo adems con los bosques
tradicionalmente menos manejados.
9. El tipo de manejo que an se practica en el bosque esclerfilo
determina una alta homogeneidad de microhbitats y de su
fauna asociada, aunque potencia las poblaciones de algunas
especies o gremios, como la especie de srfido Mallota dusmeti
(Diptera), endemismo Iberomagreb catalogado como Vulnerable
en Espaa.
226
10. Los distintos gremios responden de forma diferente a las

distintas variables microclimticas estudiadas, siendo el volumen
de la oquedad el factor ms importante tanto para la riqueza
como para la abundancia de los gremios saproxlicos.
11. La conservacin de la comunidad saproxlica asociada a las
oquedades discurre paralela a la conservacin de los bosques
mediterrneos ms maduros: con rboles aosos y oquedades
grandes, en ocasiones siendo oportuno aplicar estrategias de
manejo que enriquezcan la composicin de microhbitats para la
comunidad saproxlica.
227
Apndice I
The Genus Ferdinandea Rondani, 1844 (Diptera,

Syrphidae) in the Iberian Peninsula: First Records and
New Breeding Sites
El gnero Ferdinandea Rondani, 1844 (Diptera, Syrphidae) en la

Pennsula Ibrica: Primeras citas y nuevos sitios de cra
Ricarte, A., Nedeljkovi, Z., Quinto, J., Marcos-Garca, M.A., 2010. The
Genus Ferdinandea Rondani, 1844 (Diptera, Syrphidae) in the Iberian
Peninsula: First Records and New Breeding Sites. J. Entomol. Res. Soc.,
12(3): 57-69.
Ferdinandea en la Pennsula Ibrica
Abstract
Following a review of all the available Iberian material belonging to the

genus Ferdinandea Rondani, 1844, results show that the fauna of the
Iberian Peninsula have all the four species recorded in the Palaearctic
region: F. aurea Rondani 1844, F. cuprea (Scopoli, 1763), F. fumipennis
Kassebeer, 1999, and F. ruficornis (Fabricius, 1775). Examined material of
F. ruficornis represents the first record from the Iberian Peninsula. A
revised key to the Iberian Ferdinandea species is provided, as well as
updated distribution maps for each of the species. Breeding sites for F.
aurea and F. ruficornis are reported, in the case of F. aurea as the first
known (in Quercus faginea and Quercus pyrenaica), and in the case of F.
ruficornis as the first in Q. pyrenaica. Special attention should be paid to
the conservation of F. ruficornis, highly restricted in its Iberian range and
threatened with extinction in different European countries.
Key words
Ferdinandea ruficornis, key to species, life cycle, Quercus, conservation,
species distribution, Iberian Peninsula
231
Apndice 1
Introduction
The genus Ferdinandea Rondani, 1844 (Syrphidae: Eristalinae)

comprises medium-sized hoverflies with strong black bristles on the
thorax and scutellum, as well as dark spots on the wings (Thompson &
Rotheray, 1998; Van Veen, 2004). Peck (1988) listed five Ferdinandea
species from the Palaearctic region, F. aurea Rondani, 1844, F. cuprea
(Scopoli, 1763), F. ruficornis (Fabricius, 1775), F. nigrifrons (Egger, 1860)
and F. sziladyi Drensky, 1934, despite the taxonomic status of the latter
two being unclear today (Speight, 2010). Marcos-Garca et al. (2002) and
Ricarte & Marcos-Garca (2007) reported the occurrence of three
Ferdinandea species in the Iberian Peninsula: F. aurea, F. cuprea and F.
fumipennis Kassebeer 1999.
The preferred habitats of the Ferdinandea adults are deciduous
forests, where their saproxylic larvae live in sap-runs of generally over-
mature trees, mainly Quercus, but also in sap-runs associated with the
tunnelling activity of the caterpillar of Cossus cossus (Linnaeus, 1758)
(Rotheray, 1993). Early stages of F. cuprea and F. fumipennis are
described (Hartley, 1961; Ricarte et al., 2007), and their breeding sites
are reported (compilation of original references in Speight, 2010). F.
ruficornis early stages are not described and breeding site data are poor
and dispersed (Speight, 2010); no data for F. aurea are available in this
respect. According to Speight (2010), F. ruficornis should be regarded as a
threatened species at least over western Europe. The status of F.
ruficornis in this European region seems to be related to the forestry
practices that negatively influence the existence of C. cossus and the
continuance of over-mature trees in forests (Speight, 2010). In The
Danish Red Data Book F. ruficornis is catalogued as Regionally Extinct
(Bygebjerg, 2007) and in countries such as Belgium, France and Germany
232
is threatened with extinction (Speight et al., 2010). Taxonomy, biology,

and distribution of F. ruficornis need to be ascertained in order to
establish adequate conservation strategies.
In this study we update the knowledge of the genus Ferdinandea

in the Iberian Peninsula by compiling all published data and examining all
the available specimens from this geographic region. A taxonomic key to
the Iberian Ferdinandea species, including the first-recorded F. ruficornis,
is also provided, as well as other revised data on taxonomy, biology,
distribution, and conservation of the species.
Material and methods

Examined specimens came from different localities and belonged
to the collections referred to in the text with the following acronyms:
CEUA = Coleccin Entomolgica Universidad de Alicante, University of
Alicante, Spain; MNCN = Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Madrid,
Spain; NS = Department of Biology and Ecology, Entomological Collection,
University of Novi Sad, Serbia; RBINS = Royal Belgian Institute of Natural
Sciences, Brussels, Belgium. Most of the specimens examined are
deposited in the CEUA. Thus, to avoid unnecessary repetition, the
repository of specimens is only mentioned when the material studied
does not belong to CEUA. All specimens from CEUA are bar-code labelled
according to a GBIF protocol and are recorded in a data base available in
the Centro Iberoamericano de la Biodiversidad (CIBIO), at the University
of Alicante.
Examination of specimens was complemented with a review of

published data and taxonomic information from correspondence with
other specialists (see acknowledgements). Thus the examined material
of each species is divided into published (Andorran/Portuguese/Spanish
233
Apndice 1
specimens), new (Spanish specimens) and additional (data on non-

Andorran/Portuguese/Spanish specimens, published or not, useful to
perform the taxonomic study). A detailed description of the examined
material is provided for new data and for some additional data, as well as
for the material of MNCN, which was published several decades ago. For
specimens with detailed data, the catching method was hand net
(specific date), Malaise trap (period of time), and emergence trap (when
specified in the text).
Authors identified the specimens based on keys and descriptions
in Kassebeer (1999), Van Veen (2004) and Speight & Sarthou (2010). As a
result of the taxonomic study, a revised key to the Iberian species of
Ferdinandea is provided. Terminology on adult morphology broadly
follows Thompson (1999), except for genitalia characters, which follow
Kassebeer (1999). Additionally, the following sections with updated data
are presented for each species: taxonomic notes, biology, world
distribution, and conservation (Europe and Iberian Peninsula). Species
biology, distribution and conservation status in Europe follows Speight
(2010) and Speight et al. (2010). Criteria followed by Speight et al. (2010)
to establish the conservation status of the species are detailed in Speight
& Castella (2010). Maps were made with the software ArcView GIS 3.3.
Results
Key to adults of the Iberian species of the genus Ferdinandea
1. Face with a dark brown to black vitta....................................F. aurea
- Face pale-coloured overall, without vitta............................................2
2. Antennal arista orange; each of the 2nd and 3rd terga shiny except
for some dull areas centrally and laterally, in both cases on the posterior
part of the tergum, shiny along the full length of the posterior margin;
234
male genitalia: ventral lobe of distiphallus with a conspicuously-

