PASOS21 Special

PASOS
Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural

Volumen 8, Número 3, 2010
Special Issue - Número Especial

Cities as Creative Spaces for Cultural Tourism
Ciudades como espacios creativos para el Turismo Cultural
ISSN 1695-7121
www.pasosonline.org
Instituto Universitario de Ciencias Políticas y Sociales

Universidad de La Laguna (España)
COMITÉ EDITORIAL
DIRECTOR: Agustín Santana Talavera Editor adjunto: Eduardo Parra López

I.U. Ciencias Políticas y Sociales Dpto. Economía y Dir. Empresas
Universidad de La Laguna Universidad de La Laguna
E-mail: asantana@ull.es E-mail: eparra@ull.es
Coordinadores Book Review: Vocal: José Pascual Fernández

Raúl Hernández Martín I.U. Ciencias Políticas y Sociales
Dpto. Economía Aplicada Universidad de La Laguna (España)
Universidad de La Laguna E-mail: jpascual@ull.es
E-mail: rahernan@ull.es
Luisa Andreu Simó Vocal: Alejandro Alvarado Herrera

Dpto. Comercialización e Investigación de Universidad de Quintara Roo (México)
Mercados E-mail: aah@uqroo.mx
Universidad de Valencia (España)
E-mail: Luisa.Andreu@uv.es Secretaria: Carmen Vera Estévez
I.U. Ciencias Políticas y Sociales
Universidad de La Laguna (España)
E-mail: cdvera@ull.es
EDICIÓN: Varadero Informática
CONSEJO CIENTÍFICO ASESOR
Alenka Verbole. Education de velopment Gemma McGrath. Univ. of the A rts Lo ndon
coordinator (OSCE) (Inglaterra)
Alessandro Simonicca. Univ. “ La Sa pienza” di Julio Grande. Asesor de Proyectos, Sepinum
Roma (Italia) (España )
Álvaro López Gallero. Univ. de la Repú blica Llorenç Prats i Canalls. Univ. de B arcelona
(Uruguay) (España)
Anya Diekmann. Univ. Li bre de Bruxelles Margaret Hart Univ. de Las Palm as d e Gran
(Bélgica) Canaria (España)
Artur Cristovao. Univ. de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Margarita Barretto. Fund. Univ. Reg. Blumenau
Douro (Portugal) (FURB) Univ. Fed. Santa Catarina (UFSC) (Brasil)
Aurora Pedro Bueno. Uni v. de Va lencia María D. Álvarez. Bogazici University (Turquía)
(España) Marianna Sigalas. Aegen Univ. (Grecia)
Christou Evangelos. Aegen Univ. (Grecia) Michael Riley. Univ.of Surrey (Inglaterra)
Dallen J. Timothy. Brigham Young Univ. (USA) Raoul Bianchi. Univ. of East London (R eino
Daniel Hiernaux. Univ. Autónoma Metropolitana Unido)
(México) Regina Schlüter. Centro de I nvestigaciones y
Davis Gruber Sansolo. Univ. Anhembi-Morumbi Estudios Turísticos (Argentina)
(Brasil) Richard W. Butler. Univ. o f Strath clyde
Diego Medina Muñoz. Univ. d e Las Palmas de (Escocia)
Gran Canaria (España) Rosana Guevara Ramos. Univ. A utónoma
Dimitrios Buhalis. Univ. of B ournemouth Metropolitana (México)
(Inglaterra) Thomas George Baum. Univ. of Stra thclyde
Elizabette Tamanini. IELUSC Jo inville/Santa (Escocia)
Catarina (Brasil) Vicente Monfort Mir. Univ. Jaume I (España)
Elisabeth Kastenholz. Univ. de Avei ro Yolanda Bethencourt. Univ. de La L aguna
(Portugal) (España)
Enrique Bigne Alcañiz. Univ. de Va lencia
(España)
Francisco Calero García. Univ. La Laguna Detalles de filiación institucional en
(España) pasosonline.org
© PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural. D.L. TF-2059/2002 ISSN 1695-7121

Revista cuatrimestral gratuita de distribución en web
http://www.pasosonline.org E-mail: info@pasosonline.org
PASOS. REVISTA DE TURISMO Y PATRIMONIO CULTURAL
GUÍA DE ESTILO PARA AUTORES
Revista indexada en: DOAJ; Latindex; ISOC; Redalyc; DICE; E-Revistas; CAB-Abstract
PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural es una Palabras clave: se indicarán 5 – 7 palabras clave sobre
publicación en web que se especializa en el análisis el tema principal.
académico y empresarial de los distintos procesos que Texto: El texto debe ser escrito a 1,5 de espaciado y
se desarrollan en el sistema turístico, con especial con una extensión de 5.000 a 9.000 palabras para
interés a los usos de la cultura, la naturaleza y el artículos y de 3.000 a 5.000 tanto para opiniones y
territorio, la gente, los pueblos y sus espacios, el ensayos como para notas de investigación, incluyendo
patrimonio integral. Desde una perspectiva inter y Título, Datos Biográficos de los autores, Resumen,
transdisciplinar solicita y alienta escritos venidos desde Introducción, los apartados que se estimen oportunos,
las ciencias y la práctica administrativo‐empresarial. Su Conclusión, Agradecimientos (si fuera pertinente) y
objetivo es cumplir con el papel de foro de exposición y Bibliografía.
discusión de metodologías y teorías, además de la Cuadros, Gráficos e Imágenes: los artículos pueden
divulgación de estudios y experiencias. Pretende incluir cualquier grafismo que se estime necesario.
contribuir a otros esfuerzos encaminados a entender el Deberán estar referidos en el textos y/o situados
turismo y progresar en las diversas formas de convenientemente y acompañados por un pie que los
prevención de efectos no deseados, pero también identifique. Pueden utilizarse colores, pero ha de
perfeccionar la manera en que el turismo sirva de tenerse en consideración la posibilidad de una
complemento a la mejora y desarrollo de la calidad de publicación en soporte papel en blanco y negro.
vida de los residentes en las áreas de destino. Abreviaciones y acrónimos: deberán ser bien
deletreados y claramente definidos en su primer uso
PERIODICIDAD: ENERO; ABRIL; OCTUBRE en el texto.
Citas y Bibliografía: En el texto las referencias
Estilo: Para simplificar el proceso de revisión y bibliográficas harán referencia al autor y el año de
publicación se pide a los colaboradores que se ajusten publicación de la obra citada. Por ejemplo: (Smith,
estrictamente a las normas editoriales que a 2001) o (Nash, 1990; Smith, 2001). Cuando se
continuación se indican. considere necesaria una cita más precisa se indicará el
Entrega de originales: los trabajos deberán ser número de página (Smith, 2001: 34). La lista
remitidos a la dirección electrónica bibliográfica al final del texto seguirá el orden
info@pasosonline.org indicando en el Asunto (al alfabético de autores, siguiendo el formato:
remitir el correo): PARA PUBLICACIÓN Smith, Valene L. y Brent, Maryann
Idioma: Los trabajos serán publicados en el idioma en 2001 “Introduction to Hosts and guests revisited:
el que sean entregados (español, portugués, inglés o Tourism issues of the 21st century”. En Smith, Valene
francés). L. y Brent, Maryann (Eds.), Hosts and guests revisited:
Márgenes: Tres centímetros en todos los lados de la Tourism issues of the 21st century (pp. 1‐14). New
página. York: Cognizant Communication.
Tipografía: Se utilizará en el texto la letra Times New Smith, Valene L.
Roman o Arial, tamaño 10, o similar. En las notas se 1998 “War and tourism. An American Ethnography”.
utilizará el mismo tipo de letra a tamaño 9. No utilizar Annals of Tourism Research, 25(1): 202‐227.
diversidad de fuentes ni de tamaños. Si se desea Urry, J.
destacar alguna palabra o párrafo dentro del texto 1990 The tourist gaze. Leisure and travel in
utilizar la misma fuente en cursiva. contemporary societies. London: Sage.
Notas: siempre serán situadas al final, utilizando el Para otro tipo de publicaciones se hará constar
mismo tipo de letra que en el texto (Times New Roman siempre autor, año, título y lugar de celebración o
o Arial) a tamaño 9. publicación y un estándar para documentos
Título y datos del autor o autores: El trabajo debe ir electrónicos, indicando dirección y fecha de acceso.
encabezado por su título en minúsculas y negrita. Bajo Originalidad: Se requiere el compromiso de los autores
él se insertará el nombre del autor o autores, tanto de la originalidad de su trabajo como de no
indicando su centro de estudio (universidad, remitir su texto simultáneamente a otros medios para
departamento, etc.), empresa o administración, su publicación.
además de la especialidad y el correo electrónico de Derechos de autor y Responsabilidad: los autores
contacto. Si se desea pueden ofrecerse más datos serán los únicos responsables de las afirmaciones y
biográficos en una nota, no sobrepasando las 60 declaraciones realizadas en su texto. El equipo editorial
palabras de PASOS se reserva el derecho de utilizar en ediciones
Resumen: se debe insertar un resumen del artículo compilatorias sucesivas los artículos editados.
(110 – 120 palabras) en el idioma en que está escrito y Trabajos sometidos a evaluación por pares anónimos
su traducción al inglés. Para los artículos escritos en externos a la revista. Se notificará a los autores el
inglés se aportará su traducción al español. resultado de la revisión realizada mediante una ficha
resumen del arbitrio.

PASOS. REVISTA DE TURISMO Y PATRIMONIO CULTURAL
GUÍA DE ESTILO PARA AUTORES
Revista indexada en: DOAJ; Latindex; ISOC; Redalyc; DICE; E-Revistas; CAB-Abstract
PASOS. Revista de Turismo e Patrimônio Cultural é uma Palavras‐chave: o texto deve conter entre 5 e 7

publicação eletrônica especializada na análise palavras‐chave sobre o tema principal.
acadêmica e corporativa dos distintos processos Texto: O texto deve ser escrito com entrelinhas 1,5 e
relacionados ao sistema turístico, com interesse com uma extensão entre 5.000 e 9.000 palavras para
especial pelos usos da cultura, natureza e território, a artigos e de 3.000 a 5.000 tanto para opiniões e
gente, os povos e seus espaços, é dizer, o patrimônio ensaios como para notas de investigação. Os artigos
integral. A partir de uma perspectiva inter e devem conter título, dados biográficos dos autores,
transdisciplinar, PASOS solicita e encoraja o envio de resumo, introdução, as divisões internas que se
escritos vindos das ciências e da prática administrativo‐ julguem necessárias, conclusão, agradecimientos (se
empresarial. Seu objetivo é cumprir o papel de fórum pertinente) e referências.
de debates de metodologias e teorias, além da Quadros, Gráficos e Imagens: Os artículos podem
divulgação de estudos e experiências. PASOS pretende conter quaisquer imagens que se façam necessárias.
contribuir, juntamente com esforços oriundos de Elas deverão estar referidas no texto e/ou situadas
outras áreas, para a compreensão do turismo e convenientemente e acompanhadas por uma
avançar sobre as diversas formas de prevenção de identificação. Pode‐se utilizar imagens coloridas,
efeitos não desejados, bem como aperfeiçoar‐se à embora se deva avaliar a possibilidde de utilizá‐la em
medida em que o turismo sirva de complemento à formato papel, em branco e preto.
melhoria da qualidade de vida dos residentes nas áreas Abreviações e acrônimos: Deverão ser definidos
de destino turístico. claramente no seu primeiro uso no texto.
Citações e Referência: No texto as referências
PERIODICIDADE: JANEIRO; ABRIL; OUTUBRO bibliográficas devem apontar o autor e o ano de de
publicação da obra citada. Por exemplo: (Smith, 2001)
Estilo: Para simplificar o proceso de revisão e ou (Nash, 1990; Smith, 2001). Caso seja necessária uma
publicação pede‐se aos colaboradores que seus textos citação mais precisa se indicará o número de página
se ajustem estritamente às normas editoriais indicadas (Smith, 2001: 34). A lista bibliográfica ao final do texto
em seguida. seguirá em ordem alfabética de autores, de acordo
Entrega de originais: os trabalhos deverão ser com o seguinte formato:
enviados para a direção eletrônica Smith, Valene L. y Brent, Maryann
info@pasosonline.org indicando “PARA PUBLICAÇÃO” 2001 “Introduction to Hosts and guests revisited:
no espaço Assunto do correio eletrônico. Tourism issues of the 21st century”. En Smith, Valene
Idioma: Os trabalhos serão publicados no idioma em L. y Brent, Maryann (Eds.), Hosts and guests revisited:
que forem entregues (espanhol, português, inglês ou Tourism issues of the 21st century (pp. 1‐14). New
francês). York: Cognizant Communication.
Margens: Três centímetros em todos os lados da Smith, Valene L.
página. 1998 “War and tourism. An American Ethnography”.
Tipografia: Deve‐se utilizar no texto as fontes Times Annals of Tourism Research, 25(1): 202‐227.
New Roman, Arial tamanho 10 ou similar. A notas Urry, J.
devem apresentar o mesmo tipo de letra, no tamanho 1990 The tourist gaze. Leisure and travel in
9. Não utilizar fontes nem tamanhos distintos no texto. contemporary societies. London: Sage.
Caso pretenda destacar alguma palavra ou parágrafo Para outros tipos de publicações deve‐se indicar autor,
utilize a mesma fonte em cursiva. ano, título e local de realização ou publicação. Para
Notas: Sempre deverão vir ao final do texto, utilizando documentos eletrônicos, deve haver um padrão,
o mesmo tipo de letra deste (Times New Roman ou indicando endereço e data de acesso.
Arial), no tamanho 9. Originalidade: Solicita‐se o compromisso dos autores
Título e dados do autor ou autores: O título do quanto à originalidade de trabalho submetido à
trabalho deverá ser redigido em letras minúsculas e em publicação e quanto ao não envio de seu texto para
negrito. O nome do autor ou autores seguirá logo otros periódicos ou outros meios enquanto este estiver
abaixo, indicando a instituição de origem sob avaliação em PASOS.
(universidade, departamento, empresa, etc.), a Direitos autorais e Responsabilidade: os autores são
especialidade e o correio eletrônico para contato. os únicos responsáveis pelas afirmações e declarações
Pode‐se inserir dados biográficos adicionais em uma contidas em seu texto. A equipe editorial de PASOS se
nota desde que esta não ultrapase 60 palavras. reserva ao direito de utilizar os artigos já editados em
Resumo: O artigo deve vir acompanhado de um compilações posteriores.
resumo no idioma em que está escrito (110 – 120 Trabalhos submetidos a avaliação por pares anônimos
palavras) e sua tradução em inglês (resumo e titulo). externos à revista. Os autores serão notificados sobre
Para os artigos escritos em inglês deve‐se acrescentar o resultado da avalição de seu texto mediante uma
um resumo em espanhol. ficha‐resumo do avaliador.

PASOS. JOURNAL OF TOURISM AND CULTURAL HERITAGE
NOTES ON STYLE FOR CONTRIBUTORS
Journal indexing: DOAJ; Latindex; ISOC; Redalyc; DICE; E-Revistas; CAB-Abstract
Pasos. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Heritage Key words: A list of 5 – 7 key words should be
is an i nternet publication dedicated t o the aca- provided, wh ich relate to th e p rincipal th emes in
demic and m anagement-based a nalysis o f t he the article.
diverse pro cesses in scribed with in th e tourist Text: Articles should be type d, 1.5 s paces apart,
system, with a particular emphasis on the uses of exceeding no m ore than 9,000 words (m ax. 35
culture, th e en vironment an d territo ry, people, pages), including the title, biographic information,
communities a nd spaces, int egral heritage. It en- abstract, i ntroduction, rel evant ap pendices, co n-
courages articles fro m inter and trans-disciplinary clusion, ac knowledgements (i f rel evant) an d bib-
perspectives, f rom bot h sci entific and m anage- liography.
ment points of view. Its objective is to prov ide a Tables, Diagrams and Figures: These ca n be
forum for t he di scussion o f methodologies an d included in t he article where neces sary. The y
theories as well as the present ation of case st udies should be referenced in the main text and/or situ-
and the results of em pirical research. It hopes to ated where c onvenient a nd accompanied by an
contribute t o on going de bates sur rounding at - explanatory su b-heading. C olour graphics c an be
tempts to comprehend the phenomenon of tourism used.
and to develop diverse approaches to the preven- Abbreviations and Acronyms: These sh ould be
tion of the undesirable consequences of tourism as spelt ou t in full an d clearly d efined wh ere th ey
well as enh ance the quality of life of th e residents initially appear in the text.
of tourist destinations. References and Bibliography: The st andard
Harvard sy stem shoul d be use d, i ndicating t he
Frequency: January; April; October author and da te of p ublication of the rel evant
work. For example: (Smith, 2001) or (Nash, 1990;
STYLE: In order to simplify the process of edit- Smith 2 001). Where it is necessary to in clude a
ing a nd publication co ntributors a re re quested t o more p recise citatio n th e page nu mber should be
comply with the following editorial guidelines: included (Smith, 2 001: 34). The bibliography
Submission of original manuscripts: papers should be i n a lphabetical ord er at t he end of t he
should b e sent to th e following em ail a ddress: article, and written in the following format:
revista.pasos@canarias.org i nserting F OR PUB - Smith, Valene L. and Brent, Mary-Ann
LICATION in the ‘Subject’ box. 2001 “Int roduction to hosts and guests revisited:
Language: Articles will b e published i n t he lan- Tourism i ssues of t he 21st century”. In
guage in which they are submitted. Smith, Valene L. & B rent, Mary-Ann
Margins: 3 centimetres on all sides. (Eds.), Hosts and guests revisited: Tourism
Font: Times New Roman or A rial, in 10-point or issues in the 21st century (p p. 1-1 4). New
similar. Th e sam e fo nt shou ld b e used in th e York: Cognizant Communications.
footnotes, bu t in 9 -point. Th ere should be no Smith, Valene L.
variation in fonts or text size throughout the text. 1998 “W ar and to urism. An Am erican ethnogra-
Highlighted pa ragraphs o r w ords sh ould be i ndi- phy”. Annals of Tourism Research, 25( 1):
cated in italics. 202-227
Notes: These should always be placed at the end Urry, J.
of th e article an d written in th e sam e fo nt as th e 1990 The tourist gaze: leisure and travel in
main body ( Times New R oman or A rial) i n 9- contemporary societies. London: Sage
point.
Title and author note(s): The title o f th e article For other ki nds of publications, t he name of t he
should be written in lower case and highlighted in author, date of publica tion, title and place of pub-
bold, at the top of t he first page. Thi s should be lication/conference title, should be stated.
accompanied by the aut hor(s) full nam e(s) and
title(s), indicating clearly their institutional affilia- Rights and Obligations of the Author: The
tion, specialism and email address. If it is desired, authors are entirely responsible for t he content of
further biographic det ails may be i nserted i n a the article. The editors reserve the right to re-print
separate note, not exceeding 60 words. articles which appear, in subsequent collections.
Abstract: An abstract m ust be include d (m ax.
110-120 words) in the same language as th e main All papers are subject to external and anony-
article. This should be acc ompanied by a t ransla- mous evaluation, the results of which shall be
tion in English, or, Spanish, if the language of the communicated to author(s), so that they heed
article is English. observations and recommendations.