elongated pointing process (about 3 longer than
basiphallus)................................................................................F. ruficornis
-Antennal arista dark brown to black; each of the 2nd and 3rd terga
shiny anteriorly, dull along the full length of the posterior margin; male
genitalia: ventral lobe of distiphallus with a moderately-elongated
pointing process (about 1.5 longer than
basiphallus).................................................................................................3
3. Wing membrane hyaline in veins R2+3 and R4+5 distally; antennae

orange (basoflagellomere may be black apically), with dark brown to
black arista; scutum with a pair of medial grey-pollinose vittae reaching
the posterior margin; scutellum yellow, with lateral angles black (the
black areas together occupy about 1/4 of the scutellum width in dorsal
view); male genitalia: ventral lobe of distiphallus flat; dorsal lobe of
basiphallus diverging for a section of about half of its total
length...............................................................................F. cuprea
- Wing membrane brown-pigmented in veins R2+3 and R4+5 distally;

antennae black including arista; scutum with a pair of medial grey-
pollinose vittae not reaching the posterior margin, or faintly reaching;
scutellum yellow, with lateral angles black (the black areas together
usually occupy about 1/3 of the scutellum width in dorsal view); male
genitalia: ventral lobe of distiphallus conical; dorsal lobe of basiphallus
diverging for a section of about 1/4 of its total
length.................................................................................F. fumipennis
235
Apndice 1
F. aurea Rondani, 1844
F. aurea Rondani, 1844: 198
Distribution: Palaearctic species confined to southern Europe: central

and southern Spain, including Balearic Islands (Fig. 1), southern France,
Italy and Greece.
Material examined:
Published: SPAIN: from the provinces of Cceres, Salamanca

(Marcos-Garca, 1985), Ciudad Real (Ricarte & Marcos-Garca, 2008;
Ricarte, 2008) and Mallorca (Gil Collado, 1930; Compte-Sart, 1958).
New: SPAIN: Alicante: Agres: 5, Caveta del Voltor (30SYH161937, 1200m),
11.IX.2001; 1, 11-25.IX.2001; 1, 10-24.IX.2002; 2, 24.IX-7.X.2002; 1, Foia Ampla
(30SYH169931, 1060m), 11-25.IX.2001; 1, 10-24.IX.2002, leg. C. Prez-Ban, M.A.
Marcos-Garca & S. Rojo; Alcoy: 1, Font Roja, 10-24.IX.1992; 2, 8-22.X.1992, leg. F.
Luna; 25 and 4, 21.IX.1993; 1, 29.IX.1993, leg. P.M. Isidro; 1, El Menejador
(30SYH143819, 1350m), 27.VIII-10.IX.2002; 1, 22.IX.2004, leg. A. Ricarte; Jijona: 1,
Venta de la Carrasqueta (30SYH191770, 980m), 11-26.IX.2001; 4 and 1, 10/24-IX-
2002; 1, 7-21.X.2002, leg. C. Prez-Ban, M.A. Marcos-Garca & S. Rojo; 1 and 1,
Mas de Sant Ignaci (30SYH187766, 1020m), 17-31.VII.2001; 2, 11-26.IX.2001, leg. C.
Prez-Ban, M.A. Marcos-Garca & S. Rojo; 1, Mas de Cano (30SYH201775, 940m), 10-
24.IX.2002, leg. C. Prez-Ban, M.A. Marcos-Garca & S. Rojo; Ciudad Real: 1 from
larva collected in a root hole of a Q. faginea tree in P.N. de Cabaeros, valle de
Canalejas, 1.V.2005 by T. Jover (puparium/30.V.2005, adult/?, puparium was not
preserved); collected by emergence trap: 4, Valle Santiago, trap 7, 24.9.2009, in a
hole of Q. pyrenaica; 4 and 1, Valle Santiago, trap 16, 26.10.2009, in a hole of Q.
pyrenaica; 2, trap 16, 26.10.2009, in a hole of Q. faginea, leg.: Mic, Quinto & Briones,
det. Z. Nedeljkovi; 11, trap 16, in a hole of Q. faginea, leg.: Mic, Quinto & Briones,
det.: A. Ricarte. Salamanca: 1, Las Veguillas, 12.IX.1979, leg. M.A. Marcos-Garca;
Valencia: Chelva: 2, Fuente de la Esparraguera (XJ6289, 990m), 6.X.1993; 10 and
1, Mas de Caballero (XJ6190, 1000m), 24.IX-8.X.1994; 12 and 5, 8-22.X.1994;
7 and 2, 22.X-5.XI.1994, leg. C. Prez-Ban; Utiel: 1 and 3, Casas Medina
(XJ5787, 920m), 17.X.1993; 2, Atalaya del Remedio (XJ6088, 1310m), 24.IX.1994.
236
Taxonomic notes
The type material of F. aurea was collected in Italy and is
deposited in the Museo di Storia Naturale, University of Florence,
Sezione La Specola, Italy. Rondani did not designate a holotype, and
described this species based on multiple specimens (Christian F.
Thompson, pers. com.).
This species is unequivocally distinguished by the presence of a

dark brown to black facial vitta extending from the mouth edge to the
base of the antennae. The male genitalia are similar to F. ruficornis
genitalia.
Biology (Table 1)
The preferred habitats of this species are over-mature forests of

Quercus pubescens Willd, Quercus ilex L. or Quercus suber L. Despite
larva not being described, T. Jover collected an early stage (larva or
puparium) of this species in a root hole of an old Q. faginea Lam tree in
Cabaeros National Park, Spain (puparium not preserved). Moreover,
specimens collected by emergence trap in the same locality allowed an
association between this Ferdinandea species and Q. pyrenaica to be
established. These are the first known breeding site data on F. aurea.
Flight period (Iberian Peninsula): mid July to beginning of December.
Conservation
Europe. Exhibiting a moderate decrease of populations. It is

threatened with extinction in the Continental region sensu Romau
(1996).
Iberian Peninsula. Although F. aurea populations seem to be decreasing

in Europe, profuse samplings in some localities of the Iberian Peninsula
have shown its high abundance; for instance, it is the most abundant
237
Apndice 1
saproxylic hoverfly in Cabaeros National Park (Ricarte et al., 2009) and,

as shown by our results, it is widespread in some protected areas of
south-eastern Spain (Caveta del Voltor, Foia Ampla, El Menejador, Venta
de la Carrasqueta, Mas de Sant Ignaci, Mas de Cano; all these localities
belong to the Sierra de Mariola and Font Roja natural parks). Despite
abundant in some localities, further studies to assess the status of F.
aurea populations in the rest of its Iberian range are in need. The
provided data on breeding sites contribute in focusing on Quercus
forests, if protection for this species was required.
F. cuprea (Scopoli, 1763)
Conops cupreus Scopoli, 1763: 355
Distribution: Palaearctic species distributed from Fennoscandia

south to southern Spain (Fig. 2) and North Africa (Algeria) and round the
Mediterranean through southern Europe to Turkey; from Ireland
eastwards through central/northern parts of Eurasia to the Pacific coast
of Siberia and Japan.
Material examined:
Published: ANDORRA: Carles-Tolr (2006); PORTUGAL: from the

former province of Minho (Corti, 1903); SPAIN: from the provinces of
Vizcaya (Seebold, 1903), Asturias, Huesca, Madrid, Segovia (Arias, 1912;
Gil Collado, 1930), Barcelona (Navs, 1901; Gil Collado, 1930), Cceres,
Salamaca (Marcos-Garca, 1985) [part as F. nigrifrons (Egger, 1860),
except for the specimens re-identified as F. fumipennis in Ricarte &
Marcos-Garca (2007)], Len [Marcos-Garca (1990), as F. nigrifrons]; data
on the specimens deposited in MNCN, all pre-identified as F. cuprea:
238
2, Panticosa, Escalera (MNCN_Ent N Cat. 41243 and 41207); 1 and

1, Escorial, Arias Encobet, Mercet, VII.1905 (MNCN_Ent N Cat. 41255
and 41214); 1, Paular (MNCN_Ent N Cat. 41236); 1, Covadonga, IIV
928 J. Dusmet (MNCN_Ent N Cat. 41208); 1, La Granja, Arias Encobet,
F. cuprea Scop J. Gil det. (MNCN_Ent N Cat. 41220).
New: SPAIN: Ciudad Real: collected by emergence traps: 2, P.N. Cabaeros,
2
El Brezoso, 23.4.2009, in a hole of Q. pyrenaica; 1, Valle Santiago, 8 , 26.6.2009, in a
hole of Q. pyrenaica, leg.: Mic, Quinto & Briones.
Additional: FRANCE: 1, Rambt, 30.5.04, Coll. J. Villeneuve, F. ruficornis F,
R.M.H.N.Beig. 15.392; 1, Rambouillet, 24.V.10, Coll. J. Villeneuve, F. ruficornis F,
R.M.H.N.Beig. 15.392; 1, BrotVernet, H. du Buysson, Coll. J. Villeneuve, F. ruficornis
F, R.M.H.N.Beig. 15.392 [RBINS]. All specimens deposited in RBINS were re-identified by
A. Ricarte. SERBIA: specimens published in Vuji et al. (1998) and Vuji & imi (1994)
[NS]. NON-LOCATED: 1, Visf., juin 80, Collection Maurissen, Van der Wulp det.: F.
ruficornis F.; 1, Aidderf, Aug 67, Collection Maurissen, Van der Wulp det.: F. ruficornis
F. [RBINS].
Taxonomic notes
The type specimen of F. cuprea was collected in Carniola, the
current province of Kranjska, Slovenia. This specimen is lost because
Scopolis collection was destroyed (Christian F. Thompson, pers. com.).
Regarding its identification: in spite of the antenna being mostly
orange (antennal arista is always dark brown to black), some specimens
have the basoflagellomere black apically; the scutum has four silvery-
pollinose vittae and the medial pair reaches the posterior margin of the
scutum; the scutellum is yellow with black corners (up to 1/4 of the
scutellum width in dorsal view is black); setae on scutellum are mostly
black; both the 2nd and 3rd terga have a dull band reaching the posterior
margin; some specimens show dull areas in the central and lateral parts
of each of the 2nd and 3rd terga posteriorly, but in other specimens the
239
Apndice 1
dull areas only occur in the lateral parts posteriorly; pilosity on both
posterior anepisternum and 4th sternum ranges from completely yellow
to partly black.
Biology (Table 1)
The preferred habitats of this species are deciduous forests with
over-mature trees, including alluvial forests of Populus-Salix, Carpinus-
Quercus, acidophilous Quercus forests and Q. pubescens and Betula
forests. Larvae are found in semi-aqueous material in Populus trees
damaged by C. cossus L. They have also been collected in tree wounds
and sap runs on the trunks of living deciduous trees (Quercus, Acer,
Aesculus, Betula, Malus, Populus, Salix and Ulmus). We report a hole in
Q. pyrenaica as a new breeding site for this species. Flight period (Iberian
Peninsula): March-September, not found in June.
Conservation
Europe. Widespread and unthreatened.

Iberian Peninsula. Restricted exclusively to the northern half of the
Peninsula (Fig. 2). It is not as locally-abundant as F. aurea or F.
fumipennis (e.g., see Ricarte et al., 2009), even in northern localities
(Marcos-Garca, 1985). There are no enough data to regard F. cuprea as
threatened in the Iberian Peninsula but it appear to be rarer than F.
aurea and F. fumipennis.
F. fumipennis Kassebeer, 1999
F. fumipennis Kassebeer, 1999: 155
Distribution: Ibero-Maghreb endemic reported from Spain,

including Balearic Islands (Fig. 3), Morocco and Tunisia.
240
Material examined:
Published: SPAIN: from the provinces of Alicante, Ciudad Real,

Mallorca, Murcia, Salamanca and Valencia (Ricarte & Marcos-Garca,
2007; Ricarte et al., 2007; Carles-Tolr & Lencina, 2010).
New: SPAIN: Alicante: Jijona: 1, Venta de la Carrasqueta, 10-23.IV.2002 [NS];
1, 23.IV-15.V.2002, leg. C. Prez-Ban, M.A. Marcos-Garca & S. Rojo; 1, Alcoy, Font
Roja, 15.III.1994, leg. P.M. Isidro; Ciudad Real: P.N. Cabaeros: 1, maJ2 (Q. pyrenaica
forest, 30S371749-4359712), 5-29.X.2004; 1, 18.III-12.IV.2005; 1, maF1 (riparian
forest of Fraxinus angustifolia, 30S365590-4367922), 26.II-19.III.2005; 1, maF2 (riparian
formation of F. angustifolia, 30S365590-4367922), 28.X-18.XI.2004; 1, 19.III-13.IV.2005,
leg. A. Ricarte; Salamanca: 2, Dehesa campanario de Azaba, 13.IV.2010, leg.: M.A.
Marcos-Garca (1, point 8, ovipositing in Q. pyrenaica; 1, encina E_19_1, white sap
run).
Taxonomic notes
The holotype of F. fumipennis was collected in Morocco and,

according to Kassebeer (1999), belongs to the collection abbreviated as
DID (?). The holotype is lost, probably belonging to the private
collection of Christian F. Kassebeer. Kassebeer (1999) states that there
are several male and female paratypes from Morocco and Tunisia
deposited in the Zoological Museum, Natural History Museum of
Denmark, Copenhagen, but there is no record of this material in the
checklist of the Syrphidae types from this museum
(http://zoologi.snm.ku.dk/english/).
Regarding its identification: this species is very similar to F. cuprea; to

separate the females of both species, the wing pigmentation is a key
character, since in F. fumipennis the wing presents dark brown
pigmentation on the membrane close to veins R2+3 and R4+5 distally;
some body parts (antennae, scutellum, etc.) are darker in F. fumipennis
males than in F. cuprea males, and the genitalia are the only distinctive
241
Apndice 1
character to separate the males of both species; F. fumipennis has black

antenna, including arista, and the black areas of the scutellum are usually
larger than in F. cuprea; additionally, the pair of medial silvery-pollinose
vittae on the scutum does not reach, at least so conspicuously, the
posterior margin. Kassebeer (1999) figured the male genitalia and he
remarked that the main difference between these two closely-related
species is the structure of the hypopygium, especially in the basiphallus
and the distiphallus. In F. fumipennis the dorsal lobe of the basiphallus
diverges along 1/4 of its total length, but in F. cuprea along 1/2 of its
total length; in F. fumipennis the ventral lobe of the distiphallus is a
rounded cone in shape, but in F. cuprea it is flat; in F. fumipennis the
dorsal lobe of the distiphallus is a tapering pointing-at-the-apex process
engrossed basally, but in F. cuprea it is either not engrossed or only
gently engrossed.
Biology (Table 1)
The preferred habitats of this species are acidophilous oak forests of
Q. pyrenaica Willd and riparian forests of Fraxinus angustifolia Vahl.
Larvae have been found in material collected from a sap-run on the trunk
of a live Q. pyrenaica (Ricarte et al., 2007). Flight period (Iberian
Peninsula): late February to mid November, not found in June and
August.
Conservation
Europe. Unthreatened species, despite being restricted to the Iberian