Revista gratuita de distribución en web
www.pasosonline.org
Volumen 8, Número 3 Abril 2010
Special Issue / Número Especial
Cities as Creative Spaces for Cultural Tourism

Ciudades como espacios creativos para el Turismo Cultural
ÍNDICE
Editorial
Duygu Salman Rethinking of Cities, Culture and Tourism within a 1

Creative Perspective
Artículos
Evinc Dogan Reimaging the City: Istanbul towards Globalization 7

and Commodifi-cation
Marian Walker Cities as Creative Spaces for Cultural Tourism: A 17

Plea for the Con-sideration of History
Ebru Kuzgun Perceptions of Local People Regarding Istanbul as a 27

Tuğçe Gökseli European Capital of Culture
Deniz Özalpi
Billur Someri
Maria D. Alvarez
Paolo Rizzi From Strategic Planning to City Branding: Some 39

Ilaria Dioli Empirical Evidence in Italy
Şebnem Gökçen Dündar Rise of Culture and Fall of Planning in Izmir, 51

Turkey
Elitza Iordanova-Krasteva The Ambiguous Image of Linz: Linz09 – European 67

Eugenia Wickens Capital of Cul-ture
Ali Bakir
Hulya Kurgun The Effect of Country Based Image in Accurance of 79

Brand in Cul-tural Destinations
Patricia Oom do Valle Sustainable Cultural Events Based on Marketing 91

Júlio Mendes Segmentation: The Case of Faro Capital of Culture
Özen Kırant Yozcu A Model Proposal on the Use of Creative Tourism 105
Orhan İçöz Experiences in Congress Tourism and the Congress
Marketing Mix
Reseñas de publicaciones
Burçin Hatipoğlu Tourism and the branded city: film and identity on 115
the Pacific rim. (Stephanie H. Donald and John G.
Gammack)
Dilek Ünalan Environment and tourism (Andrew Holden) 119


Dinámicas de transformación del Turismo en el
siglo XXI
Tenerife (Islas Canarias), 17, 18 y 19 noviembre 2010
Escuela Universitaria de Ciencias Empresariales (Univ. de La Laguna)

Cº de la Hornera S/N. Edificio de Ciencias Económicas y Empresariales
NORMAS PARA PRESENTACIÓN DE TRABAJOS:
1. Las comunicaciones/posters deberán tratar sobre cualquiera de los temas relacionados con el título del congreso.
El Comité Científico podrá considerar la no admisión de algún trabajo al considerar que no se adecua a la temática
del Congreso.
2. Todas las comunicaciones serán evaluadas de forma anónima, al menos, por dos miembros del Comité Científico
del Congreso.
3. Se establece un premio de 1.000 Euros a la comunicación (o panel) y poster mejor valorada por el Comité
Científico.
4. Fechas para recordar:
COMUNICACIONES PÓSTER
ENVIO: 10 de septiembre 2010 ENVIO ABSTRACT: 30 de septiembre 2010
ACEPTACIÓN: 15 de octubre 2010 ACEPTACIÓN: antes 30 de octubre 2010
5. Todos los firmantes de los trabajos aceptados deberán estar inscritos como asistentes al XV Congreso AECIT.
6. La extensión máxima de las comunicaciones debe ser de 5000 palabras. La primera página deberá incluir el título
de la comunicación, los autores, datos completos de categoría profesional e institución, así como un resumen de la
comunicación de un máximo de 300 palabras. La segunda página incluirá el título de la comunicación sin citar
autores ni instituciones a las que pertenecen, a fin de garantizar el anonimato en el proceso de evaluación. El
formato debe ser: procesador Word, letra Times Roman 12, con interlineado doble, y espacios superior, inferior,
izquierdo y derecho de 2,5.
La extensión máxima de los pósteres será de 2 páginas. La primera página deberá incluir el título del póster, los
autores y datos completos de categoría profesional e institución. El formato del póster será el siguiente:
mínimo: 30 x 42 cm (formato A3); máximo: 50 x 70 cm (formato póster).
7. Los trabajos aceptados se adjuntarán a la hoja de inscripción de sus respectivos autores en el XV Congreso AECIT a
través de la dirección de e‐mail del XV Congreso AECIT (XVcongreso@aecit.org), siendo recibidas directamente
por la Secretaría del XV Congreso AECIT.
8. Las comunicaciones y pósters seleccionadas serán presentadas en el XV Congreso AECIT y publicadas junto con las
ponencias.
9. Las comunicaciones aceptadas serán editadas, junto con las ponencias, en CD‐ROM, o libro, con ISBN, que será
publicado después del Congreso, por lo que las comunicaciones que no se entreguen en las fechas establecidas no
podrán ser incluidas en dicha publicación.
Vol. 8(3) Special Issue págs. 1-5. 2010
www.pasosonline.org
Editorial
Rethinking of Cities, Culture and Tourism

within a Creative Perspective
Duygu Salman
Boğaziçi University (Turkey)
The last decade has been a period of in- group of scholars to discuss their work and
tensive interest for “creativity”. In fact, it is ideas about creativity in tourism in order
not the “creativity” that is new to human- deepen the existing knowledge on the topic.
kind, as people have been creative through- The conference also aimed to integrate
out history. What is new is the rather fre- the concept of culture with creativity, as it
quent use of the word “creativity” to de- was mainly organized as a contribution to
scribe a diverse set of areas in our lives. Istanbul 2010 European Capital of Culture
Creative economy (Howkins, 2001), creative event. The aim to include culture in the
industries, creative jobs, creative class discussions of creativity in tourism was
(Florida, 2002), creative cities and creative twofold. Firstly, the conference intended to
tourism (Richards & Wilson, 2006) have re-present the concept of cultural tourism
been some of the areas where the concept to discussion in order to understand
has been utilized to relate the consequent whether the terms culture and cultural
fields to innovation and imagination. tourism need to be expanded beyond the
The ever-growing interest with (re)- commonly agreed borders and to envision
creation is not without reason. The major the possible influences of this expansion on
issue almost in all arenas of life today is to various actors. Secondly, the conference
be “different”. It is the combination of the aspired to address how host cities that har-
two powerful concepts of our age; “competi- bour the entire range of cultural heritage,
tiveness” and “standardization” that calls events and actors, can be redesigned and
for a need to be creative in order to differ- regenerated as creative cultural spaces
entiate our selves, our products, our jobs, using all their tangible and intangible cul-
our economies and of course our cities from tural assets.
the rest. The selection of papers in this special is-
The concept of creativity has been intro- sue is skilfully chosen to give you a sense of
duced to the field of tourism relatively re- the spirit of the conference. On one hand,
cently. Acknowledging this new concept of there are works of those scholars advocat-
inquiry, the international conference of ing the regeneration of urban spaces
Cities as Creative Spaces for Cultural through creative cultural practices. These
Tourism in Istanbul (CCSCT) was organ- practices do not only regenerate cities
ized to bring together an international physically, socially, culturally and economi-
© PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural. ISSN 1695-7121

2 Editorial: Rethinking Cities, Culture and Tourism within a Creative Perspective
cally, but they also (re)create an image for ment of current population for “gentrifica-
it, which is a sine qua non for tourism. tion” purposes and renewal of the historical
Thus, discussions of various /contemporary buildings. The article provides these exam-
concepts of marketing is also a natural and ples in order to discuss that without local
an important part of these papers. On the people the heritage looses its meaning.
other hand, there are papers criticizing and Instead of constructing a creative city the
warning us about the commodification of newly renovated buildings end up being
culture, creation of fake/induced images for sole theatrical stages of the history. As a
cities, staged authenticities, top-down poli- solution to this, the article reminds us of
cies, exclusion of host communities, gentri- the importance of community participation
fication of culturally diverse neighbour- and also of Florida’s creative triad - Toler-
hoods, and the elitist character of creative ance, Talent and Technology- (Hospers &
cultural practices. van Dalm, 2005) underlining the impor-
The latter group of papers are written tance of tolerance to diversity of people in
by Dogan, Walker and Kuzgun, Göksel, urban spaces.
Özalp, Somer and Alvarez. They question The paper by Walker focuses on the im-
the process and outcomes of creative cul- portance of congruency between tourism
tural events /practices. The core idea be- image and the tourist product. The author
hind these papers is the necessity to honour offers the consideration of history during
the local culture and people as the major the branding, imaging and marketing proc-
actors in constructing a creative city. They esses of creative tourism projects in order
all suggest that the efforts towards build- to protect cultural integrity and authentic-
ing a creative city should be linked to the ity of the cities both for the host community
existing culture. and the tourist. The benefits of using his-
Among these papers, the one with the tory as a mechanism to prevent cultural
strongest critical tone is by Dogan. Set in distortion during image formation process
the context of Istanbul, the paper of Dogan is explained to be twofold: On the one hand,
critically discusses “the commodification of if the promotional messages provided dur-
urban cultures and spaces” as a result of ing the image building are linked with his-
cultural projects that reinvent the images torical truths, they can be helpful in clarify-
of the cities. The author specifically focuses ing the transforming reality of the destina-
on the nature of the projects within the tion, as well as its self-presentation over
frame of European Capital of Culture time. On the other hand, it will relieve the
(ECOC). The main purpose is to point out community members from living up to an
the fact that these projects should be care- invented destination image to which they
fully planned in order to provide long term, do not subscribe. The paper asks a very
sustainable benefits to its residents. vital question: “Whose city, after all, is it?”
The paper discusses that although the The final paper of this group is by
ECOC event can be a valuable opportunity Kuzgun et al. It complements the two for-
for the cities, there is also the possibility mer conceptual papers with empirical data
that ECOC projects will create “invented” collected from the host community of Istan-
images by brushing up the visible parts of bul. The core interest of the paper is to
the cities for the “tourist gaze”. The paper question whether the Istanbul ECOC pro-
is not against the conservation of buildings, gram is successful to link itself with all
however finds it problematic that no inte- layers of the society or whether it only tar-
gration is built between physical conserva- gets people with cultural and monetary
tion and the host community. It is argued capital. The purpose of the research is to
that the result is a city left out of its pecu- determine the perceptions of Istanbul’s
liarities, its identity and its meaning. local community regarding the city as a
The ideas offered by the paper are dis- ECOC. The research also proposes a scale
cussed through the case of Istanbul, which to measure the construct of ECOC.
is the ECOC for 2010. The author provides One important commonality that this
an example of Tarlabasi and Sulukule ar- paper has with Dogan’s, is its understand-
eas where the government plans to clean ing and appreciation of the local commu-
up and “revitalize” through mass displace- nity as a highly diversified group. Thus, the
PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 8(3) Special Issue. 2010 ISSN 1695-7121
Duygu Salman 3
authors aim to learn the perceptions of Within this framework the paper exam-
local residents with different education and ines the implications raised in Turin,
income levels, and from different districts Genoa, Venice and Piacenza. The paper
of the city, regarding Istanbul as a ECOC. discusses how these cities exploited some
This paper has also a mutual point with event-based (i.e. 2006 Winter Olympic
Walker’s paper that it perceives the local Games in Turin, G8 and ECOC 2004 in
community as the real owners of the city Genoa, Sensation Carnival in Venice) op-
who should be a part of creative cultural portunities to rebuild and strengthen their
activities in order to render sustainability. identity and image, to preserve and trans-
The research is based on surveys collected mit their heritage and to provide various
from a diverse sample. The results of the forms of artistic expression. It is clearly
study show that the perceptions of resi- pictured how successful planning can widen
dents of Istanbul regarding their city as a participation of the community, eventually
ECOC tend to be positive. However, the stimulating creativity. In order to analyse
major finding of the study is very impor- the effects of Strategic Planning, Place
tant as it determines that Istanbul is Marketing and City Branding the paper
marked by socio-spatial polarization (Yar- also provides data on population growth
dimci, 2007) when it comes to the ECOC and attraction of new residents, tourists
event. Thus, better communication of ac- and visitors, and Foreign Direct Invest-
tivities, cultural exchange and recognition ment (FDI) of these four cities.
emerges as crucial actions to be taken to While the paper by Rizzi and Dioli ex-
build the link between social segments hibits accomplished examples of city re-
The second group of papers presents ex- newal projects, the paper of Gökcen Dündar
amples of creative cultural regeneration points out that those cities like İzmir,
projects. The first one is from Italy, a coun- which seek to establish themselves as com-
try which is deeply embedded within the petitive cities of culture in the global arena
flows of cultural networks. Rizzi and Dioli should consider such examples of other
present us the case of four major Italian nations carefully. However, the author also
cities -Turin, Genoa, Venice and Piacenza- underlines a reality that developing na-
as examples of how carefully engineered tions can go through very different prob-
planning processes can successfully help lems during regeneration processes start-
cities regenerate themselves. The second ing from the planning stage. The paper
case is from Turkey. Gökcen Dündar, pro- provides us both with the story of İzmir’s
vides us with the case of Izmir, a major city urban development over time and gives us
on the Aegean coast of Turkey. It is an ex- examples of specific projects as evidences of
ample of a city which carries the potential Izmir’s intention to achieve a culture-led
and intention to regenerate itself and take regeneration. However, as the paper as-
part within the flows of cultural networks serts, the failures of the planning system
but had hard times right from the planning constitutes a major obstacle against any
stage of the process. intention toward a culture-led rise of the
The paper by Rizzi and Dioli approaches cities.
marketing as a major policy tool for urban The third group of papers focuses on the
issues. Thus, they integrate three contem- importance of understanding the visitors
porary marketing concepts in their paper: both before and after their experiences in a
Strategic Planning, Place Marketing and destination. Having knowledge of visitor
City Branding. The paper discusses that images, expectations, perceptions, opinions
through the holistic use of these three con- and habits prior to the actual experience is
cepts cities can renew their image, embed obviously very helpful during the planning
themselves in knowledge and busi- stage of events or marketing strategies.
ness/social networks and increase their Collecting post-data is also a must in un-
competitiveness. The authors also suggest derstanding whether the previously set
that the successful use of these tools will goals are achieved. However, beyond these,
also protect the identity of the cities and it is also very important to note that since
fight the danger of copy cat reproduction. both cities and visitors are in a constant
process of transformation, continuous data
4 Editorial: Rethinking Cities, Culture and Tourism within a Creative Perspective
collection is very significant to follow this ticipant holds a unique set of experiences
ever-changing process of becoming. and perceptions; more than one product
The first article by Iordanova-Krasteva, needs to be made available.
Wickens and Bakir compares the projected This special issue closes with an article
image of Linz as a tourist destination pro- by Kırant Yozcu and İcöz which brings a
moted by its policy makers with the per- distinct discussion for integrating creativity
ceived image held by Linz’s potential tour- with different forms of tourism. The paper
ists in the context of the Linz 2009 ECOC. draws attention to the fact that creative
The main difference between this study tourism activities need not to exist in an
and the monitoring survey conducted by isolated fashion from different types of
the policy makers are (1) Instead of closed tourism such as congress tourism. The
ended questions with predetermined con- study adapts the 8Ps of tourism marketing
structs this study uses open ended ques- -packaging, partnership, people, product,
tions allowing respondents to share their price, promotion, place- to congress tour-
feelings and perceptions of Linz (2) unlike ism. A model also illustrates how to inte-
the study by Linz09 organizers which was grate creative tourism activities to the
conducted on a mainly Australian sample, marketing mix of congress tourism. The
the data of this study was collected from an proposed model aims to ensure that the
international sample. The results of the attendants of congress tourism take part in
study suggest a difference between the creative tourism activities in the destina-
projected image of Linz as promoted by the tion. The authors suggest that this partici-
officials and its perceived image as seen by pation will provide multiple benefits both
the respondents. for the tourist and the destination. The
The second paper by Kurgun seeks to paper posits that the creative activities will
understand the influence of country image foster learning the social and cultural
on the destination brand equity. In trying structure of the destination for the tourist,
to understand this relationship the author as well as increasing the number of days of
conducted a structured survey on 293 for- their stay and contributing to local econ-
eign visitors in Izmir. The questions aim to omy.
identify visitors’ impressions that have Creativity and its relation to culture and
been effective on their choice of Turkey as a urban spaces are very new topics in the
vacation destination and to determine field of tourism. Therefore, further empiri-
whether there is dependency between these cal research, both qualitative and quantita-
impressions and their perceptions about tive is necessary to construct well-
Izmir. The results of the study reveal that established concepts. Thus, it is hoped that
there is a significant and positive relation the selection of papers in this special issue
between country’s image and any destina- will not only contribute to existing concep-
tion’s brand equity in the country tual discussions of creative tourism and
Finally, the article by Guerreiro, Oom creative cultural practices in urban spaces
do Valle and Mendes aspires to clarify the but also promote further research on the
link between segmentation and cultural topic.
event management by using the case of
Faro which was designated as the 2005
National Capital of Culture by the Portu- References
guese government. The paper analyses
segments of the population that partici- Florida, Richard
pated in the Faro 2005 event and discusses 2002 The Rise of the Creative Class. New
the relation between the event’s success York, NY: Basic Books.
and the degree of satisfaction from partici- Howkins, John
pants. The contribution of the paper lies in 2001 The Creative Economy. London: Allen
understanding the importance of an ade- Lane.
quate marketing approach of large-scale Hospers, Gert-Jan & van Dalm, Roy
events, such as cultural events, in order to 2005 “How to Create a Creative city? The
achieve greater audience appeal/impact, in Viewpoints of Richard Florida and Jane
order to ensure sustainability. Each par- Jacobs”. Foresight, 7(4):8-12
Duygu Salman 5
Richards, Greg and Wilson, Julie