Peninsula.
Iberian Peninsula. F. fumipennis is an Ibero-Maghreb endemic occurring

in the southern half of the Iberian Peninsula and in the Balearic Islands
(Fig. 3). It is locally more abundant than the closely related F. cuprea and
242
appears to be the second most common species, after F. aurea. Despite

abundant, the conservation of F. fumipennis in the Iberian Peninsula
stays relevant because this region represents its only known European
redoubt.
Table 1. New and reviewed data on associations Ferdinandea-tree. Bold

lettering identifies new Ferdinandea-tree associations.
Ferdinandea
species Breeding tree
F. aurea Quercus pyrenaica, Q. faginea
F. cuprea Acer, Aesculus, Betula, Malus, Populus, Quercus (including Q.

k pubescens and Q. pyrenaica), Salix, Ulmus
F. fumipennis Q. pyrenaica
F. ruficornis reared from sappy material in the burrows of Cossus cossus

k caterpillars in Quercus; Q. pyrenaica
F. ruficornis (Fabricius, 1775)
Syrphus ruficornis Fabricius, 1775: 769
First record for the Iberian Peninsula
Distribution: From Denmark south to central Spain (Fig. 4); from

Britain eastwards through central and southern Europe into European
Russia and the Caucasus, and through Siberia and Uzbekistan to the
Pacific; northern China.
Material examined:
243
Apndice 1
New: SPAIN: Ciudad Real: P.N. Cabaeros: 1, maJ1 (Q. pyrenaica forest,
30S371749-4359712), 1-24.VIII.2004; 2 and 1, 18.III-12.IV.2005; 1, 30.V-
10.VI.2004; 1, maJ2 (Q. pyrenaica forest, 30S371749-4359712), 24.VIII-12.IX.2004; 1,
18.III-12.IV.2005, leg.: A. Ricarte; xPa1, 1, 8.IV.2005 (30S379778-4357230, flying around
a mature Q. pyrenaica tree), leg.: E. Galante [as F. fumipennis in Ricarte and Marcos-
Garca (2007)]; collected by emergence trap: 2 and 4, El Brezoso (Q. pyrenaica
forest, 30S383132-4357017, 750m), 26.X.2009, in a hole of Q. pyrenaica (this trunk hole
contained a sap run exuding and flowing into the hole), leg.: Mic, Quinto & Briones.
Additional: FRANCE: 1, Rambouillet, 10.8.04, Coll. J. Villeneuve: F. ruficornis
F, R.M.H.N.Beig. 15.392 [RBINS]. All specimens deposited in RBINS were re-identified by
A. Ricarte 2010. SERBIA: specimens published in Vuji & imi (1994) [NS]. NETHERLANDS:
1, Nedlth, 10/6 86, Collection Maurissen, Van der Wulp det.: F. ruficornis F [RBINS].
NON-LOCATED: 1, Chrys. ruficornis Fbr., Coll. J. Villeneuve: F. ruficornis F,
R.M.H.N.Beig. 15.392 [RBINS].
Taxonomic notes
Fabricius did not designated a holotype nor indicate the number

of specimens forming the type series (Christian F. Thompson, pers. com.).
The only known type specimen of F. ruficornis is a female collected in
Dania (Denmark), deposited in the collection of the Natural History
Museum of Denmark, Zoological Museum, Copenhagen, Denmark. This
specimen is in poor condition because it has been attacked by Anthrenus
(Thomas Pape, pers. com.) and only wings plus head and a part of the
thorax remain; antennae are partially missing and no arista is preserved.
Regarding its identification: F. ruficornis has the characteristically

orange to light brown arista, but it is never as black as in F. fumipennis
(sometimes in F. cuprea); scutellum has mostly yellow setae; both the
2nd and 3rd terga have shiny areas centrally and laterally, but also have
dull areas centrally and postero-laterally; the posterior margin of each of
the 2nd and 3rd terga is shiny.
244
The examined Iberian specimens have only yellow hairs on 2nd

and 3rd terga, except for one specimen from Cabaeros that has a few
black hairs on the 3rd tergum posteriorly. Some additional specimens
from Great Britain and the Czech Republic presented black hairs on 2nd
and 3rd terga, sometimes only on 3rd tergum. Also a specimen from
Sweden with black hairs on 3rd tergum is known (Wouter van Steenis, in
lit.). Specimens with black hairs at least on 3rd tergum also have black
hairs on 3rd and 4th sterna. In specimens without black hairs on terga,
there are no black hairs on sterna.
Biology (Table 1)
The preferred habitats of this species are Quercus forests and
alluvial hardwood forests. The larva is not described, but has been reared
from sappy material in the burrows of C. cossus caterpillars. We report Q.
pyrenaica as a breeding site of this species. Flight period (Iberian
Peninsula): mid March to October, not found in July.
Conservation
Europe. Threatened with extinction, but in a more alarming

situation at regional level in different states of western Europe. The high
dependence of F. ruficornis on the declining moth C. cossus and on over-
mature trees ensures the hoverflys scarcity.
Iberian Peninsula. Despite Ferdinandea hoverflies have been recorded

throughout the Iberian Peninsula, F. ruficornis is only known from the
locality provided in this study (Cabaeros National Park). It certainly is a
rare species, probably threatened with extinction at Iberian level.
According to our results, Iberian populations of F. ruficornis highly
depend on over-mature forests of Q. pyrenaica.
245
Apndice 1
Figs 14. Distribution of the Ferdinandea species in the Iberian Peninsula

and Balearic Islands. 1. F. aurea; 2. F. cuprea; 3. F. fumipennis; 4. F.
ruficornis. In Fig. 2 a black circle indicates the locality of a published F.
cuprea specimen which was unavailable for the authors of this study.
Conclusions and Discussion

Following this study, the four species cited for the Palaearctic
region result in forming the Ferdinandea fauna of the Iberian Peninsula:
F. aurea, F. cuprea, F. fumipennis and F. ruficornis. The first record for the
Iberian Peninsula of F. ruficornis is provided, as well as the first records of
F. aurea for each of the Mediterranean Spanish provinces of Alicante and
Valencia. Especially relevant are the records of F. ruficornis, threatened
with extinction in different European areas (Speight et al., 2010). F.
ruficornis appears to be a species with a very restricted distribution in the
Iberian Peninsula and certainly could be considered of special relevance
246
at conservation level, since it has only been found in a protected area in

central Spain (Cabaeros National Park). In Cabaeros, all the Iberian
Ferdinandea species have been collected in different localities of several
habitat types (Ricarte & Marcos-Garca, 2008), but F. ruficornis only was
collected in a couple of Q. pyrenaica forests, which in some ways
suggests a degree of association with this tree species in the
Mediterranean region. The specimens of F. ruficornis collected by
emergence trap in Q. pyrenaica trees indicate that larva lives in rot-holes
of this tree species. These new data about F. ruficornis contribute to the
conservation value of the Q. pyrenaica forests, which have been shown
as one of the most species-rich habitats in Cabaeros (Ricarte & Marcos-
Garca, 2008). Thus Q. pyrenaica forests are each time more and more
consolidated as one of the priority habitats for conservation in central
Spain.
At taxonomic level, F. ruficornis shows a marked intra-specific