2006 “Developing Creativity in Tourist
Experiences: A Solution to the Serial
Reproduction of Culture”. Tourism
Management, 27:1209-1223
Yardimci, Sibel
2007 “Festivalising Difference: Privatiza-
tion of Culture and Symbolic Exclusion
in Istanbul”. EUI Working Papers
RSCAS 2007/35 Mediterranean Pro-
gramme Series.
Congreso Internacional
CONFINES MÓVILES
Lengua y cultura en el discurso del turismo
Universidad de Milán, Polo di Mediazione interculturale e
Università degli Studi di
Comunicazione, Sesto San Giovanni
Milano
10-12 noviembre 2010
El congreso "Confini mobili. Lengua y cultura en el discurso

del turismo" pretende proponer una reflexión interdisciplinaria
sobre el discurso que se ha desarrollado en el ámbito del
turismo para responder a los objetivos comunicativos de este
sector profesional. Se pondrán de relieve, especialmente, los
procedimientos lingüísticos que configuran la identidad y la
imagen de los lugares, también desde una perspectiva intercul-
tural e interlingüística. En este marco se presentarán los resulta-
dos del Proyecto de Investigación de Interés Nacional "El len-
guaje de la comunicación turística español-italiano. Aspectos lé-
Corso di Laurea Triennale in
Mediazione Linguistica e
xicos, pragmáticos e interculturales".
Culturale
La lengua desempeña un papel fundamental en la creación
Corso di Laurea Magistrale del lugar turístico, en la representación del espacio otro y en la
in Lingue, Culture per la generación de expectativas; sin embargo, el análisis crítico del
Comunicazione e la discurso turístico no se puede afrontar sólo con instrumentos
Cooperazione Internazionale lingüísticos, sino que exige superar las fronteras de la especia-
lidad. Por esta razón el congreso se abrirá también a otras
Cattedra di Lingua Spagnola
disciplinas (sociología, antropología, geografía, estudios cultu-
rales, etc.) que se ocupan de turismo y tratará, entre otros te-
mas, la diversificación de la oferta tradicional, la construcción
de nuevas identidades urbanas y el encuentro con el otro en los
espacios multiculturales, así como algunos proyectos vincula-
dos con la EXPO 2015 de Milán.
Se partirá de una mirada local, dirigida a las nuevas políticas

del territorio que han transformado una ciudad postindustrial
como Sesto San Giovanni en un nuevo escenario social, antro-
pológico, lingüístico y cultural, con confines móviles; una ciu-
dad visible, por el patrimonio heredado, que hoy en día es
candidata al reconocimiento de la UNESCO. Pero también
ciudad invisible, de difícil lectura, impregnada de valores que
potencialmente se pueden plasmar en grandes eventos, como la
Dipartimento di Lingue e
próxima EXPO internacional, y en nuevas formas de turismo.
Culture Contemporanee
Piazza Indro Montanelli, 1
I-20099 Sesto San Giovanni Comité organizador: Maria Vittoria Calvi, Cristina Bordonaba
Zabalza, Giovanna Mapelli, Javier Santos López, Milin Bonomi.
confinimobili@unimi.it
www.pasosonline.org
Reimaging the City: Istanbul towards Globalization and

Commodification
Evinc Dogani
Istanbul Technical University (Turkey)
Abstract: The research aims to facilitate a discourse on urban and cultural identity of the cities versus
invented and projected images created for marketing them. While the city itself becomes a commodity to
be consumed, cultural activities turn into means of promoting and selling it. Integrating conservation and
valorization of cultural heritage in the domain of community development, education and tourism, as
well as encouraging its accessibility and knowledge, can be helpful in raising awareness among
communities on the importance of cultural heritage in its identity. Reimaging the city brings about
reconstructing and rethinking it as a transforming and mutating place by all social, cultural and historical
means.
Keywords: Urban representations; Urban transformation; Identity; Mega-events; Heritage; Tourism.
Resumen: La investigación pretende facilitar el discurso relative a la identidad urbana y cultural de las
ciudades, frente a las imagenes inventadas y proyectadas para su promoción. Mientras la ciudad se con-
vierte en un artículo de consumo, las actividades culturales se tornan en un medio de promoción y venta.
Integrando la conservación y la valorización del patrimonio cultural de la comunidad, la educación y el
turismo, así como alentando su acceso y conocimiento, se puede lograr la concienciación sobre la impor-
tancia del patrimonio cultural para la identidad de la comunidad. El cambio de imagen de la ciudad trae
consigo la reconstrucción y reflexión sobre si misma como sitio de transformación y mutación gracias a
sus medios sociales, culturales e históricos.
Palabras clave: Representaciones urbanas; Transformación urbana; Identidad; Mega-eventos; Patrimo-

nio; Turismo.
i
Istanbul Technical University, Turkey (MSc. in History of Architecture); Boğaziçi University, Turkey (BA in Tour-
ism Administration); E-mail: evinch_99@yahoo.com

8 Reimaging the City
Visualizing the City of Signs painting city views, they also incorporated
the cartographic drive, creating imagina-
Cities are complex systems of represen- tive representational maps. Imaging a city
tations in which space and time are unin fact involves a cluster of multiple diverse
derstood and experienced in the form of a maps that are inhabited and physically
portrayal. The systems of representations carried around by city dwellers. More than
are composed of signs: written words, a factual accuracy, it was rather an exhi-
painting, photographic images, maps and bited interest in rendering a mental ‘image
signals, filmic narratives, choreographic of the city’ and it proposed not a single
movements, installations and events, build- ‘cognitive mapping’ but diverse observa-
ings and places (Borden et al., 2001). These tional routes. The art of viewing followed
selective representations (re)shape the me- the older touristic drive to embrace a ter-
taphors and narratives which are widely rain that led to climbing of church towers,
used to describe the experience of urban mountains and buildings to take in the
living. In this sense, the city is recognized panorama (Bruno, 2007).
as an interface between individual expe- Baudelaire developed a derived meaning
rience and cultural representations (Miles- of the French term ‘flâneur’ — that of "a
tone, 2008: 1165). Cities play a major role person who walks the city in order to expe-
in the construction and experience of the rience it". His description of flâneur has a
cultures of everyday life and, within their key role in understanding, participating in
spaces, collective and individual meanings and portraying the city. Simmel and Ben-
are made and unmade and identities are jamin adopted the concept as a product of
formed (Stevenson, 2003). modernity. The modern city was transform-
Similarly places to visit are chosen ing humans, giving them a new relation-
through representations that are sustained ship to time and space. According to Sim-
through a variety of non-tourist practices, mel, the deepest problems of modern life
such as films, newspapers, TV, magazines, derive from the claim of the individual to
records, and videos which create the ‘tour- preserve the autonomy and individuality of
ist gaze’. Moreover the gaze is constructed his existence in the face of overwhelming
through signs, and tourism involves the social forces, of historical heritage, of ex-
collection of those signs (Urry, 1995). What ternal culture, and of the technique of life
is consumed in tourism are visual signs and (Weinstein, 1950). Benjamin, on the other
sometimes a simulacrum in which tourists hand, became his own prime example of
are the semioticians (Urry, 1990). The sig- flâneur, making social and aesthetic obser-
nificance of visual consumption can be seen vations during long walks through Paris.
in the pervasive tendency to produce His description of flâneur is an uninvolved
‘themed’ environments. The top-down poli- character but highly perceptive toward an
cies for urban regeneration are mostly aesthetically attuned observation, which
aimed at brushing up the facades of the old brought the term into the literature of pho-
buildings and creating pastiched surfaces tography. Sontag (1977: 55) claims that
leading to what MacCannell (1973: 595) hand-held camera has become the tool of
calls ‘staged authenticity’. What is sought the flâneur:
for in a holiday is a set of photographic “The photographer is an armed version
images which have been already seen in of the solitary walker reconnoitering,
glossy brochures or other media. stalking, cruising the urban inferno, the
Vedutismo - the influential Italian art of voyeuristic stroller who discovers the
imaging the city - evolved from a veritable city as a landscape of voluptuous ex-
pandemic of urban imaging and a hunger - tremes. Adept of the joys of watching,
a taste - for viewing sites. As an art of view- connoisseur of empathy, the flâneur
ing in the Italian ‘vedute’, the portrait of finds the world 'picturesque'.”
the city was staged. Masters of this type of Benjamin, in his writings on social and
representation include Canaletto and Pan- urban life in 19th century Paris, has shown
nini (18th century). As they merged the that representation entered fully into the
codes of urban topography and landscape commodity relation by its production of an
Evinc Dogan 9
economy of display in which the spaces of competition. Urban cultural tourism re-
visual display and mass consumption are lated product development can range from
included. The visual, informational and the the potential offered by cultural diversity
exotic were commodified through the new and ethnicity, culinary culture, fashion and
and global imagery: the national exhibition design to signature architecture for cultur-
(Crystal Palace), the panorama, the plate- al institutions, cultural festivals and events
glass window and the shopping arcade in (World Tourism Organisation and Euro-
which the world of people, places and goods pean Travel Commission, 2005).
were gathered for display and consumption The development of urban cultural fes-
(Pickles, 2003). Not merely commodities tivals and their support of political authori-
are being displayed in world exhibitions, ty and local economy dates back to the Ro-
but also their metropolitan sites are being man Empire. From the mid-19th century
represented too. In other words, visitors to onwards, however, the fashion for new
these exhibitions participated in the con- large-scale, prolonged and spectacular city-
sumption of symbols of the city itself. The based festivals gathered pace (Gold & Gold,
city is not merely epitomized through the 2005). The staging of the 1851 Great Exhi-
display of all the important styles of the bition in London's Hyde Park, which is also
present cultural world but also, through ‘its known as the Crystal Palace Exhibition, as
own production, a city can represent itself a temporary structure made of iron and
as a copy and sample of the manufacturing glass designed by Joseph Paxton, had be-
forces of the world culture’ (Frisby, 2001). come an emblem of the ‘commodity fetish-
Recent accounts of urban political change ism’ – the term used by Marx to describe
have been typified by the speculative dep- the phenomenon of consumption. In this
loyment of resources to attract investment. sense, the Crystal Palace was the precursor
Within such processes, the construction of of the modern department store or shop-
spectacular urban landscapes has become a ping mall: unlimited objects of desire in one
requisite strategy for making the city at- public space (Thackeray & Findling, 2002).
tractive as a site for investment, yet, with a Mitchell’s argument is that starting from
few notable exceptions, the meanings pro- the exhibitions of modern capitalism such
jected by these landscapes have been given as the Crystal Palace – the world is
little attention (Hubbard, 1996: 1441). represented by the exhibition itself; simply
a further series of representations of a real-
Marketing the City: Creative Cities and ity that we cannot know except in the forms
Mega-Events of symbols that are culturally determined
(Mazlish, 1994: 55). As we refer back to
City-marketing and place-branding Benjamin’s Arcades Project, we can think of
strategies today often stress ideas and ste- the Crystal Palace as a shopping arcade
reotypes of culture and creativity to pro- creating a new and global imagery for con-
mote attractive urban images (Vanolo, sumption (Pickles, 2003), which would be
2008: 370). Cities compete with each other joined by an ever-growing list of events
in (re)producing and promoting their urban that included sports meetings, garden fes-
heritage and symbolic assets for tourism tivals, song competitions, international arts
(Urry, 1990). The medium of competition festivals, major trade fairs, awards cere-
has become the activities on the city. The monies, scientific congresses and mega-
attractiveness of these activities brings an events. One good example for mega-events
increase in the number of tourists and this is the European Capital of Culture (ECOC)
growth contributes remarkably to the econ- programme in which the city is given a
omy of the state (Beyazıt & Tosun, 2006). chance to showcase its cultural life and
In light of the convergence of the inner heritage for a period of one year (Gold &
circle of cultural tourism (heritage and arts Gold, 2005).
tourism) and the outer circle (lifestyle and According to the definition of cultural
the creative industries), product develop- heritage by UNESCO (2008), the term en-
ment will become increasingly important compasses several main categories such as
for cities who want to offer a differential movable-immovable or tangible-intangible.
advantage and thereby stay ahead of the The term ‘cultural heritage’ includes build-
ings, monuments, landscapes, urban areas, lated media, public campaigns and mega
countryside, buried remains and objects events such as the ECOC Program. The
that are classic and contemporary, and it result is not only raising the consciousness
contributes to the identity and branding of level of the local community, but also at-
territory, so relevant in an age of globaliza- tracting visitors to the site, as cultural her-
tion (Pugliese & Da Sacco, 2007). Heritage itage can be lost due to lack of awareness
is part of a common past; it is a source of and interest. On the other hand, intense
the community identity as it offers us vari- promotional campaigns to attract a high
ous perspectives to ponder over our histo- number of visitors may result in exceeding
ries, identities and our current standing. carrying capacity of the historical site and
The preservation of heritage allows us to damaging the cultural heritage.
construct our collective memories and es- Cities that have been awarded as Cul-
tablishes our cultural identities, as it in- tural Capitals of Europe and that are pro-
cludes the common patrimony of historical moted to the public with their outstanding
evidences (identity and memory) of a specif- cultural properties constitute a good basis
ic territory that needs to be safeguarded in to determine issues related to urban herit-
a combined process of protection, manage- age, urban transformation, culture politics
ment and usage. However this does not and and continuity in terms of socio-cultural
should not necessarily mean making up and socio-economic aspects. The transfor-
historical sites into museums. Between the mation does not only happen on the urban
possibilities of making the territorial defi- level but also occurs on the national and
nition of cultural district reachable and transnational level. The designation of Is-
preserving cultural heritage, there is a tanbul as one of three very different capi-
combination of interests aimed at visualiz- tals of culture for 2010 reflects the chang-
ing possible strategic development actions. ing nature of the European Union’s space
For Lefebvre ‘space is produced and re- and identity and the evolving capital of
produced, and thus represents the site and culture program (Hein, 2008).
the outcome of social, political and econom- Cities can intensify, exploit and even re-
ic struggle’. Heritage is a key element in invent their image and identity through the
those processes of the production and re- ECOC process. It is a fact that ECOC
production of power relationships (Graham, presents a valuable opportunity to market
Ashworth and Tunbridge, 2000). Recogniz- cities. In this sense, 1990 has been a turn-
ing local/global relationships and conflicts ing point in the history of cultural capitals
is essential to address cultural continuity of Europe with the designation of Glasgow,
in recognizing the intangible cultural prac- a non-capital city. It has changed the scale
tices and heritage resources of the histori- of the event and showed that the pro-
cally built environment. History, traditions, gramme could evolve into something that
local lifestyle, art and culture are intangi- played a strong promotional and regenera-
ble elements of the cultural heritage that tive role. Staging of major cultural events is
shape the built environment, vernacular often seen as more flexible and distinctive
architecture and cultural landscape. Here carriers of the symbolic capital of a place
the crucial point is forming a collective than hard infrastructure-based projects.
cultural memory for communities and to Thus, the example of Glasgow stands for
communicate these intangible categories to ‘new style’ urban cultural policies as well as
the future generations. Another question cultural production and consumption. It
which should be asked is the level of con- allowed the municipal authorities to under-
sciousness as well as the level of interac- take a rebranding exercise to confront the
tion. Various interest groups affect the lev- city's established image as a dour manufac-
el of public consciousness: Governmental turing city, build venues that would enrich
and non-governmental organizations, in- local cultural life when the festival was
ternational non-profit organizations, etc. over, and use culture as an engine to pro-
This is done through legislations and promote urban regeneration (Gold & Gold,
tection of listed buildings, the organization 2005). The social and cultural transforma-
of fairs and festivals, visual media such as tion gained a different and multidimen-
documentaries and films and all other re- sional structure by bringing a new model to
Evinc Dogan 11
promote the city through art and culture Turkey’s European Union membership and
events. Artists, designers, architects, intel- the designation for the ECOC (Ozkan,
lectuals are attracted to the city as a part of 2008). Improving the capital’s image was
urban development policies; art and culture the concluding order of the business. The
zones are created. In this way, a new image models most admired were the European
is created for Glasgow: “creative city”. capitals. The deterioration of Istanbul so
Like in many sectors and projects, crea- troubled the rulers that many attempts
tivity is very important in the ECOC were undertaken to bring the old city up to
project. So as the time is limited, the modern standards (Celik, 1993).
projects that will represent the city should Tourism has become a tool to demon-
be creative, expressive and impressive strate to the European Union the economic,
(Beyazıt & Tosun, 2006). With mass media technological and physical, as well as the
and mass tourism as their most powerful conservative/Islamic power change in the
tools, intercultural communication is large- social context of Istanbul; in other words,
ly based on image transfer. Nonetheless, the making of a stage for the ‘dialogue of
without a carefully structured approach, civilizations’ between the West and the
these opportunities may be overlooked and Islamic countries, as well as a stage for the
indeed wasted, with a huge expense in- Cultural Capital of Europe in 2010 has
curred on the part of the city with little or been introduced through the ‘tourist gaze’.
no long term benefits for its residents (Bes- In the period of the ‘tourist gaze’, Istanbul
son & Sutherland, 2007). The question is has witnessed the physicalization of multi-
whether the projects within the frame of national investments through an upscale
ECOC are the outcomes of a strategic plan- architectural vocabulary including multi-
ning process which lead to sustainability or use complexes of residential towers, offices
if they are short-term projects to create an and shopping malls located in globalized
alluring theatrical stage for the sake of cores of ‘social distinction’ (Akpınar, 2008).
marketing. Within the emergence of the new global
politics and economics, the municipal pro-
Reimaging the City: Case of Istanbul gram of Istanbul may be seen as a ‘market-
ing strategy’ for attracting foreign invest-
Istanbul has been a gateway between ment and tourists. The government clearly
Asia and Europe or in general terms East declared that “marketing Istanbul” is their
and West through the ages. The popular priority in the highly competitive interna-
‘bridge’ metaphor also represents a connec- tional tourism sector and supported the
tion between the past and the present. The idea of the museumized Historic Peninsula
city that has been the capital of three em- (Kayaalp, 2008). In 2005, the law (no. 5366)
pires (Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman) in on the ‘Preservation by Renovation and
the past is now getting prepared for 2010. Utilization by Revitalizing of Deteriorated
Similar to many “global cities” Istanbul Immovable Historical and Cultural Proper-
is exposed to economic, social and political ties’ was approved by the Council of Minis-
changes along with the bombardment of ters. The law aims “reconstruction and
globalization, which has brought rapid and restoration of the zones which are regis-
chaotic urbanization. There is still some- tered and declared as SIT (Conservation)
thing mystical in Istanbul, mostly because areas by boards of conservation of cultural
of the Orientalist representations of the and natural assets which have been worn
city. Although the city silhouette with mi- down and are loosing their characteristics”
narets is still in place, it is now coupled (Act No: 5366, 2005). To give an example,
with the image of a metropolis in pace with the districts of Fener, Balat, Süleymaniye,
global standards: a booming culture indus- Tarlabaşı and Sulukule, which are the
try, lively entertainment and night life, five places where diverse ethnic groups (Jews,
star hotels, business districts and shopping Armenians, Greeks) used to live, now have
malls. The change of the city image from an changed into poor urban areas where cul-
oriental portrait to a multicultural Euro- tural properties are not taken care of.
pean city vibrating with arts and culture The government plans to clean up these
started synchronously with negotiations on areas by moving out the current population
for “gentrification” purposes and by renew- the neighborhood has become a squatter’s
ing the historical buildings. The renovation zone, home to Kurdish and Arabic speakers
and redevelopment of the area, like many whose culture is synonymous with many
similar plans, seems to be a part of the aspects of contemporary Istanbul life. What
“identity construction” project of the ruling both neighborhoods have in common is the
party through a top-down implementation. fact that, in spite of the contributions of
The “revitalization” of two of these targeted their communities to the city’s vibrancy,
areas, Sulukule and Tarlabaşı, will involve their inhabitants are overwhelmingly poor.
the mass displacement of local populations. They also comprise populations whose exis-
Socially, these two areas of Istanbul embo- tence is a threat to myths of nation-state
dy precisely what makes the city so emble- identity (Pine, 2008). On the other hand,
matic of European culture in the 21st cen- without local people, the heritage looses the
tury: migration. In the last fifty years, as meaning and the renewal projects only
the city’s population has increased ten fold touch the facades of the buildings, creating
because of migration from Turkey’s East, a theatrical stage of the history.
Figure 1. Conservation Areas: Fener, Balat, Süleymaniye, Tarlabaşı, and Sulukule