variability in some characters. For instance, there are specimens with
black hairs, at least, on 3rd tergum, but other specimens have only
yellow hairs on terga. This fact explains the non-adjustment of most of
the Iberian specimens to the key in Speight & Sarthou (2010), which is
based only on specimens with black hairs on 2nd and 3rd terga. The
variability is not only in the tergal hairs but also in the sternal hairs,
which are from all yellow to partly black. Differences in these characters
suggest the possibility to test the unity of this taxon by future molecular
analyses, and by assessing new characters studied in recent works such
as that in Doczkal & Pape (2009). These analyses may show the presence
of cryptic species within F. ruficornis, as has been reported in other
Eristalinae hoverflies (e.g. Mengual et al., 2006; Sthls et al., 2009).
247
Apndice 1
The type of F. cuprea is apparently lost forever; then a neotype

may be designated to fix the concept of F. cuprea, not so evident after
the recent description of closely-related species such as F. fumipennis,
and the high variability in colouration reported for Ferdinandea species
(Kassebeer, 1999). In spite of F. aurea seems to be a distinctive species, a
holotype should also be designated amongst the specimens that Rondani
used to base the original description (Ricarte et al., in prep).
Data on the breeding trees of F. aurea (rot-holes in Q. faginea

and Q. pyrenaica trees; Table 1) are important because it is the first
known information on the life cycle of this hoverfly species. Despite Q.
faginea also being present in north-Africa, its European distribution is
restricted to the south of the Iberian Peninsula, and also the south of
France and Italy, in accordance with a similar distribution of F. aurea. Q.
pyrenaica seem to be a broadly used tree species for breeding by
Ferdinandea species, as the larvae of all the Iberian species live on it
(Table 1).
According to the maps provided, the Mediterranean character is
evident of both F. aurea and F. fumipennis, which are distributed in the
southern half of the Iberian Peninsula. F. cuprea is distributed in the
northern half of the Iberian Peninsula, but central Spain represents a
connecting area between both faunas. We remark the high relevance of
Cabaeros as a protected area in this connecting region of the Iberian
Peninsula.
An extra effort should be made to find the early stages of F.

aurea and F. ruficornis. This is to know their full life cycles and ecological
requirements, and provide a more robust base to conserve a typically-
Mediterranean species and an endangered species, respectively (Speight
et al., 2010). In the same line, the taxonomy of F. ruficornis at Palaearctic
248
level should be definitively clarified to assess its real conservation status.

The present paper means a first approach to the taxonomy of the genus
Ferdinandea by studying the Iberian material of this genus and remarking
some of the taxonomic problems to be solved in the future (Ricarte et al.,
in prep).
Acknowledgements
We kindly thank to Dr. Martin Speight and Dr. Wouter Dekoninck
for arranging loans of specimens, as well as to Menno Reemer, Martin
Speight, Christian F. Thompson, and Henri Dirickx for providing useful
information on the studied species. Financial support was provided by
the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacin (GBIF project, CGL2008-
03310-E/BOS; CGL2009-09656-BOS), Ministerio de Educacin
(CGL2008-04472), the Serbian Ministry of Science and Tehnological
Development (scholarship 451-03-0814/2008-02/365; project 143037)
and the European Union (Life/NAT/E/000762).
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253
Apndice 2
Lo que las oquedades esconden
Marcos-Garca, M.A., Mic. E., Quinto, J., Briones, R. Galante, E., 2010. Lo
que las oquedades esconden. Cuadernos de biodiversidad 34: 3-7.
Abstract
What the hollows hide? Saproxylic insects comprise the largest

component of the biodiversity in terrestrial ecosystems. They are the
responsible for the mechanical breakdown of woody material both
directly, by tunnelling and feeding in living trees that are decaying, snags
(standing dead trees) and logs (fallen trees, portions of trunk and large
branches), or indirectly, through symbiotic relationships with fungi and
other micro-organisms that humidify wood. In this paper we open a door
to reflection about the importance of the tree holes for the saproxylic
biodiversity in the Mediterranean forests.
257
Apndice 2
.ustedes los ingleses con su fascinacin por mirar bichos a

travs de microscopios y su amor por recolectar huesos, no ven lo
minsculas que resultan todas sus preocupaciones en el esquema general
de las cosas.... Esta frase fue dirigida a Charles Darwin durante su viaje
en el Beagle por mostrar con cierta frecuencia inters por las formas
vivas poco conspicuas y principalmente por las de pequeo tamao
(DARNTON, 2006). Y en efecto, no es fcil mirar a travs de un
microscopio sin sentir fascinacin por lo que se observa. Pero siendo esto
verdad, se equivocaban en algo que vamos a intentar explicar a lo largo
de estas lneas: sus preocupaciones no eran minsculas, muy al
contrario, estaban bien justificadas y por supuesto que resultan cruciales
en el esquema general de las cosas, en este caso, en el funcionamiento
integral de los ecosistemas.
Aunque por razones obvias, lo primero que acapara nuestra
atencin al observar la naturaleza es lo ms llamativo por su tamao,
color, diseo, abundancia, etc., para entender bien los procesos
naturales del funcionamiento de nuestros ecosistemas, la observacin y
el estudio debe hacerse en todas sus escalas y en toda su dimensin,
incluyendo lo que permanece oculto a primera vista.
Existe una extensa literatura que nos facilita el conocimiento de
la riqueza e importancia florstica y faunstica que caracteriza el bosque
mediterrneo, principalmente en lo que se refiere al conocimiento de sus
vertebrados, su vegetacin y algunos pocos referidos a determinados
grupos de artrpodos. Sin embargo, muy poco se conoce de sus insectos
saproxlicos (GALANTE & MARCOS, 2004; MIC et al, 2005, 2008;
RICARTE et al., 2007, 2009; MENDEZ et al., 2010), a pesar de que en este
grupo de artrpodos, son muchas las especies que actan como
bioindicadoras del estado de conservacin de nuestros bosques,
258
constituyendo uno de los ensambles ms interesantes en todos los

ecosistemas donde se desarrollan. Vamos a explicar el porqu de esta
fascinacin y as entenderemos la importancia que tienen en el esquema
general de las cosas.
Los bosques y, concretamente, los bosques maduros son un
objetivo bsico de conservacin. Ellos albergan una gran cantidad de
madera muerta (en pie y en suelo) que constituye una fuente de
alimento y refugio para numerosas especies, de insectos,
micromamferos, aves, hongos, etc. Asimismo, en estos bosques maduros
encontramos rboles viejos de gran dimetro que ofrecen a su vez
numerosos microhbitat distintos tales como rugosidades de la corteza,
lesiones, oquedades naturales de pequeo y gran tamao etc. De entre
todos ellos, las oquedades pueden considerarse autnticas cajas sorpresa
(Fig. 1), formadas por muy diferentes motivos, algunos de ellos naturales
como la cada de un rayo o la fragmentacin de una rama por la accin
del viento, y otros favorecidos
por la accin humana como el
manejo de la poda.
Figura 1: Oquedad en un tronco

de fresno (Foto: E. Mic).
259
Apndice 2
Si nos asomamos al interior de estas oquedades y analizamos su