The social and cultural transformation mote the city through art and culture
gained a different and multidimensional events. Artists, designers, architects, intel-
structure by bringing a new model to pro- lectuals are attracted to the city as a part of
Evinc Dogan 13
urban development policies; art and culture money and individuals – provides the basis
zones are created. In this way, a new image for an image of the city as a highly complex
is created: “creative city”. Major cultural web of interactions verging on the chaotic
events staged are often seen as more flexi- (Frisby, 2001). As Foucault (1970) notes,
ble and as distinctive carriers of the sym- discourses constitute not only representa-
bolic capital of a place than hard infra- tions that lie at a surface covering “reality;”
structure-based projects. Istanbul seems to they form concepts, political positioning,
emerge as a ‘creative city’. Thus, contempo- and most substantially, “the order of
rary art events, biennials and festivals things”. Decq claims that for most of the
have become a vital economic development people, there is not much to discover in the
strategy in cityscapes that are increasingly planned, orderly cities of Europe, and on
characterized by social segmentation and the contrary, there is always a lot to dis-
gentrification, and thus may actually feed cover in a chaotic city like Istanbul (Atma-
into exclusionary practices in the urban ca, 2005). As such, the Dutch ‘starchitect’
realm. However what makes the difference Rem Koolhaas expresses his excitement
is the ‘urban experience’. Jacobs says that; about the “chaotic” and “self-generating”
“The streets are the vital organs of the quality of Istanbul (Ozkan, 2008 qtd. in
creative city. After all, people meet in Arkitera Online 17.04.2005). Conception of
the streets and it is here that human Istanbul as a “nicely chaotic and thereby
contact, unexpected encounters and exciting” city is also what makes the differ-
business life take place. This street bal- ence. The distinctiveness of the places pro-
let contributes to creativity and econom- vides attachment to particular neighbor-
ic dynamics.’’ (Hospers & van Dalm, hoods or cities, given that people perceive
2005: 10) places through their own identity and cha-
The melting-pot metaphor and chaotic racteristics. These characteristics can be
structure with crowds of people from differ- anonymity, uncertainty and unpredictabili-
ent nationalities, ethnicities and speaking ty of events in complex and urban envi-
different languages are signifiers of the ronments, the senses of possibility and
heterogeneity of Istanbul’s urban culture danger induced by cities. Conover (2004)
and rich cultural life not in buildings, ci- goes beyond the chaos and claims that ‘de-
nema and theater halls but on the streets lirium’ rules Istanbul:
of the city. As Florida argues, creative ci- “Istanbul wrote delirious into the script
ties are able to combine the T’s of Toler- of the urban imaginary. “What protects
ance, Talent and Technology. Jacobs brings us against delirium or hallucinations
about urban environment and the need for are not our critical powers but the struc-
urban diversity: diversity of buildings, ture of our space,” Merleau-Ponty wrote.
people and their economic activities as a In the case of Istanbul, there is no pro-
helping hand to Florida’s creative triad tection. Delirium is order”.
(Hospers & van Dalm, 2005: 11). As well as In such representations, it is suggested
its melting-pot structure, the diversity in that chaos or delirium would be the quin-
Istanbul is formed through “union of the tessential representations of Istanbul’s
opposites”. As Istanbul is a city between urban order, thus giving its uniqueness.
‘Orient and Occident’, the conflicting sides In July, 2005 Istanbul hosted the 22nd
are not perceived as somewhat negative but World Architecture Congress, organized by
on the contrary they are appraised as qual- the International Union of Architects
ities enriching the city and its identity. (UIA). Şefik Onat, the Head of the UIA
Different ethnic groups living in the same 2005 Organization Committee, highlighted
neighborhood, churches, synagogues and Istanbul as being “the most problematic
mosques in vicinity to each other, booming city of the world”, in contrast to Florence as
population with continuous migration de- “the world’s center of art and culture“ and
spite the carrying capacity of the land, sky- Nagoya as “the most perfect city of the
scrapers rising shoulder by shoulder with world”, which were the other two candi-
“gecekondus” - they all seem like the signs dates for the same year. Interpreting Is-
of a problematic and chaotic city. The tanbul’s problematic urbanization as a po-
sphere of circulation – of commodities, tential point of attraction for architects,
Onat was already giving clues of the up- to reformulate Istanbul through its charac-
coming celebrations of Istanbul as a chaotic teristics. In Robins’ words “the particulari-
city (Ozkan, 2008). ty and identity of cities is about product
The congress was a great opportunity differentiation; their cultures and tradi-
for Istanbul in terms of contributing to the tions are now sustained through the dis-
city’s tourism sector because it would in- courses of marketing and advertising” (Do-
clude a lot of publicity and thus promote gan, 2005: 20 qtd. in Robins, 1993: 306).
the city’s image on the world stage. The Keyder (2000) states that, Istanbul has to
billboards featured photographs of mosques take part in the global mobility in accor-
by the 16th century Ottoman master archi- dance with the concept of “global city”.
tect Sinan, while banners stretched on pe- Therefore, globalization brings about rei-
destrian overpasses displayed a monoch- maging Istanbul as a world capital and
rome sketch of the Maiden’s Tower, one of marketing it in the global market. Howev-
the iconographic symbols commonly used in er, together with the globalization and its
publicity campaigns about Istanbul. That effects, it is also crucial to think of the ref-
is, the iconography of the city’s welcome lections on the society. An urban space is
call to architects was not much different not solely an image to be sold through the
from the touristic and commercial imagery media, but rather it is something to be ex-
used to make Istanbul look appealing to its perienced physically through high level of
touristically motivated visitors (Ozkan, interaction with its inhabitants, history,
2008). culture and heritage. Today culture indus-
tries, governments and private sectors sep-
Conclusion arate the culture from its urban context
and create new values through the process
It is expected that the ECOC will foster so called ‘urban renewal’. There is a gap
the improvement of tourism in the city and between local needs and the cultural poli-
Istanbul will attract more tourists with its cies due to the absence of local community’s
new image. However, when the project is representation. The Municipality is so oc-
approached from the tourism side, being cupied with “marketing Istanbul” that it
the European Capital of Culture will be no seems to miss one point of the creative tri-
different than hosting the Olympic Games ad: Tolerance! Although the marketing
or Formula 1. What is different about the strategies emphasize ethnic diversity to
ECOC from the other events is the under- celebrate Istanbul as a world city, the reali-
standing of the concept of “culture”. The ty is different. The minority groups and
crucial point is to place culture as a driving Romani populations are subjected to social
force in city development, not to consume it stigmatization and exclusion. Nonetheless,
to become more competitive. Here, the in- the creative city cannot be constructed on
tegration of the projects with the social and glamorous projects of ‘Starchitects’ or
physical structure of Istanbul becomes very world-famous artists simply, but can only
important, as they are thought as a part of be achieved by encouraging its citizens to
cultural policy (Beyazıt & Tosun, 2006). take an active role and to participate. The
Combining the physical city and the servic- creative city needs creative citizens.
es/events creates the city’s image. This
image can be of beauty, excitement, charm, References
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Aceptado: 23/02/2010
Sometido a evaluación por pares anónimos
Vol. 8 Special Issue págs. 17-26. 2010
www.pasosonline.org
Cities as Creative Spaces for Cultural Tourism: A Plea for the

Consideration of History
Marian Walkeri
University of Tasmania (Australia)
Abstract: Cultural tourism around the world is big business. Tourism stakeholders within tourism
destinations understandably work hard to develop brands and images that entice cultural tourists to visit.
However, when tourism stakeholders involved in this process do not prioritise host community self-
knowledge, cultural integrity is compromised and cultural distortion inevitably arises. The purpose of
this paper is to raise the issue of congruity between tourism brand and tourist experience, and to make a
plea for the consideration of history in the imaging, branding and interpretation processes. The
conclusion is that the effective use of local history can illuminate host community self-knowledge for the
benefit of both cultural tourist and host community.
Keywords: Cities; Cultural Tourism; History; Images; Identity; Authenticity.
Resumen: El turismo cultural es un gran negocio a nivel internacional. Las partes interesadas en los
destinos turísticos trabajan incansablemente, como es de esperar, con el fin de desarrollar marcas e
imágenes que inciten a la visita a los turistas de cultura. Sin embargo, cuando las partes interesadas en
este proceso no dan prioridad al conocimiento de sí mismo que tienen las comunidades receptoras del
turismo, se compromete la integridad cultural e inevitablemente surge una distorsión cultural. El
objetivo de este artículo es el de reflexionar sobre la cuestión de la congruencia entre la marca turística y
la experiencia turística, y pedir que la historia se considere en los procesos de imagen, marca e
interpretación. Se llega a la conclusión de que el uso efectivo de la historia puede iluminar el
conocimiento de sí mismo que tiene la comunidad receptora, creando beneficios tanto para el turista de
cultura como para la comunidad.
Palabras clave: Ciudades; Turismo de cultura; Historia; Imágenes; Identidad; Autenticidad.
i
PhD., University of Tasmania, Tourism History; E-mail: walkerm@utas.edu.au.

18 A Plea for the Consideration of History
Introduction First, in imaging and branding cities — or

any destination for that matter — it argues
Cultural tourists are infinitely interest- that tourism stakeholders should strive for
ed in cultural meaning. Signs and symbols, congruency between the tourism brand and
roles and rituals, buildings and landscapes the tourist experience by prioritising self-
all manifest as marks of meaning and are knowledge of the host community. Second,
therefore of perennial interest to tourists. it suggests that the temporal component of
This is what cultural tourism is all about 'becoming' in host communities should be
(Enzensberger, 1996 [1958]). Most tourists emphasised because organic images within
anticipate that when they visit a place to communities frequently underpin tourism
experience other people's cultures they will images and brands. Third, in seeking to
encounter the real thing: the authentic brand and image the cultural city, tourism
reality of what Clifford Geertz described as stakeholders are encouraged to consider
'webs of significance' (1973: 5). This is, the ramifications of imaging and branding
after all, why they are there. Despite mod- on local citizens at large. Host community
ern technology, which allows tourists to members cannot be expected to live up to
travel virtually more easily than they can the image or brand that is projected on
travel physically, they still choose the lat- their behalf if they do not also subscribe to
ter. This is because there is no substitute it. This applies to all tourism destinations,
for the sensual, emotional and physical not just cities. Host communities need to
experience of 'being there'. In a post- own their identities and histories for cul-
modern world, where tourists still want to tural identity to be an effective intangible
experience first hand the semiotics of cul- asset.
ture — the architecture, literature, art,
food, history and mores — that link the Congruence between City Brand and Tour-
'webs of significance' together, they, like ist Experience
Geertz, take culture to be an 'interpretive
[science] in search of meaning' (Geertz, Congruence between the tourism image
1973: 5). and the tourist product is clearly essential
In considering cities as creative spaces in successful imaging and branding. As
for cultural tourism, this paper makes a Hankinson notes, the success of city brand-
plea for the consideration of history in the ing 'requires consistency between the "in-
projects of both branding and imaging ci- duced" image-building processes created by
ties, as well as in the interpretation and promotional bodies such as tour operators
marketing of creative tourism projects. It and local authorities, and the "organic"
discusses how tourism stakeholders short- processes as portrayed by the mass media.
change cultural tourists as well as the host In other words, the destination brand like
community when the depth of history is not any other must deliver the promise' (2001:
reflected in the tourism images, brands and 132). In the never-ending dialogue between
cultural products that are offered and por- hosts and guests, however, the essence of
trayed. It defends history as a mechanism the image or brand can easily become lost
to protect cultural integrity and uphold in translation through ignorance or inten-
authenticity for the sake of the host com- tion. Tourism stakeholders taking on the
munity as well as for the tourist expe- role of interpreter may compromise cultural
rience. In so doing it extols the importance integrity at the expense of communal truth;
of the city's soul — its people. cultural webs of significance may be trod-
The purpose of this paper is to demon- den on in the pursuit of pecuniary interest;
strate how, through the consideration of business elites within host communities
history, the historical depth of organic im- may be tempted to project an image, or
ages already evident within communities brand that effectively puts culture up for
can reveal notions of cultural identity for sale, regardless of whether the images or
the edification of both tourists and host brand projected are authentic. This is un-
communities. To this end, it raises three derstandable. Cultural tourism is big
points for consideration and discussion. business. Cultural tourists frequently
Marian Walker 19
spend more money than other types of tour- uct by acknowledging community self-
ists and stay longer in tourism destinations knowledge in the imaging and branding
(CCNC, 2004). However, these temptations process. In this respect the work of histo-
do not justify a lack of authenticity in imag- rians in providing local history information
ing and branding or in creative tourism is crucial.
projects since they only diminish the cul- As a concept, community self-knowledge
tural tourism experience. is intricately tied up with local history. It
Although post-modern discourse sees is, in a sense, the container through which
'the paradigmatic approach to authenticity communities understand their history. All
based on MacCannell's beginnings as in- communities have histories whether they
creasingly less relevant' (Cohen, 2007: 81; are known or unknown to the community in
see Pearce, 2007; Wang, 1999; MacCannell question. These histories can be understood
1976) this paper argues that cultural tour- as the record of the evolution of local cul-
ism demands a greater emphasis on au- ture, of evolving local identity, of people
thenticity than ever before. As McKercher 'becoming' who they are. It is this record
and du Cros point out, 'the days have well that ties the threads in Geertz's 'webs of
and truly passed where low-quality expe- significance' together. Informing com-
riences can satisfy the gullible tourist' munities about their history and cultural
(McKercher & du Cros, 2002: 127). This identity is one of the main contributions
applies equally to imaging and branding that academic historians make to society.
exercises as it does to all cultural tourism As Tosh observed 'every situation which
enterprises. Nevertheless, as Ward ob- requires our understanding in the present
served, 'typical images still exclude much — be it a family feud, a political upheaval
that makes up the reality of place. Or they or a cultural movement — is the outcome of
appropriate aspects of place in ways that trends and events, some of them spanning
narrow meaning' ... 'too often the more im- less than a lifetime, others extending back
portant themes are still being badly han- to the distant past' (Tosh, 2008: 42). Just
dled. Thus the linking of deeper meanings as in the case of individuals, communities
of place with promotional imperatives is need to know who they are. They cannot
rarely done in a convincing way (Ward, uphold their values or honour their truths
1998: 239-240). This paper suggests that a or prevent other people from defining their
greater use of local history, and the appli- reality if they do not own or comprehend a
cation of community self-knowledge in the collective identity. Nor can they uphold
image formation and branding processes, their identity when a portion of the com-
can help to ameliorate this situation. munity is willing to compromise the integr-
ity of cultural identity for the sake of pecu-
Prioritising Host Community Self- niary advantage. In that case, as critics of
Knowledge Richard Florida's work point out, cultural
tourism may say less about the culture of a
Host community self-knowledge is cru- community and more about the creative
cial information if tourism stakeholders class that portrays it (Scott, 2006; Daly,
wish to authentically project cultural iden- 2004).
tity in marketing activities. 'Community Cultural identity has long been an area
self-knowledge' can be understood as in- of interest within the discipline of history,
tangible heritage which, to use the words of as has identification of the role of the intel-
McKercher and du Cros, can be described ligentsia in defining identity. Historians
as soft culture — 'the people, their tradi- know that identifying local cultural identi-
tions, and what they know' (2002: 83). Ig- ty is complex and that portraying it au-
norance of community self-knowledge by thentically to the world as an image or
tourism stakeholders can compromise the brand is inherently difficult. As Williams
cultural authenticity and integrity of local observed,
communities either by accident or inten- Every human society has its own
tion. In contrast, prioritising host commu- shape, its own purposes, its own
nity self-knowledge can insure against the meanings. Every human society ex-
compromising of the cultural tourism prod- presses these, in institutions, and in
arts and learning. The making of a ism because, although tourism is under-
society is the finding of common pinned above all by considerations
meanings and directions, and its grounded in reality such as commercial
growth is an active debate and imperatives, there is an imaginative psy-
amendment under the pressure of chological dimension to tourism without
experience, contact, discovery, writ- which it simply would not exist. In most
ing themselves into the land (1958: tourism destinations, many different tour-
6). ism images, both visual and written, are
Moreover, the many differences within used to portray the host community over
all societies militate against cohesive time, whether or not they are authentic.
agreement on social portrayal. Total Finding the key to understanding the
agreement requires either exceptional cir- meaning and motivation behind the im-
cumstances or an extraordinary level of ages, and the way they evolve, can shed
social cohesion. light on the identity of the host community.
For their part, however, although many In this respect it is instructive to review
historians agree that there is never just one how the concept of image works in tourism.
identity but many, and moreover that iden-
tity is continually being fractured, ques- Paying Attention to the Concept of Image
tioned and redefined (White, 1981: x; Whit- in Tourism
lock & Carter, 1992), others believe that
communities do hold general notions of In the early 1970s pioneer work was un-
identity, particularly if these notions please dertaken on the tourism image formation
them or provide for them a sense of belong- process. In 1972 Gunn suggested that im-
ing (Anderson, 1991; Walker, 2008). That age formation could be divided into two
is why, as Davison points out, 'the history essential levels — induced or organic (1972:
of towns, suburbs and neighbourhoods con- 23-26). In his view, ‘organic’ images ema-
tinues to flourish': 'Local history, which nated 'from sources not directly associated
links our aspirations for community to a with any development organisation. News
sense of place, our fragile present to a see- reports, movies, newspaper articles and
mingly more stable past, has a strong claim other ostensibly unbiased sources of infor-
on the contemporary imagination' (2000: mation generate organic images of places'
197). In this respect, the contribution that (Gartner, 1996:461). These images of a
local history makes to the informing of place can form in peoples’ minds regardless
community self-knowledge is both manifold of tourism advertising and can develop
and essential to the upholding of authentic- from a wide variety of sources such as news
ity in cultural tourism. accounts, export advertising and word of
mouth. They also derive and evolve from
The Temporal Concept of 'Becoming' in historical ideas, myths, memories or any
Host Communities number of preconceived imaginings. The
resulting image or images may be either
One way that history can contribute to positive or negative since by definition an
the informing of community self-knowledge organic or 'holistic' image incorporates all
is to elucidate the process of 'becoming' in aspects of a place both good and bad. In
host communities and to understand the contrast to organic images, induced images
evolving connection between the image that are ‘a function of the marketing or promo-
a country presents of itself over time and tion efforts of a destination area or busi-
the reality of the place as it is. This might ness' (Gartner, 1996: 461). In this sense the
also be described as the difference between term 'induced image' is synonymous with
image and truth. In tourism, of course, this 'tourism image'. Tourism images, however,
abstraction always presents its own diffi- are invariably positive and can present a
culties because, although tourism images very different image of a place from that
are portrayed as truths, they are essential- which might be described as truth.
ly subjective truths that may have no rela- Invoking Gunn, Gartner suggested that
tion to authenticity or even contemporary ‘the underlying difference between an in-
reality. Hence a paradox persists in tour- duced image and an organic image is the
Marian Walker 21
control that people in the destination area with the image.

have over how the image is presented' Images generated from within a host
(1996: 461). When holiday clients tenta- community are frequently predicated not
tively consult a travel agent, visit the In- just on commerce but also issues concern-
ternet, or approach any other distribution ing social solidarity and identity. It is
point to discuss going on a holiday, for ex- through this process of organic image for-
ample, they are not actually buying a prod- mulation that notions of identity can fre-
uct that they can taste, smell, touch or car- quently develop. Tensions created in the
ry away with them. What they are buying production of tourism images can reveal
is an image that is essentially an idea in notions about identity that otherwise may
their head. The travel agent, information not have been examined. An authentic
officer, or tourism website acts as a conduit image, for example, can be dissolved over
to this idea just as other tourism promo- time if host communities do not identify
tional media does. As Gartner makes the with the image or feel that it insufficiently
point, 'since tourism products are an portrays internalised perceptions of their
amorphous mass of experiences, produced social identity. Similarly, a lack of authen-
and consumed simultaneously, with no ticity in an image initially projected can,
opportunity to sample the product prior to over time, become authentic if sufficient
purchase, the images someone holds act as people have a large enough investment in
a surrogate for product valuation' (1996: the image. Clearly, authenticity is a cru-
456). Such contact points between product cial concept to consider in the connection
and purchase have enormous power in in- between image and identity in the image
fluencing the destination choice of potential formation process since these images them-
tourists. It is precisely for this reason that selves have a history, which are the direct
tourism images present for the historian a result of the process of culture. This propo-
rich source of cultural identity. Tourism sition can further be explicated through an
images are frequently a confirmation or a understanding of the historical depth of the
reaction to organic images and are usually concept of image.
informed by and invested with ideas that
themselves are the product of memory, The Historical Depth of the Concept of Im-
myths and mores. age
In short, images of a destination are not
only products of the imagination, whether In understanding that images have their
they are based on either reality or elements own history, the work of eminent twentieth
of reality, they are also products of a de- century economist, Kenneth Boulding
sired reality, which is perpetrated either by (1956), is illuminating and informative.
the supply side (the destination region) or Boulding's work helps to illustrate the
the demand side (the generating region). complexity of culture but also the complex
This makes tourism images ripe for histori- process of culture, which is so often lost in
cal analysis and the possible uncovering of branding and imaging and tourism
hitherto unknown notions of cultural iden- projects. In this respect it helps us to un-
tity. Tourism images exist along a spec- derstand the historical depth of the concept
trum of ideas that are only restricted by the of image. In tourism, when we talk about
knowledge and imagination of the image- the concept of image, we usually see it in a
maker and are open to manipulation by any one-dimensional sense, for example, a pho-
party or parties who may benefit from tograph of a palm tree fringing a white
them. This is the case whether tourism sandy beach. However we can invoke it at
images are being generated from outside a much deeper level. In contrast, to how it
the host community or whether they are is frequently invoked in tourism, Boulding
being generated from within the host com- interprets the concept of image in a tem-
munity. There is, however, a difference. poral sense. In Boulding's analysis the
Images generated from outside a host concept of ‘image’ is understood as a social
community are almost always predicated transcript that moves through time. The
on commercial imperatives rather than any image ‘is built up as a result of all past
concerns driven by issues of identification experience of the possessor of the image.
Part of the image is the history of the im- community self knowledge and by exten-
age itself’ (1956: 6). For Boulding impression imaging and branding and creative
sions have a history. They are invested tourism enterprises. Explication of this
with ideas that inform the image. Boulding point can be demonstrated by using the
makes this point when he says: example of the historical interplay between
The mind of man is a vast storehouse of organic images and tourism images in
forgotten memories and experiences. It Tasmania. Although a region rather than a
is much more than a storehouse, howev- city, this example nevertheless demon-
er. It is a genuine image affecting our strates how historical analysis can contri-
conduct and behaviour in ways that we bute to a greater understanding of the in-
do not understand without conscious terplay between organic images and tour-
mind (1956: 53). ism images and their effect on cultural
The essential point about Boulding's identity.
meaning of image is that it is not static but
dynamic. It is in fact a 'transcript' passed The Historical Depth of Images — Tasma-
down from one generation to another: nia as an Example
The basic bond of any society, culture,
subculture or organisation is a ‘public For the first fifty years of its settlement
image,' that is, an image the essential in the nineteenth century the Island of
characteristics of which are shared by Tasmania, then known as Van Diemen's
the individuals participating in the Land, was variously known around the
group. ... A public image almost invaria- British Empire as the 'Dunghill of Eng-
bly produces a 'transcript'; that is, a land'. This colloquial and derogatory ex-
record in more or less permanent form pression, described the island's organic
which can be handed down from genera- image as a repository for some of the worst
tion to generation (1956: 64). criminals in the British Empire since its
In 'primitive, non-literate societies the birth as a penal colony in 1803. Through-
transcript take the form of verbal rituals, out this period the burden of bearing the
legends, poems, ceremonial and the like, image caused the free settlers of Van Di-
the transmission of which from generation emen's Land considerable consternation.
to generation is always one of the principal The shame attached to such an appalling
activities of the group' (1956: 64-65). In organic image drove them to consider how
modern, technological societies, however, they could improve the 'impressions' that
the transcript is more sophisticated involv- outsiders held about them. Soon they dis-
ing the camera, the tape recorder, and the covered that a vehicle tailor-made for the
computer. Nevertheless, despite the ad- purpose of removing and creating
vantage of technology in developing the 'impressions' could be found in immigration
transcript, 'we are still unable, at least to and tourism promotion. Once discovered,
date, to record touch, taste and smell. We various interested bodies and individuals
have no direct means of transcribing sensa- who in some way stood to benefit employed
tions, emotions, or feelings except through this vehicle. For middle-class bourgeois
the crowded channels of symbolic represen- Tasmanians it became a particularly potent
tation' (1956: 65). tool and offered important opportunities.
When we understand the concept of ‘im- Behind their efforts to promote Tasmania
age’ as a social transcript, we can appre- were always two great motives. The first
ciate the temporal importance of images. was to remove the 'hated stain' of convict-
Images are always informed by and in- ism and achieve social and moral redemp-
vested with ideas that themselves are the tion from the shame that accompanied
product of memory, myths and mores. In their initial image as a penal colony. The
this sense tourism images, and the ways second was to promote Tasmania as a
that they manifest, are the end product of wholesome and attractive destination to
cultural identity not the beginning. This is much-needed emigrants and tourists
why the historical depth of images already throughout the British Empire and the
evident within communities can reveal world. Because the second motive was to
notions of cultural identity that can inform some extent dependent on the first, both
Marian Walker 23
motives were inextricably intertwined. inhabitants had to be ‘vindicated’ to a state

In reaction to their organic image as the in which having been 'redeemed' they lived
'Dunghill of England', many different im- in a place, at least in their own eyes, that
ages, both visual and written, were used to was ‘like no other country in the world’
portray Tasmania whether they were au- (Burn, 1840; TTPC, 1960).
thentic or not (Walker, 2008). The themes Without doubt the image formation
of Englishness, scenery, fertility and cli- process in Tasmania played a central role
mate that were ubiquitous in their immi- in the development of a Tasmanian identity
gration and tourism images speak to this and is still reflected in Tasmanian society
fact as Tasmanians embellished them to today. Few contemporary Tasmanian tour-
counteract their negative organic image. ism stakeholders, however, are cognisant of
As a result Tasmanians began to identify the deeper meanings behind the inherited
with these themes and over time developed images and brands that they project. The
a peculiar attachment to 'place' and to the first reason for this is that community self-
promotion of nature over culture, which knowledge about the history of the inter-
endures even today. In short, Tasmanians play between organic and tourism images
began to believe and identify with their that Tasmanians have owned over time is
own rhetoric. The more the images were generally not well known. Another is that
used to promote Tasmania to the wider many tourism stakeholders do not see it as
world, the more Tasmanians subscribed to their job to enquire into the deeper mean-
them and the more authentic they became ings behind the images that they have in-
over time. By the late nineteenth century, herited. Consequently they frequently
Tasmanians had a huge investment in adopt and apply images without question-
identifying with the contemporary positive ing their deeper meaning or realising that a
meanings inherent in the immigration and fuller explanation for tourists could only
tourism images they projected. enhance their cultural tourism products.
Because of their unique and remarkable This is likely to be a situation replicated in
beginnings social redemption and positive other tourism destinations. As Hankinson
image building were a necessity for early makes the point, 'while there is a consider-
settler Tasmanians. As a result, in Tas- able body of research into the development
mania, the image-imagination spectrum of induced and complex destination images,
was heavily biased toward the imagination little attention appears to have been given
as Tasmania’s image oscillated between the to the significance of images formed
visitor-generating region and the visitor- through organic processes despite their
destination region, and a consciousness of recognised significance to destination mar-
how best to portray Tasmania against an keting' (2004: 7). It makes sense, therefore,
organic image that was anything but posi- for the work of historians to be integrated
tive. Much of the rhetoric surrounding more significantly into the imaging and
tourism in Tasmania, therefore, developed branding process as well as creative tour-
from the rhetoric produced to entice immi- ism projects. Historians are perhaps the
grants to Tasmania’s shores and from the only practitioners who can effectively un-
disjuncture between the colony's holistic cover the deeper meanings within the his-
image and the images those interested in torical image formation process. Through
developing a positive image wished to por- their contribution greater credence can be
tray. A corollary was that this situation given to authenticity over invention when
unavoidably impacted on a Tasmanian considering the stories that inform the im-
identity, first through the exercise of pro- ages and brands that tourism destinations
moting nature over culture as a way of project, as well as the creative tourism ven-
ameliorating the ‘hated stain’, and second tures that are offered.
through the mechanism of the 'social tran-
script' whereby succeeding generations The Ramifications of Imaging and Brand-
imbibed the images projected to counter the ing on Local Citizens
'hated stain' as part of their identity. Con-
sequently, over time, Tasmanians changed This paper has stressed the centrality of
their image from being a colony where the the concept of 'becoming' in imaging and
branding cultural cities and has argued for that already reflects authentic culture.
greater attention to be paid to the historical Clearly, cities, and their host communi-
depth of the concept of image as well as the ties have a greater chance of authentically
organic processes that inform the tourism cultivating creative places for cultural tour-
images that host communities project. It ism if the integrity of their own local cul-
has suggested that tourism stakeholders ture is honoured. As Holcomb points out,
need to be cognisant of local history and the wrong kind of 'packaging and promot-
community self-knowledge when they im- ing the city to tourists can destroy its soul.
age, brand and interpret cultural products The city is commodified, its form and spirit
for both the benefit of cultural tourist and remade to conform to market demand not
host community. In tourism, culture is fre- residents' dreams' (Holcomb, 1999: 68).
quently reduced to an activity or an image. Attention to what is important to the host
Hence we have the branding and image community is central to its success as a
process and now renascent tourism ven- creative city (Florida, 2002; see Scott,
tures such as creative tourism. However, 2006). According to Florida this is, after
tourism stakeholders need to be aware that all, the reason why cultural tourists enjoy
reducing culture to an image or an activity travelling there and why the creative class
does not make it any less complex. Nor is attracted there. Evidence corroborates
does creating a tourism venture in order to this. In surveys undertaken in both Lon-
portray culture make it any less so. Cul- don and New York tourists were attracted
tures, as anthropologists know, are in a to these cities not by individual attractions
constant state of 'becoming' — a factor very but 'by qualities of place and culture —
often lost in the branding and imaging of "architecture", "people", "food", "culture",
tourism destinations and in tourism "diversity''' (Maitland, 2007: 30). While
projects generally. In this respect it must these qualities represent a diverse mixture,
be remembered that tourism images elements that attract the cultural tourist
represent a process rather than an end in approximate best to a 'sense of identity and
themselves and that therefore the authen- place'. As Evans notes in quoting Pratt, 'a
tic interpretation of their meaning becomes creative city cannot be founded like a ca-
essential to tourists. thedral in the desert: it needs to be linked
This paper suggests that the ramifica- to and be part of an existing cultural envi-
tion of not prioritising host community self- ronment. We need to appreciate complex
knowledge in imaging and branding interdependencies, and not simply use one
projects is that images may be developed to exploit the other' (Evans, 2009: 1031;
and projected that are incongruent with Pratt, 2008: 35; see Ashworth & Tun-
local culture. In this event they distort bridge, 1990). In being aware that images
reality at the expense of the host communi- themselves have a history that is owned by
ty. While branding and imaging a city can the host community, historical thinking
unite a community under one banner, it and analysis can help uncover these com-
can also divide communities that lack a plex interdependencies for the benefit of
cohesive social story. Host community both host community and cultural tourist.
members cannot be expected to live up to
an image or brand that is projected on their Conclusion
behalf if they do not also subscribe to it. In
this respect tourism stakeholders need to In conclusion, the main contribution of
consider the ramifications on tourists as this paper has been to highlight the impor-
well as local citizens. Host communities tance of history in the tourism imaging and
need to own an investment in their own branding process. Because all host com-
image if they are to live up to the image or munities own organic images which them-
brand that is projected on their behalf. selves have a history, historical analysis
They need to be a partner to it. In the case can not only contribute to community self-
of cities, for example, the question becomes knowledge, which is its brief, but concomi-
'whose city, after all, is it?' Strategically, tantly to the depth of meaning in the tour-
and in every way, it makes more sense for ism imaging and branding and interpreta-
tourism stakeholders to project an image tion processes. The aim was not to propose
Marian Walker 25
ways, for example, as to how tourism prac- Network of Canada. Available at

titioners could improve a bad destination www.creativecity.case-
image — this is a subject for a different newsletters/special-edition1/02-
paper — but rather to highlight how an culturaltourism (accessed 15 July 2009).
understanding of the image formation Cohen, Erik
process within communities can inform an 2007 "'Authenticity' in Tourism Studies:
understanding of cultural identity for the Aprés la Lutte". Tourism Recreation
benefit of cultural tourism. It is suggested Research, 32(2):75-82.
that if the concepts of culture and cultural Daly, Ann
tourism are to be expanded to accommodate 2004 "Richard Florida's High-Class
renascent cultural tourism ventures such Glasses". Grantmakers in the Arts
as creative tourism, then this expansion Reader. Summer 2004. Available at
must also pay homage to the intangible www.anndalyconsulting.com/articles/flor
concepts of social identity, integrity and ida.html (accessed 14 July 2009).
authenticity that have developed historical- Davison, Graeme
ly. In other words imaging and branding of 2000 The Use and Abuse of Australian His-
contemporary cultural tourism products tory. St. Leonards: Allen & Unwin.
needs to incorporate a temporal component Enzensberger, Hans Magnus
that allows for the complexity of culture to 1996 [1958] "A Theory of Tourism". New
be conveyed as understood by social theor- German Critique, 68:117-135.
ists like Klukhohn (1949) and Williams Evans, Graeme
(1958) as well as the historical and contem- 2009 "Creative Cities, Creative Spaces and
porary reality of the host community as Urban Policy". Urban Studies,
this can only enhance cultural tourism 46(5&6):1003-1040.
products. In considering cities as creative Florida, Richard
spaces for cultural tourism, then, this pa- 2002 The Rise of the Creative Class. North
per makes a plea for the consideration of Melbourne: Pluto Press.
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tive tourism projects. It defends history as Processes and Policies. New York: John
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ceton: Harper Collins.
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Burn, David 142.
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They Are, Not as They Have Been Judd, Dennis R. and Fainstein Susan S.
Represented to Be. London: J. W. (Eds.): The Tourist City. New Haven
Southgate. and London: Yale University Press.
CCNC Kluckhohn, Clyde
2004 Cultural Tourism. Creative City 1949 Mirror for Man. New York: McGraw-
Hill. Walker, Marian

MacCannell, Dean 2008 Memories, Dreams and Inventions:
1976 The Tourist: A New Theory of the The Evolution of Tasmania's Tourism
Leisure Class. New York: Schocken Image. PhD Thesis, Hobart: University
Books. of Tasmania.
Maitland, Robert Wang, Ning
2007 "Culture, City Users and the Creation 1999 "Rethinking authenticity in tourism
of New Tourism Areas in Cities". In experience". Annals of Tourism Re-
Smith, Melanie K. (Ed.): Tourism, Cul- search, 26(2):349-370.
ture and Regeneration. Wallingford: Ward, Stephen Victor
CABI. 1998 Selling Places: The Marketing and
McKercher, Bob & du Cros, Hilary Promotion of Towns and Cities 1850-
2002 Cultural Tourism: The Partnership 2000. Abingdon: Spon Press.
Between Tourism and Cultural Heritage White, Richard
Management. New York: Haworth Hos- 1981 Inventing Australia: Images and
pitality Press. Identity 1688-1980. St. Leonards: Allen
Pearce, Philip L. & Unwin Ltd.
2007 "Persisting with Authenticity: Glean- Whitlock, Gillian & Carter, David (Eds.)
ing Contemporary Insights for Future 1992 Images of Australia: An Introductory
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Pratt, Andy C. Williams, Raymond
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and Policy Questions". Journal of Urban
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Tosh, John
2008 Why History Matters. Basingstoke:
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Tasmanian Tourist Promotion Council Reenviado: 20/12/2009
[TTPC] Aceptado: 23/02/2010
1960 No Other Country In The World Is Sometido a evaluación por pares anónimos
Quite Like Tasmania. Hobart: Mirror
Newspapers Ltd.
www.pasosonline.org
Perceptions of Local People Regarding Istanbul as a European