contenido, veremos que en ellas se almacena toda aquella materia
orgnica vegetal que, por la propia gravedad o por la accin del viento,
queda all retenida (hojas, trozos de corteza, polen, resina, frutos, etc.).
Este depsito natural, por sus propias caractersticas, mantiene elevada
humedad en su interior y acta adems de contenedor del agua de lluvia
durante variables periodos de tiempo a lo largo del ao, pudiendo ser, en
los largos periodos estivales del bosque mediterrneo, los nicos
microhbitats donde hay agua acumulada. Y es en este hbitat tan
particular, tan efmero y tan dependiente de otros factores biticos y
abiticos, incluido el azar, donde se desarrollan de un modo muy
especializado y exclusivo, los ciclos de vida de muchos invertebrados,
entre los que insectos son los ms abundantes.
En cada oquedad hay una oportunidad de vida para los
organismos saproxlicos que son aquellos que dependen de madera
muerta o daada, savia, hongos de la madera o de cualquier otra especie
saproxlica, durante alguna parte de su ciclo de vida (SPEIGHT, 1989). Por
lo tanto, en cada oquedad se desarrolla una autntica comunidad cuyos
miembros interactan entre s pudiendo convivir en oquedades del
mismo agujero organismos con mltiples formas de vida: saproxilfaga,
xilfaga, xilomicetfaga, depredadora, parsita, mutualista, etc.
Si observamos atentamente la oquedad de un rbol, no es
improbable ver los insectos que se acercan a depositar sus huevos en
ella, siendo de distintas especies segn la estacin del ao. Sin embargo,
el desarrollo y la actividad de sus fases inmaduras, permanecen ocultos a
nuestros ojos tras la oscuridad del orificio durante largos periodos de
tiempo, a veces durante varios aos, sin que exteriormente se manifieste
ningn cambio apreciable.
260
A pesar de la escasa atencin dedicada al estudio de la vida

dentro de estas oquedades, y los ecosistemas mediterrneos no son una
excepcin, stas albergan y permiten la vida animal de una gran cantidad
de especies entre las que hemos estudiado algunos insectos como son
los dpteros srfidos y el grupo ms numeroso, los colepteros. Para
hacernos una idea de la importancia numrica de estos dos grupos de
insectos, citaremos algunos datos recientes obtenidos durante el
desarrollo de dos Proyectos de Investigacin subvencionados por el
Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacin (CGL2008-04472 y CGL2009-09656
/BOS), dirigidos por la Dra. Mic y el Dr. Galante respectivamente.
Para el cumplimiento de los objetivos propuestos en estos
proyectos, lo primero es conocer las especies de insectos saproxlicos
que viven en los rboles de nuestros bosques mediterrneos. Para ello,
las prospecciones realizadas a lo largo de un ao de estudio, en un total
de 87 oquedades, nos han permitido estudiar insectos pertenecientes a
ms de 40 familias de dpteros y colepteros, habiendo identificado
hasta la fecha un total de 145 especies. Son muchas las especies que, de
no haber tenido en cuenta el estudio de las oquedades en troncos, races
y ramas de nuestros rboles, no habran sido consideradas en las
estimaciones de biodiversidad de especies animales en estos ecosistemas
mediterrneos.
Estos insectos, pertenecen al grupo de los holometbolos (con
ciclos completos de desarrollo constituidos por: huevo, larva, pupa y
adulto) cuyas fases inmaduras transcurren en el interior de la oquedad.
Los adultos nacen generalmente en su interior y al poco tiempo salen a la
luz para culminar fuera el resto de sus actividades vitales, principalmente
la reproduccin. En su fase adulta los requerimientos trficos son
distintos a lo que necesitaron en la oquedad, dependiendo ahora su
261
Apndice 2
alimentacin de otros recursos como el nctar y el polen y participando

por tanto en nuevas funciones ecolgicas como por ejemplo la
polinizacin. En esta fase adulta presentan una mayor capacidad de
dispersin que les permitir buscar y seleccionar nuevas oquedades
donde poder perpetuarse como especie, si bien muchas especies
saproxlicas presentan una muy baja capacidad de dispersin, incluso en
su fase adulta, siendo stas muy difciles de encontrar en el medio si no
es dentro de la oquedad.
Adems de la importancia cuantitativa en cuanto al nmero de
especies y de individuos, en algunos casos, es significativa la importancia
que representan estas especies como bioindicadoras del estado de
conservacin de nuestros ecosistemas. Algunas de ellas son claves en la
definicin y establecimiento de estrategias de gestin de las reas
naturales por ser sus poblaciones escasas, presentar alguna categora de
conservacin a nivel europeo, o estar en el lmite geogrfico de su
distribucin, como en el caso de Mallota dusmeti (Diptera, Syrphidae),
especie catalogada como
VULNERABLE en el Libro Rojo de
los Invertebrados de Espaa
(MARCOS-GARCA, 2006)
(Fig. 2).
Figura 2: Mallota dusmeti

(Diptera: Syrphidae) (Foto:
Jos Ignacio Pascual
www.inectariumvirtual.com).
262
Otro ejemplo de esto lo constituye el Elatrido Limoniscus

violaceus (Mller, 1821) (Fig. 3), coleptero saproxlico endmico del
continente europeo que presenta una distribucin severamente
fragmentada en todo su rango. Esta especie se encuentra incluida en el
Anexo II de la Directiva Europea Hbitat y recientemente ha sido
catalogada como EN PELIGRO en la Lista Roja de Colepteros Saproxlicos
Europeos (NIETO &
ALEXANDER, 2010).
Figura 3. Limoniscus
violaceus (Coleoptera:
Elateridade)
(Foto: E.Mic).
Asimismo, desde el punto de vista de la funcionalidad de las

especies, gran parte de la entomofauna saproxlica es la responsable de
la fragmentacin de los restos de madera tanto directamente, realizando
tneles y alimentndose en rboles en pie, en troncos o ramas
depositadas en el suelo, como indirectamente a travs de relaciones
endosimbiticas con hongos y otros microrganismos que humidifican la
madera (SPEIGHT 1989). Constituyen muchos de ellos, por lo tanto, un
ensamble que acta como descomponedores de materia vegetal,
participando en la fase de fragmentacin y facilitando, a los verdaderos
organismos degradadores (hongos y bacterias), la transformacin de la
materia orgnica en elementos inorgnicos, devolviendo as los
nutrientes al medio y cerrando el ciclo de materia y energa. Por este
263
Apndice 2
motivo, la madera muerta y la fauna saproxlica que sobre ella actua,

participan a su vez en un gran nmero de funciones ecolgicas en los
ecosistemas terrestres capturando carbono, favoreciendo la formacin
de humus y contribuyendo en definitiva al mantenimiento de la
biodiversidad y al incremento de la productividad (SCHLAGHAMERSKY,
2003; CAVALLI & MASON, 2003). En este sentido, la presencia de madera
muerta y de una adecuada comunidad descomponedora (insectos
saproxlicos) en reas boscosas, constituye un indicador de calidad y
madurez del hbitat.
Se desconoce el nmero de especies con hbitos saproxlicos en
Europa, pero slo en el grupo de los colepteros ya se cuentan por miles.
Por ejemplo, en Gran Bretaa el 7% de todos lo animales son saproxlicos
y la mitad de ellos colepteros (NIETO & ALEXANDER, 2010). Muchas de
estas especies juegan un importante papel en las interacciones
ecolgicas dentro de la comunidad saproxlica como ocurre con algunos
colepteros Cerambcidos, cuyas larvas realizan tneles en la madera
actuando como verdaderos arquitectos del ecosistema al favorecer la
creacin de microhbitats para otros insectos saproxlicos (BUSE et al.,
2008).
Por lo que hemos estudiado hasta el momento, y considerando lo
que an queda por saber, principalmente en lo que se refiere a las
interacciones de las especies dentro de la oquedad y en el contexto
general del ecosistema, la atencin dedicada al estudio de estos
organismos no debe calificarse de preocupacin minscula. Son hbitats
lentos en su formacin, con algunas caractersticas fisicoqumicas
permanentes en el tiempo, otras efmeras, pero cuyo estudio tiene una
gran trascendencia en el conocimiento de la biodiversidad, en la
conservacin de los ecosistemas forestales en general y en particular, de
264
la vida de muchos seres vivos ligada a oquedades de ejemplares maduros