Capital of Culture
Ebru Kuzguni
Tuğçe Gökseli
Deniz Özalpi
Billur Someri
Maria D. Alvarezii
Abstract: Istanbul has been declared the European Capital of Culture in 2010, due to its past as the
cradle of many civilizations and host to various cultures. Today, Istanbul still includes a variety of
cultures, ethnic backgrounds, religions and socio-cultural levels. People with different origins,
languages, beliefs and traditions are living together in the city. As Istanbul has received in recent years
large numbers of migrants from other parts of Turkey, the gap between the lifestyles of residents has
widened. Therefore, this research aims to determine the perceptions of Istanbul’s inhabitants, who have
highly diversified identities and lifestyles, regarding the city as a European Capital of Culture. A scale to
measure the construct of European Capital of Culture is also proposed.
Keywords: European; Capital of Culture; Istanbul; City; Local Perceptions.
Resumen: Estambul ha sido declarada Capital Europea de la Cultura para el año 2010, debido a su pa-
sado como cuna de diferentes civilizaciones y dueña de diversas culturas. Hoy Estambul incluye aún una
gran variedad de culturas, etnias, religiones y niveles socioculturales. Gente de diversos orígenes, len-
guas, creencias y tradiciones viven juntos en la ciudad. Debido al gran número de inmigrantes de otras
partes de Turquía que Estambul ha recibido en los últimos años, la diferencia entre los estilos de vida de
los residentes se ha incrementado. Por lo tanto, esta investigación aspira a determinar las percepciones
de los habitantes de Estambul que gozan de diversas identidades y estilos de vida, en relación a esta
ciudad como Capital Europea de la Cultura. También se propone una escala para medir el concepto de
Capital Europea de la Cultura.
Palabras clave: Europea; Capital de la Cultura; Estambul; Ciudad; Percepciones de los lugareños.
i
Graduates of Boğaziçi University, Dpt. of Tourism Administration, eb_kuzgun@hotmail.com,
gokseltgc@gmail.com, dozalp86@hotmail.com, billursomer@hotmail.com.
ii
Associate Professor Dr. Maria D. Alvarez, Dpt. of Tourism Administration, Boğaziçi University, alva-
rezm@boun.edu.tr

28 Perceptions regarding Istanbul as a European Capital of Culture
Introduction enough to cover all layers of society, or

whether it is just targeting a limited seg-
Istanbul has been the meeting point of ment of residents with its upscale and ad-
various cultures and has been hosting dif- vanced-artistic activities. The ECOC pro-
ferent civilizations for centuries. With its gram, to be successful and achieve its aims,
rich historical and cultural heritage, as should embrace all the layers of the society
well as its culture and art life, Istanbul has and communicate with them. However,
been attracting the attention of the world. popular cultural events, such as biennials
Istanbul has also achieved an increasingly and international music and film festivals,
important financial position as the econom- are only targeting people with cultural and
ic hub of Turkey, drawing investment monetary capital (Yardimci, 2007).
through its strategic location. In recent The studies that have so far examined
years, a rapidly increasing number of cul- cities selected as European Capital of Cul-
tural activities, such as international music ture have mainly focused on the activities,
and film festivals, biennials, and exhibi- the process, and the results of the event.
tions of world famous artists, provide rec- Economic outcomes have also been given
ognition to the city in the international attention, especially regarding the increase
culture arena. Economically, Istanbul is in number of visitors to the cities. The
remarkable from various aspects, including question of how the local people thought
its large potential manpower, increasing and felt about their cities as a culture capi-
foreign investments and stock exchange. tal has not been taken into consideration
Finally, Turkey’s temporary membership in yet. Thus, the purpose of this research is to
the United Nation’s Security Council and learn the perceptions of local residents with
the ongoing negotiations with the Euro- different education and income levels, and
pean Union render the country politically from various districts regarding Istanbul as
crucial. As such, Istanbul, the most famous a European Capital of Cul-
city of Turkey, gets its share from this pop- ture. Furthermore, the study also attempts
ularity through international submissions to derive a scale to measure the concept of
and congresses at high level politics. As a European Capital of Culture, which may be
result of this increasing fame and its an- useful for other cities to investigate how
cient roots in history, Istanbul has received they are perceived in this respect.
the title of European Capital of Culture for
the year 2010 (ECOC 2010) and cultural Literature Review
activities in the city have accelerated be-
cause of this event. To be able to analyze the subject of Eu-
Istanbul is highly diversified in terms of ropean Capital of Culture in depth, it is
economic, social and political structures. first necessary to look closer to the concept
Especially in spatially-segregated areas, of culture itself and what it includes. There
cultural exchange and recognition is crucial is a variety of definitions of culture evolv-
to prevent disconnection between social ing and changing in time.
segments (Yardimci, 2007). Yardimci (2007) As discussed by Williams (1958, cited in
states that if diverse identities and cultures Smith, 2003), culture can be said to be or-
do not form a combined urban culture, dinary because every human society has its
there would be multiple cities rather than own shape, its own meanings, its own pur-
multiplicity, which would result in frag- poses and these societies use institutions,
mentation and polarization. This statement arts and learning to express themselves.
is also true for Istanbul, considering the According to Hannerz (1990, as cited in
highly secured luxury villas next to varoş Smith, 2003) the world culture is created
(the Turkish term for slum areas) regions through the combination of varied local
or the rising skyscrapers right opposite the cultures and their development. Culture is
gecekondu (the Turkish term for illegally referred as a whole way of life, the special
constructed shanty houses). Considering all processes of discovery and creative effort
these, it can be questioned whether the (Williams, 1958, as cited in Smith, 2003).
scope of ECOC 2010 Istanbul is broad The term culture does not only address the
Kuzgun et al. 29
elite and educated class in the society, but new attractions and preservation of exist-
embraces the society as a whole. As stated ing features is expected from host cities.
by Arnold (1875, as cited in Smith, 2003), Moreover, ECOC requires the cultural her-
culture is about the lives and interests of itage and regional cultural activities to be
ordinary people, both rural and urban made accessible to everyone.
dwellers, indigenous or immigrant com- It is beneficial to take a closer look at
munities, artists and artisans. two successful European Capital of Culture
While explaining the term culture, the events, Lille and Glasgow. The reason why
concept of city should not be omitted, as wide public involvement during the ECOC
cities are the fundamentals of culture event was so much valued in Lille is the
throughout history. They are the places city’s rich multi-cultural structure. The
where people gather together, interact with outcomes of the event included increased
each other, form groups and share a com- media attendance, numerous public and
mon life. To be able to assess a city as a artistic events, and a 39% increase in an-
cultural city, it should possess values diffe- nual cultural visits (Sacco and Blessi, 2006,
rentiating it. These assets of the city are as cited in Uraz, 2007). On the other hand,
categorized in two cultural dimensions as authorities in Glasgow mainly focused on
tangible and intangible (Uraz, 2007). Tang- the sustainability aspect, which is one of
ible ones include the architecture, historical the success factors for the ECOC event.
heritage, museums, libraries, squares, holly With the ECOC program, Glasgow in-
places and all the other physical structures tended to enhance its cultural development
adding value to it. Intangible elements are by integrating the public in the process.
traditions, values, cuisine, music, religions, After the ECOC program, Glasgow became
art, the existence of multi cultures, and the a well- known destination for cultural
preservation of these assets. Furthermore, tourism and a centre for conference and
the living culture and human aspects conventions (Garcia, 2005; Palmer/Rae
should not be forgotten. Festivals, sports Associates, 2004; Uraz, 2007).
organizations, biennials, cinema, opera,
theaters and exhibitions are indispensable Istanbul as a European Capital of Culture
elements of the culture of a city. Thus, the
visual and the organizational aspects of the With its heritage, art and creative in-
built environment interact, making it diffi- dustries, Istanbul is competing with the
cult and undesirable to separate them (Lo- European cities of Berlin, Madrid, London
zano, 1990). and Rome as stated by an ETC Report
The European Union Culture Commis- (2005). According to Beyazıt and Tosun
sion launched the European Capital of Cul- (2006), the city’ s identity and its activities
ture (ECOC) Program in 1985 for the pur- enhance its competitive capabilities. Its
pose of preserving Europe’s past, increasing strategic location and commercial identity
awareness, generating an environment for have linked Istanbul to European culture
the development of culture and cooperating throughout history. It has remained the
with non-member countries for ensuring Christian and Islamic capital in the Ro-
the effectiveness of European culture man, Byzantine and Ottoman Empires for
throughout the world (Richards, 1996). nearly 16 centuries (Beyazıt & Tosun,
Besides, “the ECOC Program has been a 2006). Some of the culturally rich and lively
significant catalyst for the culture-led re- neighborhoods of Istanbul, which were
generation” (Griffith, 2005: 1). Although Muslim districts around the imperial mos-
the initial aim of the program was to bring ques and Jewish and Christian settlements
the citizens of the European Union togeth- on the Golden Horn, began to decline in the
er, the social and the economic effects be- early days of the Turkish Republic. Fur-
came increasingly important (Uraz, 2007). thermore, rapid population increase has
Richards (1999) mentions that being created infrastructure problems, as Istan-
European Capital of Culture does not de- bul has grown from a population of approx-
pend only on cultural resources, but also on imately one million in the early years of the
cultural competence. Smith (2003) claims Republic, to a city of 12 million inhabitants
that including the development of popular in the year 2009 (TURKSTAT, 2009).
The main factor that helps differentiate own culture, art and language while
cities from each other is their spirit strengthening the links between two cul-
(Karlığa, 2009). The spirit of the city gives tures. The availability of various libraries
its own identity and its main color, and it is another cultural element of Istanbul.
ascribes its basic characteristics to the Libraries are ‘community centers’ because
place (Karlığa, 2009). To take a closer look they are centers of education, culture and
at Istanbul, the city has been hosting nu- socialization (Bayir, 2009).
merous people from different ethnic roots, Istanbul is also rich in historical herit-
nationalities, and religions for centuries, age places. However, there is lack of con-
showing its multiculturalism. It has wit- sciousness in the protection of the cultural
nessed the Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman heritage. UNESCO calls attention to this
Empires, with their traditions, cuisines, problem because Istanbul’s culture is rec-
arts, religions and life styles. They have ognized also in the international arena and
enriched the soul of Istanbul, which can be the Historical Peninsula has been accepted
defined as the accumulation of all the his- as a world heritage asset in 1985.
tory, cultures and lives it has witnessed. Istanbul has lately been rising in many
Istanbul possesses many tangible ele- aspects in the international arena. The city
ments reflecting its rich and differentiating has benefitted from a favorable national
culture. Turkish Cuisine is an important economic environment, triggered by a
cultural and historical element since it is broad and continuous reform process, and
one of the oldest and richest cuisines in the thus it has strengthened its position on the
world. In Istanbul, one has the opportunity international marketplace (OECD, 2008).
to enjoy all different tastes of Anatolian Furthermore, Istanbul has established it-
and Ottoman cuisines in numerous restau- self as the industrial, financial and logistics
rants. As discussed by Barutcugil (2009), centre of the country, producing almost
Istanbul is also the capital of vein and cal- one-third of the national output and ab-
ligraphy art, another cultural asset of the sorbing the bulk of foreign direct invest-
city. Development of vein art has enriched ment (OECD, 2008).
the city both culturally and historically, On the other hand, the city has been fac-
considering the historical root of this ing some shortcomings, which may affect
art. Furthermore, Tokaç (2009) states that its goal of becoming a hub for logistics,
Istanbul is the host city of Turkish music finance, culture and tourism in the Euro-
culture. Furthermore, cultural diversity Asia Region. The economy is changing to
has contributed to the structure of music in become more knowledge-intensive from
Istanbul. An important point highlighted labor-intensive, while traditional and labor-
by this author is that, especially in the intensive sectors (e.g., textiles) are shifting
1980’s, arabesque music has developed as a only gradually and slowly to other comple-
sub-culture, representing the lifestyle and mentary industry segments (OECD, 2008).
perceptions of rural immigrants to Istan- Furthermore, productivity levels have been
bul. Cinema is also an important asset of negatively affected by the informal sector
the Istanbul culture. Kabil (2009) indicates (OECD, 2008). Migration to Istanbul from
that one-forth of all 1000 cinemas in Tur- other cities of Turkey is also a burden har-
key are located in this city. Istanbul has dening the life in the city because of over
accelerated its development in relation to population. Other issues include insuffi-
cinema through diverse film festivals, espe- ciency of the transportation system, infra-
cially in recent years. Actually, not only structure and illegal housing named as
movie, but other types of festivals and bi- gecekondulaşma. There are new projects
ennials are growing and increasing in Is- addressing these problems, such as the
tanbul, which provides an important indi- Marmaray Project for traffic congestion,
cator regarding the developing cultural relocation of workshops off of the peninsula
activities in the city. Foreign institutions in and the introduction of an efficient inte-
Istanbul also serve as cultural elements grated tariff management to promote mass
since they are enriching the culture of the transportation.
city. Tosun, Öztürk and Özpınar (2009) Considering that Istanbul is going to be
state that these institutions introduce their the largest ECOC to date, and the bigger
Kuzgun et al. 31
the city is the more complex the structure ize, the immigrants have become a domi-
gets, the cultural program implementation nant element in the demographic and the
of Istanbul ECOC 2010 requires a well- cultural structure in rapidly growing cities
defined job description and an effective and such as Istanbul and Ankara.
efficient management (Uraz, 2007). Local Given the social and demographic pola-
authorities’ performance will be crucial to rization of Istanbul, and the requirement of
the success of the event. As Istanbul is the ECOC event to permeate to all layers of
highly diversified regarding its economic, society, the study attempts to understand
social and political structures, the ECOC the perceptions of the local people regard-
program, to be successful and reach its ing Istanbul as a European Capital of Cul-
aims, should embrace and communicate ture.
with all the layers of society. Socio-cultural
backgrounds are expected to influence how Research Methodology
people perceive Istanbul as a cultural city.
This results from the fact that the city is The study was carried out through a
shelter to millions of people from different survey aimed at determining the views of
origins, religions, cultural backgrounds and the local people in Istanbul regarding the
income levels. To be able to understand the city as a European Capital of Culture.
socio-spatial polarization (Yardimci, 2007) Therefore, in order to measure these per-
better, it is necessary to look at Turkey's ceptions, a scale was derived from the lite-
near past. Gecekondu and varoş have been rature (Beyazıt & Tosun, 2006; Griffith,
one of the major controversial issues of 2005; Karlığa, 2009; Lozano, 1990; Smith,
Turkey. The gecekondu districts have en- 2003; Tokaç, 2009; Tosun et al., 2009; Uraz,
larged after the 1950s due mainly to the 2007). The measure was designed to be
ambiguity of the national and local admin- independent from the ECOC concept as
istrators to the topic and their aim to use defined by the European Union. Demo-
the situation to increase their political sup- graphic characteristics were also included
port (Ahıska and Yenal, 2006). in the questionnaire in order to analyze the
While talking about the term gecekon- perceptions of different sectors of society.
du, it is also necessary to explain another Judgmental sampling was used in order
term that is correlated with this output of to obtain demographic diversity in the
urban life style, which is arabesk. At the sample. Therefore, regions where people
beginning, this terminology was used just from different education and income levels
for defining a specific music type, but later could be reached were determined, namely
it was generalized to describe the immi- Nişantaşı, Taksim, Besiktaş, Üsküdar,
grant culture located in suburban areas in Hisarüstü and Umraniye. In order to in-
Turkey (Gurbilek, 1992). At the end of the crease the response rate, the places where
1960s it meant the expression of the aspi- people enjoyed spending their free time,
rations of the people who lived in these such as shopping areas and entertainment
gecekondu houses in the varoş areas centers, were chosen. Furthermore, the
(Özbek, 1999). In the 1980s, this music type places of residence of respondents were
was representing those who were detached categorized into three groups according to
from their cultures, meaning the immi- the luxury level of the regions and the in-
grants to the city (Gurbilek, 1992). On the come level of the people living there. As can
other hand, with their music and its explo- be seen in Table 1, the sample is evenly
sion, these new residents became more distributed into these regions, showing the
visible in public life (Ahıska & Yenal, diversity obtained. In total, 159 valid ques-
2006). As a result arabesk can be defined as tionnaires were obtained (refer to Table 1
a sub-culture appearing as the outcome of for a detailed break down of the sample).
fast modernization and migration to big
cities. As Ahiska and Yenal (2006) emphas-
Demographic Variables Frequency Percentage

Gender
Male 77 48.4
Female 82 51.6
Education
Primary School 24 15.1
High School 37 23.3
University 74 46.5
Postgraduate 24 15.1
Age
Less than 25 61 38.4
25-35 46 28.9
36-45 27 17.0
46-55 14 8.8
More than 55 11 6.9
Net monthly household income (in TL)
1000 or less 38 23.9
1000 – 2000 35 22.0
2001 – 3000 21 13.2
3001 – 5000 26 16.4
5001 – 8000 13 8.2
More than 8000 25 15.7
Place of Residency
Lower – Lower-Middle Region 63 39.6
Middle Region 56 35.2
Upper-Middle – Upper Region 40 25.2
Place of Birth
Istanbul 73 45.9
Out of Istanbul 86 54.1
Table 1. Demographic Profile of the Respondents (N=159)
Findings dimensions, Culture and European, were

examined in order to analyze the percep-
An exploratory factor analysis was per- tions of local people regarding these factors.
formed to determine the dimensionality of The highest means under the cultural di-
the European Capital of Culture measure. mension are obtained from the factors His-
The results show that the cultural dimen- torical heritage, Religion, and Cuisine and
sion of a city can be categorized in nine musical culture, while under the European
factors, which include Museums and libra- dimension, Geography, history and culture
ries, Atmosphere and architecture, Art and rates highest (Table 4). This result indi-
festivals, Cuisine and musical culture, His- cates that according to local people, the
torical heritage, Religion, Musical variety, most important cultural elements of Istan-
Cultural diversity, and Foreign cultural bul are its historical heritage, representa-
institutions (Table 2). The European di- tion of different religions, and its cuisine
mension can also be categorized in two fac- and music. On the other hand they believe
tors, one of which includes Geography, his- that the most important factor making
tory and culture, and the other encompass- Istanbul a European city is its geographical
ing Lifestyle and population distribution location, European history and culture.
(Table 3).
The means of the factors under the two
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Museums and Libraries
There is a variety of libraries in Istanbul .78
Kuzgun et al. 33
Istanbul has rich exhibitions in the museums .76

The museum exhibitions reflect the culture of .69
Istanbul
There is a high quantity of museums in Istanbul .68
Atmosphere and Architecture
The city’s atmosphere reflects the history of Istan- .90
bul
The city’s atmosphere reflects the culture of Is- .80
tanbul
The architecture in the city reflects the culture .60
and history of Istanbul
Arts and Festivals
The festivals in Istanbul are rich in terms of con- .77
tent
Istanbul is a city which has been raising art and .73
artists
Art organizations are appealing to all segments of .69
the population
Festivals are appealing to all segments of the .58
population
Cuisine and Musical Culture
Palace cuisine is important in traditional Turkish .82
cuisine
Turkish music contributes to Istanbul’s musical .81
culture
In Istanbul all tastes of Turkish cuisine are avail- .74
able
Historical Heritage
There are many sites from the Ottoman era in .80
Istanbul
Istanbul is rich in terms of historical sites .80
There are many sites from the Byzantine era in .80
Istanbul
Religion
In Istanbul there are holy places for all religions .82
and beliefs
All beliefs and religions are represented in Istan- .77
bul
Holy places in Istanbul may also be visited for .67
non-religious purposes
Musical Variety
You can listen to all types of music in Istanbul .87
It is possible to listen to worldwide music types in .86
Istanbul
Cultural Diversity
Different cultures living in Istanbul interact with .79
each other
The atmosphere of Istanbul includes all cultures .71
Foreign Cultural Institutions
Foreign cultural institutions contribute to Istan- 0.9
bul’s cultural accumulation and wealth
In Istanbul there are many cultural institutions 0.7
Cronbach’s Alpha .78 .80 .77 .80 .72 .83 .69 .60 .60
Eigenvalues 5.64 2.80 2.23 1.97 1.70 1.43 1.20 1.03 1.00
Percentage of Variance Explained (cumulative) 21.7 33.0 41.7 48.7 55.0 60.7 65.4 69.3 73.0
Kaiser-Meyer-Olin = 0.705; Barlett’s Test of Sphericity – Significance = 0.000
Table 2. Factor Analysis of the European Capital of Culture, Cultural Dimension

1 2
Geography, History and Culture
Geographically, Istanbul is a European city .85
Historically, Istanbul is a European city .75

Culturally, Istanbul is a European City .64
Life Style and Population Distribution
Istanbul is a European city in terms of its population distribution .87
Istanbul is a European city in terms of the life style of its people .79
Cronbach’s Alpha .71 .68
Eigenvalues 2.54 1.01
Percentage of Variance Explained (cumulative) 50.82 71.18
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin = 0.737; Barlett’s Test of Sphericity – Significance = 0.000
Table 3. Factor Analysis of the European Capital of Culture, European Dimension
Mean Std. Deviation

Cultural Dimension
Museums and Libraries 3.52 .76
Atmosphere and Architecture 3.56 .95
Art and Festivals 3.47 .81
Cuisine and Musical Culture 4.00 .79
Historical Heritage 4.31 .63
Religion 4.10 .65
Musical Variety 3.97 .85
Cultural Diversity 3.62 .86
Foreign Institutions 3.58 .81
European Dimension
Geography, History and Culture 3.76 .81
Lifestyle and Population Distribution 3.00 1.06
Table 4. Perceptions of Istanbul as a European Capital of Culture
The difference between respondents ceived involvement, whereas the least edu-
with various educational backgrounds was cated people have the lowest level. These
analyzed using Oneway Analysis of Va- results indicate that since the most edu-
riance. Education is found to significantly cated people’s awareness and level of in-
distinguish among the groups in relation to volvement in cultural activities are higher,
two factors under the Cultural Dimension, they are also more knowledgeable about
Museums and libraries (F = 7.33; p = these issues and can criticize these aspects
0.000), and Historical heritage (F = 5.86; p better and be aware of negative sides. So,
= 0.001). Moreover, both factors under the their perceptions are more negative. On the
European Dimension, Geography, history other hand, the least educated people have
and culture (F = 5.39; p = 0.001, and Life- not enough knowledge because of their low
style and population (F = 3.37; p = 0.02) are level of awareness and involvement in cul-
also perceived differently. Descriptive re- tural activities. Accordingly, their percep-
sults show that the least educated and the tions are found to be relatively more nega-
most educated people have more negative tive.
perceptions as opposed to those that pos- A significant difference in awareness
sess a medium level of education. Similarly, and perceived involvement is also found for
individuals with diverse education levels respondents with diverse places of resi-
have a varied level of awareness regarding dence and monthly household income.
cultural activities in Istanbul (F = 15.99; p People from the lower regions have the
= 0.000), and their perceived involvement lowest level of awareness (F = 11.51; p =
in these is also different (F = 8.67; p = 0.000) and perceived involvement (F = 9.26;
0.000). According to the descriptive statis- p = 0.000) in cultural activities in the city.
tics, the most educated individuals have In contrast, people living in the other two
the highest level of awareness and per- relatively higher class regions have signifi-
Kuzgun et al. 35
cantly higher scores in these variables. Capital of Culture.

Similarly, there is a significant difference The experience of previous ECOC cities
between respondents with diverse income has established that focusing on local resi-
levels in relation to their awareness (F = dents is crucial for this event to reach its
5.22; p = 0.000) and perceived involvement major aim. Defining target audience groups
in cultural activities (F = 3.66 p = 0.004). clearly and integrating local people in this
Further analysis showed that awareness organization (Glasgow City Council, 1992)
is significantly correlated with some cul- makes the event successful, by providing
tural dimensions of the European Capital the participation of the real owners of the
of Culture Concept. People with the highest city and rendering the effects of the organi-
level of awareness about Istanbul’s cultural zation sustainable. Thus, Istanbul can be
activities also have the most positive per- more successful in the period as European
ceptions regarding Istanbul as a European Capital of Culture if communication with
Capital of Culture in relation to the dimen- the local people is established, and they are
sions of Arts and festivals (r = 0.26; p = made aware of the activities undertaken.
0.001), Historical heritage (r = 0.29; p = The results of our study showed that once
0.000), Religion (r = 0.26; p = 0.001), Musi- people learn about the cultural assets of
cal variety (r = 0.28; p = 0.000), Cuisine and Istanbul and form, as Karlığa (2009) says,
musical culture (r = 0.2; p = 0.01), and Cul- a common memory and consciousness about
tural diversity (r = 0.2; p = 0.01). their city, they have the tendency to have
A correlation analysis indicated that more positive perceptions regarding Istan-
people’s ECOC perspectives are significant- bul. This means that Istanbul has a good
ly correlated with some of the cultural di- starting point for this organization, and if
mensions and all of the European dimen- good communication and integration of all
sions. People who think Istanbul is suitable people are provided, the objectives of the
for the ECOC title as determined by the event can be reached.
EU Cultural Commission also agree that There are certain bodies that are re-
Istanbul possesses the cultural elements sponsible for the Istanbul ECOC 2010
which are Museums and libraries (r = 0.32; event, like the Foundation for the Culture
p = 0.000), Atmosphere and architecture (r and Arts (Istanbul Kultur ve Sanat Vakfı),
= 0.32; p = 0.000) and Art and festivals (r = the Istanbul 2010 Agency, the municipali-
0.3; p = 0.000), and the European elements ties and the local representatives of the
of Geography, History and Culture, (r = Ministry for Culture and Tourism. These
0.52; p = 0.000) and Lifestyle and popula- establishments and authorities should pro-
tion distribution (r = 0.5; p = 0.000). These vide the integration of all residents to the
findings result on interesting implications cultural activities organized for Istanbul
that will be discussed in the following sec- ECOC 2010. Besides, through market seg-
tion. mentation, the audience groups should be
clearly defined and municipalities should
Conclusions and Implications ensure effective communication. Especially,
people with lower education level should be
The study determines that Istanbul is, targeted to ensure their participation. Ad-
as Yardımcı (2007) states, marked by socio- ditionally, the residents’ political opinions
spatial polarization, and that cultural ex- regarding Turkey’s membership to the Eu-
change and recognition is crucial to prevent ropean Union was asked to see if this view
disconnection between social segments. The was related to their perceptions regarding
research also supports Yardımcı’s (2007) Istanbul as a European Capital of Culture.
claim that popular cultural events in Is- However, the result showed that the politi-
tanbul only target people who have cultural cal opinion on this topic was not related to
and monetary capital. Our results establish the perceptions of Istanbul as a European
that monthly household income and educa- Capital of Culture.
tion are significant indicators of the aware- The study also proposes a scale to
ness and level of involvement in cultural measure the construct of European Capital
activities, also influencing how the Istanbul of Culture that includes both cultural and
residents perceive their city as a European European aspects. This measure can be
used to understand local perceptions of, not 42(5/6):841-868.

necessarily a European Capital of Culture Glasgow City Council
determined according to the criteria of the 1992 The 1990 Story: Glasgow Cultural
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perceptions of residents of Istanbul regard- pean Planning Studies, 14(4):415-430.
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SEDPGYM 1º CIRCULAR

XI CONGRESO INTERNACIONAL DE PATRIMONIO GEOLÓGICO Y MINERO

Huelva, 23 al 26 de Septiembre de 2010

PRESENTACIÓN

Desde el año 1994, la Sociedad Española para la Defensa del Patrimonio Geológico y Minero
(SEDPGYM), a través de la colaboración de sus socios, organización de Congresos,
publicaciones y participación en diversos eventos, viene mostrando su preocupación e interés
por la preservación del patrimonio geológico y minero.
Continuando con esta trayectoria, SEDPGYM convoca nuevamente a todos los interesados en
esta temática, a participar activamente en su XI Congreso Internacional sobre Patrimonio
Geológico y Minero. XV Sesión Científica de SEDPGYM.
El Congreso persigue los siguientes objetivos:
‐ Ser punto de encuentro y de discusión para investigadores, estudiosos e interesados en el
patrimonio geológico y minero.
‐ Facilitar el intercambio de experiencias que se estén llevando a cabo en la puesta en valor de
recursos patrimoniales geológico‐mineros, en la recuperación y difusión del patrimonio, así
como en los más amplios aspectos de la historia y la cultura mineras.
‐ Aunar esfuerzos para alcanzar una visión global del patrimonio geológico‐minero, integrado
en el paisaje, que permita compaginar sus señas de identidad propias con la
rehabilitación/restauración y con la reutilización y aprovechamiento en usos alternativos
coherentes, cuando así se requiera para el desarrollo local sostenible.
‐ Dar a conocer la importancia del patrimonio geológico y minero‐industrial de Huelva tanto a
través de la divulgación de su tradición e historia minera, como mediante el análisis de las
iniciativas y proyectos que se están desarrollando actualmente en la zona.
El Congreso incluye visitas a varios puntos de interés geológico‐minero, tales como las cuencas
mineras de Riotinto y Tharsis

TEMÁTICA

Los trabajos versarán sobre distintos aspectos relacionados con la investigación, gestión,
conservación y divulgación del patrimonio geológico y minero. La presentación de las
comunicaciones se organizará en las siguientes sesiones temáticas:
1. Patrimonio Geológico
2. Patrimonio Minero
3. Arqueología e Historia
4. Protección y Valorización
5. Valores Didácticos
Se podrá encontrar más información y el formulario de la inscripción en la web del congreso
(http://www.sedpgym.org) en el apartado “Congresos” y se remitirá, preferentemente, por
correo electrónico a la Secretaría del Congreso: Dr. Emilio M. Romero Macías, Universidad de
Huelva. romaci59@gmail.com; romaci@uhu.es.

www.pasosonline.org
From Strategic Planning to City Branding: Some Empirical Evidence

in Italy
Paolo Rizzii
Ilaria Dioliii
Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore (Italy)
Abstract: In a globalized world where places compete with each other, the image of the city plays a
crucial role to attract tourists and investors, and to make citizens stay with satisfaction and avoid their
moving away. By exploring the connections and implications between theory and empirical outcomes of
some Italian cities as to its attractiveness for tourists and investors, this paper intends to offer a useful
overview both for academicians and practitioners. The purpose is not only to go through the extensive
literature on strategic planning place marketing and city branding, but to focus specifically on some
Italian cases (Turin, Genoa, Venice, Piacenza), where the application of the above mentioned
instruments has provided interesting results to compare.
Keywords: Strategic planning; Place marketing; City branding; Events hosting; Tourism and foreign
direct investment attraction.
Resumen: En un mundo global en el que los sitios compiten entre ellos, la imagen de la ciudad juega un
papel crucial para atraer turistas e inversores, y para conseguir que los ciudadanos se queden satisfechos
y evitar su desplazamiento. A través de la exploración de conexiones e implicaciones entre la teoria y los
resultados empíricos obtenidos en varias ciudades italianas en relación a su atractivo para turistas e in-
versores, este artículo pretende ofrecer una útil visión general para académicos y profesionales. El obje-
tivo es no sólo el de revisar la extensa literatura de la planificación estratégica en marketing y el proceso
de marca de las ciudades, sino también es el de concentrarse específicamente en algunos casos italianos
(Turín, Génova, Venecia y Piacenza), donde la aplicación de los instrumentos mencionados ha propor-
cionado resultados interesantes para comparar.
Palabras clave: Planificación estratégica; Marketing de sitios; Marca de ciudades; Patrocinio de even-
tos; Atracción de los fondos extranjeros de inversión directos de turismo.
i
Director of Laboratory of Local Economy (LEL) at the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore – Piacenza;
paolo.rizzi@unicatt.it.
ii
Researcher of Laboratory of Local Economy (LEL) at the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore –
Piacenza; ilaria.dioli@unicatt.it.