de rboles.
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NAT/IT/99/6245 Bosco della Fontana (Mantova, Italy). Gianluigi Arcari
Editore, Mantova.
DARNTON, J., 2006. El secreto de Darwin. Planeta Internacional
(Ed.), Espaa, 301 pp.
GALANTE, E., MARCOS-GARCA, M A., 2004. El Bosque
Mediterrneo. Los Invertebrados. En V. GARCA-A y B. ASENSIO (eds.), La
Red espaola de Parques Nacionales. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente,
Madrid: 272-283 pp.
MARCOS-GARCA, M A., 2006. Mallota dusmeti Andru,1926.
(En: VERD y E. GALANTE editores). Libro Rojo de los Invertebrados de
Espaa: 175. D. G. Biodiversidad. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Madrid.
Figura 3. Limoniscus violaceus (Coleoptera: Elateridade) (Foto: E.Mic)
MIC, E., PADILLA, A., ALONSO, A., MARCOS-GARCA, M.A.,
JOVER, T., 2008. Biogeografa y valoracin-gestin de espacios naturales.
Valoracin del estado de conservacin del paisaje vegetal del Parque
Nacional de Cabaeros: la entomofauna saproxlica como bioindicador.
Avances en Biogeografa, 1: 86- 90.
MIC, E., MARCOS-GARCA, M.A., ALONSO, M.A., PREZ- BAN,
C., PADILLA, A., JOVER, T., 2005. Un proyecto para la conservacin de la
265
Apndice 2
entomofauna saproxlica en ecosistemas mediterrneos. Cuadernos de

Biodiversidad 17: 10-20.
MENDEZ, M., NIETO, A., MIC, E. 2010. Tesoros vivos en la
madera muerta. Quercus: 297:82.
NIETO, A., ALEXANDER, K.N.A., 2010. European Red List of
Saproxylic Beetles. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European
Union.
RICARTE, A., MARCOS-GARCA, M.A., ROTHERAY, G.E., HANCOCK,
E.G., 2007. The Early Stages and Breeding Sites of 10 Cerioidini Flies
(Diptera: Syrphidae). Annals of the Entomological cal Society of America
100(6): 914-924.
RICARTE, A., T. JOVER, MARCOS-GARCA, M.A., MIC, E. &
BRUSTEL, H., 2009. Saproxylic beetles (Coleoptera) and hoverflies
(Diptera: Syrphidae) from a Mediterranean forest: towards a better
understanding of their biology for species conservation. Journal of
Natural History, 43(9):583 607.
SCHLAGHAMERSKY, D.J., 2003. Saproxylic invertebrate of
foodplains, a particulary endangered component of biodiversity. (En:
Dead wood: a key to biodiversity. Proceedings of the International
Symposium 29-31 May 2003. Eds: F. MASON, G. NARDI & M. TISATO.
Mantova, Italy, 99p).
SPEIGHT, M.C.D., 1989. Saproxylic invertebrates and their
conservation. Strasbourg (France): Nature and Environment Series, No.
42.
266
Apndice 3
Nueva cita de Limoniscus violaceus , 1821)

(Coleoptera: Elateridae) para la regin Mediterrnea
Ibrica
New record of Limoniscus violaceus (Mller, 1821) (Coleoptera:

Elateridae) in the Iberian Mediterranean Region
Mic, E., Quinto, J., Briones, R., Brustel, H., Galante, E., 2010. Nueva cita
de Limoniscus violaceus (M ller, 1821) (Coleoptera: Elateridae) para la
regin Mediterrnea Ibrica. Boletn de la Asociacin Espaola de
Entomologa 34: 427-429.
Apndice 3
Resumen
Limoniscus violaceus (Mller, 1821) (Coleoptera: Elateridae) es un

coleptero saproxlico endmico del continente europeo donde presenta
una amplia distribucin caracterizada por estar severamente
fragmentada en todo su rango. En algunos pases como Dinamarca est
extinta (MARTN, 1989), mientras que en otros, sus poblaciones sufren
un claro declive debido fundamentalmente a un manejo inadecuado de
su hbitat (NIETO & KEITH, 2010). Esta especie se encuentra incluida en
el Anexo II de la Directiva Europea Hbitat
(http://www.mma.es/portal/secciones/biodiversidad/rednatura2000/no
rmativa/europea/europea) y recientemente ha sido cataloga como En
Peligro en la Lista Roja de Colepteros Saproxlicos Europeos (NIETO &
KEITH, 2010). Habita en rboles maduros de los gneros Fagus, Quercus y
Fraxinus con amplias cavidades, principalmente basales, donde se
acumula abundante materia orgnica derivada de la descomposicin de
la madera por hongos (LESEIGNEUR, 1972, MURRIA & MURRIA, 2004). Su
desarrollo larvario varia entre 15 a 16 meses. La fase de pupa tiene lugar
al final del verano o comienzos de otoo y el imago inverna hasta su
emergencia en la segunda mitad de la primavera (LESEIGNEUR, 1972,
LAIBNER, 2000). La larva parece ser necrfaga, alimentndose de restos
de insectos presentes en las oquedades de los troncos (RECALDE &
SNCHEZ-RUIZ, 2002).
269
Apndice 3
Se trata de una especie presente principalmente en regiones de

influencia Atlntica y Continental, siendo muy rara en robledales
termfilos Mediterrneos de donde se cuenta con escasos registros: en
Francia, la localidad de Fort de la Sainte Baume (Provence, Francia) en
Quercus pubescens (H. Brustel leg), Les Maures (Provence, Francia)
asociada a Q. suber (SERRE & BLANC, 2010), en Grecia Mont Ossa
(Larissa), asociada a Q. frenetto y a Fagus orientalis (M Egger leg, com.
pers a H. Brustel) y en Turqua, asociada a diversas especies de Quercus
(Q. cerris, Q. infectoria y Q. ithaburensis) (Jansson & Coskun, 2008)
En la pennsula Ibrica hasta ahora se conocan tan slo cuatro

registros; uno de Picos de Europa (Asturias) (MQUIGNON, 1930), dos del
Pirineo Navarro (RECALDE & SNCHEZ-RUIZ, 2002) y la ms reciente,
tambin del Pirineo, en Aragn (MURRIA & MURRIA, 2004). Con este
trabajo aportamos la cita ms meridional de la pennsula Ibrica: un
macho y una hembra, Parque Nacional de Cabaeros (Ciudad Real)
30SUJ6568, 27/06/2009 y 28/07/2009, Mic, Quinto y Briones leg.
Ambos ejemplares han sido encontrados en una fresneda termfila, ms
concretamente en oquedades basales de Fraxinus angustifolia. En el
primer caso se trata de un fresno de 2,26m de permetro (medido a
0,30cm del suelo) con una oquedad basal que albergaba en su interior un
volumen de materia orgnica de 36dm3. El otro ejemplar se encontr en
un fresno de 1,66m de permetro, en el interior de una oquedad de raz
que albergaba 21dm3 de materia orgnica. Entre la fauna acompaante
encontrada en estas oquedades destacamos otros elatridos de inters
como Elater ferrugineus Linnaeus, Ampedus (Ampedus) aurilegulus
(Schaufuss) y Megapenthes lugens (Redtenbacher).
270
Apndice 3
La presencia de esta especie en una localidad tan termfila

ampla en gran medida su distribucin conocida para la pennsula Ibrica
y revela la necesidad de un mayor esfuerzo de muestreo de Limoniscus
violaceus en el territorio nacional dirigido fundamentalmente a las
cavidades basales de rboles de gran talla de los gneros Quercus y
Fraxinus.
Agradecimientos
Queremos agradecer a todo el personal de Parque Nacional de

Cabaeros su inestimable apoyo en la realizacin de este trabajo, as
como a J.L. Zapata de la Vega por su ayuda en la confirmacin
taxonmica de la especie. Trabajo Financiado por los Proyectos del
Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacin, CGL2008-04472 y CGL2009-09656.
Bibliografa
JANSSON, N. & M. COSKUN. 2008. How similar is the saproxylic

beetle fauna on old oaks (Quercus spp.) in Turkey and Sweden?. Revue
dEcologie-La Terre et la Vie, Supplment 10: 91-99.
LAIBNER, S. 2000. Elateridae of the Czech and Slovak Republics.

Vt Kabourek Ed. Zln. 292 pp.
LESEIGNEUR, L. 1972. Coloptres Elateridae de la Faune de

France continentale et de Corse. Suppl. Bull. Soc. Lin. Lyon. 379 pp.
MARTN, O. 1989. Smaeldere (Coleoptera, Elateridae) fra

grammel lovskov I Denmark. Entomologiske Meddlelser, 57: 1-107.
271
Apndice 3
MQUIGNON, A. 1930. Serricornia. En Bedel, L., 1830. Faune des

coleptres du bassin de la Seine. Vol., 4 (3). Societ Entomologique de
France: 362 pp.
MURRIA, F. & A. MURRIA. 2004. Presencia de Limoniscus

violaceus (Mller, 1821) en Aragn (Espaa) (Coleoptera, Elateridae).
Boln. S.E.A., 35: 293.
NIETO, A. & K.N.A. ALEXANDER. 2010. European Red List of

Saproxylic Beetles. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European
Union.
RECALDE, J. I. & A. SNCHEZ-RUIZ, 2002. Elateridae (Coleoptera)

forestales de Navarra (II). Recaptura de Limoniscus violaceus (Mller,
1821) en la Pennsula Ibrica y comentarios sobre su distribucin,
biologa y status. Boln. SEA, 30: 161-163.
SERRES, E. & M. BLANC. 2010. Nouvelles donnes sur la biologie

et la repartition de Limoniscus violaceus (P.W.J. Mller, 1821)
(Coleoptera, Elateridae). Bulletin Rutilans XIII-1: 16-20.
272
Agradecimientos
Apndice 4
Mallota dusmeti Andru, 1926
Marcos-Garca, M.A., Quinto, J., 2011. Mallota dusmeti Andru, 1926.

Atlas y Libro rojo de los Invertebrados Amenazados de Espaa (Especies
Vulnerables). Vol: I. Editorial Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Medio Rural
y Marino, pp. 360-364.
Apndice 4
275
Apndice 4
276
Apndice 4
277
Apndice 4
278
Apndice 4
279
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Diversidad, ecologa y conservacin de

insectos saproxlicos (Coleoptera y Diptera:

Javier Quinto Cnovas

Diversidad, ecologa y conservacin de insectos saproxlicos

Javier Quinto Cnovas

Diversity, ecology and conservation of saproxylic insects (Coleoptera and

Javier Quinto Cnovas

Instituto de investigacin CIBIO

Centro Iberoamericano de la Biodiversidad

Memoria presentada por el Licenciado Javier Quinto Cnovas para

Fdo. Javier Quinto Cnovas

1.2. Situacin en Europa y en la Pennsula Ibrica..19

1.4. rea de estudio: El Parque Nacional de Cabaeros.23

1.5. Grupos taxonmicos objeto de estudio...27

1.6. Objetivos de la tesis doctoral28

Captulo 2. Effectiveness of three sampling methods to survey

Captulo 3. Breaking down complex saproxylic communities:

Captulo 4. Influence of tree hollow microenvironmental

Apndice 2. Lo que las oquedades esconden255

Apndice 4. Mallota dusmeti Andru, 1926273

Quiero empezar agradeciendo a las personas que un da me

Al Dr. Eduardo Galante por todo el apoyo profesional, econmico

A los proyectos CGL2008-04472, CGL2009-09656 y CGL2011-

A la Administracin y al personal del Parque Nacional de

Al Instituto CIBIO por poner a mi disposicin todos sus medios. A

A todo el personal de administracin y servicios del CIBIO, los

enorme paciencia y buen hacer. A Jos Carlos por las conversaciones y

A Roderic Pla por prestarme la hermosa foto de Fresneda de

Al Instituto de Ecologa de Xalapa, A.C., por permitirme realizar

Un especial agradecimiento al Dr. Vctor Rico y la Dra. Cecilia Daz

Al Dr. Herv Brustel, por su inestimable ayuda en la

Tambin agradecer a todos los taxnomos que participaron en la

A mis compaer@s del doctorado, mis compaer@s de fatigas.

Regarding profundamente my CIBIO compis. Ana Paola, eres una

A mi comitiva de organizacin: Cinta Quirce, Alejandra Lpez,

A todos los amig@s que ya acabaron su tesis, ovipositaron y nos

A todos los amig@s que an continan entesinados o similar. A

Agradecer mucho a mi familia, mis padres Domingo y Nieves, mis

A todos mis amigos de Albatera, quienes empezaron a modelar y

A Laura, mi alma gemela, quien siempre me valora y estimula

Gracias a tod@s los amigos de la carrera y afines: Marraya-lex,

Agradecer muchsimo a mi gran familia de Alicante, grandes

A los Jvenes Entomlogos Espaoles, ese gran grupo de

A mis variopintos amigos mexicanos, artistas y/o cientficos. Mis

Resumen y estructura de la tesis

Los insectos saproxlicos representan una gran biodiversidad en

En los ltimos aos, los bosques mediterrneos han suscitado un

componente de especies raras o endmicas, y donde confluyen especies

Esta tesis doctoral en primer lugar busca conocer qu especies de

Esta tesis doctoral est estructurada en cuatro captulos seguidos

En el captulo 1 se realiza una introduccin general sobre los

En los captulos 2 al 4 y en los Apndices 1-4 se recogen los

En el captulo 2 se evala la efectividad de tres mtodos de

En el captulo 3 se analiza qu propiedades o patrones tpicos de

grados de interaccin: 1) red completa; 2) subredes de acuerdo al uso de

En el captulo 4 se estudia la diversidad y composicin de los

En los captulos 2 y 4 se describen diferentes medidas de

De acuerdo al conjunto de resultados obtenidos se realiza una

En los Apndices 1-4 quedan recogidos otros trabajos cientficos

informacin complementaria sobre la distribucin, hbitats de desarrollo