40 From Strategic Planning to City Branding
Introduction intangible elements play a crucial role for a

successful image renewal. According to a
In the contemporary globalized econ- cross-fertilizations of themes, where many
omy, cities are in great competition and try different fields of studies combine together,
as best they can to attract investments, cities can change their former look, become
business, residents and tourists, and to vibrant hubs and thus attract the class
improve citizens’ satisfaction. In order to Florida (2000) called “creative”. Nowadays,
deal with this competition, which puts un- more than ever, what is really important is
der pressure not only enterprises but also no longer the purchase and consumption of
territorial areas, they use different tools: goods, but rather the aesthetic consensus
strategic plan adoption, place marketing obtained through strategies to create and
strategies and city branding actions, as promote a new identity built on symbolic
well as event hosting. Where all these ele- dimensions and shared emotions.
ments are well managed and governed, the
potentials to obtain good results are defi- Strategic Planning and Place Marketing:
nitely higher. Triggering the Process
Some Italian cases have been chosen to
exemplify such practices, tools and tech- In the framework of such complex proc-
niques, outlining relevant topics for further esses, urban planning plays an essential
research, critical reflections and discus- role through its local actors who define
sions about the measurement of relevant visions and lines to change and improve a
results and outcomes. In the second part of city. Strategic planning has substituted the
this paper, devoted to empirical data, there traditional government approach with gov-
is an attempt to evaluate what is described ernance, an instrument to improve com-
theoretically in the first part. The cities petitiveness by building a shared perspec-
taken into consideration - Turin, Genoa, tive among the local stakeholders on eco-
Venice and Piacenza - are different on di- nomic and social levels (Lindblom, 1975;
mensions, history and processes under- Friend & Jessop, 1977; Faludi, 1984). Aim-
taken, but it is interesting to try to define ing at stimulating and coordinating – ac-
among these case studies the ones which cording to a bottom-up framework – the
obtained the best results. That is why some city development processes, all actors of the
findings have been provided in order to local community are involved in order to
compare and evaluate the goals reached in reach a consensus (Bryson, 1988; Houghton
terms of attraction of investments and & Counsell, 2004). Strategic plans, charac-
tourists, and in relation to the level of resi- terized by medium- and long-term visions
dents’ contentment. and grounded on a voluntary basis, have
From a methodology point of view, open taken various forms according to the differ-
interviews to each case’s operators have ent situations where they were produced
been made, local administrators belonging (Perulli, 2004; Borelli, 2005). When it was
to the economic and tourism sectors and first adopted – San Francisco was one of
development agencies have been contacted the very first American cities to carry it on
and met, and existing documents have been between 1982 and 1984 –, strategic plan-
analysed (i.e. strategic plans, advertise- ning belonged almost exclusively to big
ment campaigns, etc). On a more quantita- metropolitan areas facing a need for inter-
tive level, each case has been studied national re-positioning and improving per-
through data comparisons in order to esti- formances. In Italy, it has been applied a
mate some policies’ effects, mainly through couple of decades after its application in
tourism and Foreign Direct Investments other European cities (Barcelona, Lille,
(FDI) attraction provided by the Italian Bilbao, Lyon) and it has taken into consid-
National Institute of Statistics (the Istat) eration not only large but also middle-size
figures. cities.
Another aspect that has been pondered In this paper, some interesting Italian
on is the weight of creativity on re-thinking cases have been chosen to illustrate the
the design of the city. The immaterial and different kinds of planning they have un-
Paolo Rizzi and Ilaria Dioli 41
dergone and the instruments they have an understanding of the total complexity of
decided to use according to the overall vi- the place product, such as its geography,
sion of every single city. history and local economic system. Place
Turin has been one of the first Italian marketing tries to put the basis of this dia-
cities to adopt a strategic plan (2000), trig- logue between the local and an essential
gering a virtuous process on different lev- international openness and to make supply
els. Drawn up in collaboration with both and demand meet. Good place marketing
public and private representatives, it out- contributes to create a favourable location
lines six strategic guidelines – with objec- to attract capitals, talents and investments,
tives and actions – and eighty-four pro- and to limit the risk of “commodification”.
jects, aiming especially at integrating the Unlike Turin, Genoa did not really have
metropolitan area within the international a strategic plan but started a programme
system. Since then, Torino Internazionale shared and coordinated by public actors
is the association that has been implement- and private stakeholders, and carried on
ing the process. It encompasses a lean precise place marketing actions within the
structure with few officers, but with a large whole process. A specific Committee was
number of collaborators and many private chaired by the Mayor and included repre-
and public partners. Its mission is to pro- sentatives of the Region and Province, the
mote strategic planning methods, monitor University, the Chamber of Commerce and
its actions, organize specific workshops, the Port Authority. The management in all
communicate the plan’s results and en- of its aspects was deferred first to a society
courage the citizenship participation. The called Porto Antico, then to an agency
mission of the second strategic plan (2005- named Waterfront & Territorio, which be-
2010) is to transform Torino into a knowl- came in 2008 the Urban Lab with the task
edge-based society. of monitoring the urban activities and city
Being a strategic plan’s instrument, the promotion choices.
more successful is place marketing, the Along with the Piedmont city and Milan,
better designed is the plan itself. Place Genoa has been for a long time one of the
marketing borrows some typical enterprise vertices of the Italian “industrial triangle”.
marketing actions (i.e. swot analysis, In spite of its important story (as a Medie-
benchmarking, targeting and positioning val naval power that controlled routes from
techniques, etc) and applies them to the the Eastern Mediterranean to the Black
urban context. According to this idea, Sea, and as an independent Republic) and
places, like products, are ideally “sold” to ability to change and survive, the Genoese
tourists and investors who become like economy lost competitiveness and collapsed
“customers” and choose a place among dif- in the ’80s; many companies closed down
ferent options and possibilities. Of course, and the port became more and more obso-
places are much more complex than prod- lete. Local authorities and policy makers
ucts, as they gather and intertwine compli- understood how crucial was the need to
cated symbolic, intangible and historical change and give to the city a new identity,
elements that cannot be merely considered assuring and reinforcing the citizens’ self-
as mere objects (Ashworth & Voogd, 1995; reliance. They planned to re-establish the
Schmitt, 1999). It is not just about selling; past importance of the port in the every-
cities deal with their past, their cultural day life of people who weren’t used to con-
identity and historical backgrounds, and at sider the port as part of the city because of
the same time with their present, while its bad conditions and critical situation.
they are striving to gain a cosmopolitan That is when it was decided to re-discover
character that nowadays they cannot do Genoa’s waterfront: the former location for
without (Kavaratzis, 2004; Anholt, 2007). maritime trade and production (shipyards,
Having an important heritage is not steel production, oil refinery) turned into a
enough to ensure success; today it must be space for recreation and leisure. Being the
rationally contextualized and well planned most important space to be re-vitalized, the
through marketing strategies. Mastering harbour was chosen as the place in which
place marketing requires knowledge not to build a big Aquarium. This was just the
only of business or social sciences, but also first step of a broader process of transfor-
mation that was taking place. Then, the action. In 2003 the Patto was awarded with
massive grain silos were demolished leav- an official acknowledgment as a best prac-
ing free space to culture and loisir: Such a tice in the Forum for the Public Admini-
demolition symbolized the end of the indus- stration, and in 2004 a similar appreciation
trial era letting the pace to a new economy, was granted to the Territorial Marketing
and the necessity for aesthetic purposes. A Plan. In 2005 a new phase started and led
wider policy of re-qualifying public spaces to the second edition of such agreement
and restoring facades was adopted, accord- named Piacenza 2020. It focused mainly on
ing to the idea of connecting and integrat- the experience of “Learning by planning”
ing the old city centre with the harbour, and “Learning by evaluating” through the
which were previously set apart. Both involvement of youth and schools in the
places intended to become lively centres for participative process of decision-making
people’s life. The transformation of the old (Ciciotti & Rizzi, 2005).
port intended to give to the city a new vi- In all cases, strategic plans turn out to
brant waterfront. One of the first persons be a sort of a tool box where not only place
who triggered the new Genoa vision was marketing but also branding techniques
the internationally–known Genoese archi- find their essential and complementary
tect Renzo Piano, who made some propos- place.
als; some of them became real (“Bigo”,
“Bolla”); others did not (“Affresco” project), City Branding and Events Hosting: Build-
mainly because of monetary and environ- ing a New Identity
mental issues. Even without having been
approved, Piano’s “Affresco” vision had the Like place marketing, branding has also
positive effect to push forward the debate been used as a product marketing tech-
on the city’s future (Gastaldi, 2003). Actu- nique and not just a simple advertising
ally it became the starting point to trigger tool. From the ‘90s place branding has been
a real change; many of the actions that introduced in order to make cities (as well
have been carried out in the last decades as nations and regions) memorable and
began from that idea. recognizable (Twitchell, 2005). Thanks to
The scope of strategic planning is usu- its images and slogans, these places tend to
ally very wide. Venice’s plan, for example, stick in people’s mind and create a direct
includes the promotion of a city as an in- link between expectations and reality. The
ternational and cross-over centre of culture, etymology of the word “brand” comes in-
a hub of technology, a core of creativity. It deed from the act of burning something in
aims at reinforcing the internal cohesion, somebody’s mind. The image and the logo
assisting potential investors and enhancing of a city are the summary and simplifica-
export. Venice has drawn its strategic tion of beliefs, ideas and impressions that
planning also focusing on former productive people have of it. Choosing an identifying
areas to turn them from abandoned condi- representation and a coherent logo is not
tions to aesthetic re-use, such as Marghera an easy task. Cities include so many differ-
(Edensort, 2005; Trigilia, 2005). Venezia ent areas of interest that it is almost im-
2004-2014 strategic plan envisages the city possible to come up with a single identity
as a metropolitan centre and dynamic (Kavaratzis, 2005). In order to make this
crossover; it is articulated in line with operation successful, only a few of the exist-
structural conditions and strategic lines, ing social and cultural symbols of the city
combining environment, society and the must be chosen. Deciding on the right
economy. brand can help increase the status of the
Even smaller and minor cities have set city as a tourism destination to visit, as a
off their development process. Piacenza has residential place to live in or as a business
started its strategic process by introducing space to invest in. At the same time the
an institutional planning instrument: Patto risk for a generalization and an excess of
per Piacenza. In 2000 the convocation of simplification is pretty high. There must be
the General States produced results that a few powerful and simple ideas that have
were carried on by the Strategic Committee been created, and on which the branding
who divided such materials in four areas of strategy has to be based in order to capture
the unique qualities of the place. It is not Games in 1992 are an example of tourism
just about a logo; everything around the boosting and regeneration activation. They
city must also remind of those inspirations, were just the starting point of a long proc-
coordinating and modulating them so that ess that literally has been changing the city
they become appropriate for different kinds and its image since then. Other important
of audiences. Once a city decides which events have been staged on the Catalan
brand it wants to have, then it will try to city in the following years, such as the Cul-
make its appearance, services and all mes- tural Forum in 2004, supporting the aim to
sages consistent and coherent with the maintain an international status once the
chosen brand identity. The action of brand- Games were over.
ing has two different steps: an inside-out Thanks to a consistent strategic plan
one, which consists on defining how the city and an efficient place marketing view, Tu-
itself wants to be perceived by the world, rin succeeded in hosting the 2006 Winter
and an outside-in one, which is related to Olympic Games (Guala, 2007). A well de-
the citizens’ perception (Morgan, Pritchard fined communication program was also
& Pride, 2007). Of course these two aspects started for that event, and this helped to
are strictly connected, as branding is not change the image of the whole city. Turin
just a loose marketing activity, but some- paid a great attention to designing the
thing holistic that influences the whole promotional strategies and to promoting its
place, its inhabitants and people who come new look both on a national and interna-
across it. Especially inhabitants need to tional level; its advertisement campaign
recognize and identify themselves with the has been conceived both in Italian and in
image transferred. Just as images tend to English, under a few simple and precise
re-create and re-shape a city, events can ideas and pay-offs, dealing with the con-
help engage the renewal process and they cepts of passion (“Passion lives here”),
can play a functional role in creating an movement (“Always on the move”) and dis-
appealing and distinctive image for a city. covery spread all over the city. These kinds
There are different ways to make a place of advertising campaigns are not just tradi-
distinguished: through testimonials (fa- tional or conventional promotional vehicles,
mous people or characters from the past, but they also focus on feelings, becoming
such as Shakespeare for Stratford-upon- sorts of “emotion-providers”.
Avon, Dante for Florence or Gaudi for Bar- Recently communication resorts to nar-
celona) or through flagship constructions rative and rhetorical techniques in order to
and iconic buildings (for example the Gug- facilitate the construction of local identi-
genheim Museum in Bilbao or the Bury ties; advertisement makes use of stories
Tower in Dubai). Klingmann (2008) speaks emphasising not only origins, continuity,
of “brandscape” referring to the so-called tradition and timelessness, but also origi-
archistars’ structures as real “landmarks” nality, suspense and surprise effects. Such
able to promote and communicate a city symbolism helps to convey certain images
and turn it into an attractive place to go able to stick in people’s mind, because of
and visit. their richness and density of meanings.
Event hosting is considered another op- Narrative strategies insist on discovery and
portunity for local, national and especially revelation aspects (Baker, 2007; Galucci &
international promotion, mainly thanks to Poponessi, 2008). The use of such ideas is
the attention paid by foreign TV, newspa- both inward and outward-directed, as it
pers, etc. Even just bidding for the Olympic helps to build and strengthen local identi-
Games can provide prestige and promotion ties and to create positive reputations and
by the media. Once the event is over, what expectations in tourists, visitors and poten-
is sometimes underestimated is the aspect tial investors.
of legacy, which is extremely important. It Marketing techniques, along with city
is vital to plan the effective post-event use branding actions, are often used to trans-
of the newly-built facilities, in order to help form a city, especially the ones which have
translate physical changes into wider re- undergone industrial crisis (Amin & Thrift,
generative benefits (Bobbio & Guala, 2002; 2002). Because of its economic specialisa-
Dall’Ara, 2009). The Barcelona Olympic tion on production of cars, Turin has been
for a long time one of the main and the as innovative and technological sectors
oldest Italian industrial cities and consid- have caught the attention of foreign enter-
ered a one-company-town. Fiat deeply af- prises.
fected the economic, social, cultural and Another example of an industrial city
political development both on a local and that has changed after the economic down-
national level. The industrial crisis that turn is Genoa, which re-shaped its image
occurred in the ‘80s induced a process of re- thanks to some events staged in the last
orientation of the city’s profile by adopting decades. Some of them have been able to
policies based on services and new activi- foster an overall development already
ties. The old specialization on the indus- started and to enhance the social and cul-
trial sector changed into more and more tural dimensions. International initiatives
differentiated offers. In order to consolidate are especially expected to produce and trig-
its new profile, the city decided to adopt ger the urban renovation, at the same time
policies and investments aiming at the strengthening the local identity. With the
promotion of the cultural dimension. This waterfront renovation process, hosting big
change caused also a social transformation; events seemed to be the right way to pro-
from being a city where the working-class mote a new image of the city and collect the
experienced activism, strikes and political extra funds that were needed. In 1992 “Co-
movements, Turin has now become able to lombiadi” - the celebration of 500 years
attract the class that Florida called crea- since Columbus’ arrival on the American
tive, and it has seen in the last decades a continent in 1492 - represented the first
number of foreign high-tech companies opportunity to start modifying its indus-
coming to locate and invest. Such a turn trial image. A few years later, in 2003, the
deeply influenced also the perception of the G8 political forum for the governments of
city itself, not only through having hosted Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan,
the Olympic Games in 2006, but also Russia, UK and USA has been another
through having won the title of Capital of source of funds to go on renewing the city.
Design in 2008. Turin has demonstrated But the most important move forward was
remarkable achievements in the field of the 2004 European Culture Capital nomi-
design. With a good grasp of the economic nation, which was a vital opportunity to
impact of its design industry, Turin has make the city more coherent with its new
shown its abilities in many different design profile of activities and to promote further
sectors, not only in cars, but also in innova- strategic actions for tourism and culture.
tive furniture, architecture, photography The European Culture Capitals programme
and visual arts. In such a post-fordist con- started in 1985 as an official program of the
text, knowledge and innovation are recog- European Community. The now called
nized as basic growth motors able to give European Cities of Culture programme
new chances even to cities that experienced results in the nomination of a couple of
the industrial crisis; that is why all these cities every year to become the centre of
aspects have helped in spreading world- many different activities and initiatives
wide a new image of Turin, influencing (theatre, music, dance, arts, expositions,
tourists and the investors’ gaze. Besides etc), drawing the international attention.
the Olympic Games and the Capital of De- In 2004 Genoa also won the “Grand Prix
sign nomination, the city has been obtain- Pubblicità Italia” as the best public com-
ing other international opportunities, such munications campaign of the year and the
as the World Convention of Architects in Globe Award for the Best New Tourism
2008, and it has become the steady location project Worldwide, a prize yearly awarded
for important events such as the Interna- by the British Guild of Travel Writers.
tional “Salone del Gusto” (for high quality In spite of its strong image, Venice also
food and wine), the Torino Film Festival, felt the need to update its image; re-
the International Book Fair and the Bien- thinking the Carnival has meant moderniz-
nal of Emerging Artists. All these elements, ing a tradition, with the double result of
along with a rich cultural offer made of keeping traditions’ lovers and attracting
different museums and art galleries, have young people. Experience theories have
attracted people from Italy and abroad, just pointed out the importance of the personal
involvement, jus as if the visitor is an actor tival del Diritto) without really obtaining
on stage, playing an active role (Florida, any real international outcomes. For a few
2002; Mikunda, 2004; Fabris, 2008). People years Piacenza has had a development
need to experience uniqueness but in up- agency too (Agenzia di Marketing Terri-
dated ways; sometimes popular stereotypes otiale) but with scarce results. Now, be-
can become a limit for succeeding in chang- cause of its geographical position, many
ing an image of the city that does not fit the efforts are directed to obtain some benefits
tradition anymore. As a paradox, a vast from the Milan Expo 2015.
heritage turns out to be a burden to carry. In all cases, promoting a new image and
Such a difficulty to overcome traditional its values brings in potential investors and
labels finds its solution in new branding tourists because of the city’s distinctive
proposals focused on keywords such as dy- advantages.
namism, multiculturalism, sensation and
emotional appeal, cosmopolitism and vari- Evidence in Measuring the Effects of Place
ety of choice. That is indeed how Venice Marketing and City Branding Actions
acts by choosing to modernize the Carnival
which was already a strong brand of the Being an attractive city in terms of tour-
city. Yet, “Sensation” – that is how the re- ism is different to being attractive in terms
visited Carnival was named by the agency of investments. The characteristics are
Venezia Marketing & Eventi – divides the substantially different, as the concepts of
Serenissima in six districts, each of them quality of life and relax do not easily go
refering to a sense (smell, touch, sight, along with the idea of accessibility and
hearing, mind and imagination). This is a pervasiveness of infrastructures. Yet, there
way to read the tradition in a modern way. are cities showing good ability in attracting
New forms of planning are adopted to start both tourists and investors, especially those
a multi-faceted regeneration process, fo- which worked hard on re-building their
cused on both physical renovation and so- image and identity. Some cities have bene-
cial spaces re-qualification (Currid, 2007; fitted from the value of the image’s change
Codeluppi, 2007). The agency understood more than others.
the power of sensations and emotions ex- In order to analyse the effects of place
perienced through senses; “Love” – the col- marketing and city branding’s policies,
lective kiss in piazza San Marco every New some elements are taken into considera-
Year’s eve – is another example of such tion, such as population growth and attrac-
meaningful concept put on stage. Events tion of new residents, tourists and visitors,
have to be unique, authentic and memora- and Foreign Direct Investment (FDI).
ble as the direct involvement of the audi- As far as attraction of investments, the
ence makes the difference; the spectator first important cases in Europe were Wales
becomes actually the actor (Pine & Gil- and Ireland in the ’70-‘80s and some New
more, 1999; Pike, 2008). Industrialized Countries, which either tried
Without having a real brand and a big to increase their critical situations or im-
event to refer to, Piacenza has carried out prove their economic systems; in these ar-
its advertising campaign using different eas transnational corporations found mar-
elements that have been chosen to commu- ket advantages, such as in terms of labour
nicate Piacenza’s identity focused on differ- costs. In Italy, policies to attract foreign
ent aspects of its attractiveness: food and businesses started about a decade ago
wine taste (Piacenza bella da gustare), high through specific agencies on a national
quality of life (Piacenza bella da vivere), (Sviluppo Italia), regional (Ervet in Emilia-
arts and culture discovery (Piacenza bella Romagna) or local (Agenzia Nord Milan,
da scoprire). These elements have also be- later named Milano Metropoli) level with
come a point of strength for a minor and different kinds of result for each pilot ac-
more marginal city such as Piacenza tion. Turin has an important structure
(Baker, 2007). As far as events are con- called CEIP (Centro Estero per
cerned, Piacenza hosted many important l’Internazionalizzazione), formerly ITP
festivals (Carovane, GeoFest, Le fabbriche (Invest Turin Piedmont), established by the
della Felicità, Festival della Teologia, Fes- Region, The Chamber of Commerce, Uni-
versities and local associations, operating tion.

to enhance the competitiveness and attrac- The attraction of tourist flows acts dif-
tion of foreign enterprises. In spite of Tu- ferently; in spite of the general crisis, some
rin’s marginal geographic position within Italian destinations keep on having good
Italy, the city is actually strategically lo- results, such as some regions (Trentino
cated at the international level, being at Alto-Adige, Sardegna) and some cities of
the crossroads of important European axes art (Rome, Florence, Venice).
of development and traffic corridors (i.e. Here follows a comparison among the
Lyon), and it has a good-quality natural four Italian cases taken into consideration
environment (the Alps). These elements according to tourism arrival and overnight
help both tourism and investments’ attrac- stays in the last five years:
Arrivals Genoa Turin Piacenza Venice

2000 1,097,689 1,011,486 112,571 6,070,356
2001 1,064,169 1,037,740 163,473 6,225,752
2002 1,112,710 1,050,047 176,868 6,015,634
2003 1,122,861 1,161,924 178,238 6,022,374
2004 1,238,740 1,209,786 192,495 6,281,113
2005 1,173,277 1,584,614 210,072 6,626,108
2006 1,233,289 1,436,657 232,990 7,081,495
Average 1,148,962 1,213,179 180,958 6,331,833
Var.% 2000-2006 12.4 42.0 107.0 16.7
Overnight stays Genoa Turin Piacenza Venice
2000 3,157,134 3,071,864 324,367 28,988,801
2001 3,204,825 3,346,680 404,053 30,394,654
2002 3,212,551 3,320,722 454,347 29,326,115
2003 3,168,784 3,561,319 531,933 29,038,119
2004 3,306,076 3,938,875 578,127 28,945,641
2005 3,147,043 4,784,399 596,722 30,275,185
2006 3,321,438 5,070,179 574,514 32,025,961
Average 3,216,836 3,870,577 494,866 29,856,354
Var.% 2000-2006 5.2 65.1 77.1 10.5
Source: Istat, 2008
Table 1. Tourism arrivals and overnight stays
Each city shows a different ability of at- points of view, as well as from the perspec-
traction, from Venice with its 6 million of tive of their fame. Yet, it is interesting to
arrivals every year (30 million overnight notice Piacenza and Turin’s extremely posi-
stays) to Piacenza with its 181 thousand of tive flow trends; Piacenza has just started
arrivals (494 overnight stays). Turin and its tourism promotion policies and Turin
Genoa are placed in the middle; the first has taken advantage of its good campaigns
with 1 million 200 thousand arrivals and planned during the Olympic Games.
the latter with 1 million 100 thousands Another way to analyse the policies’ ef-
arrivals on average in the period 2000- fects concerns the attraction of foreign in-
2006. vestments. Turin turns out to be the most
As a matter of fact, the characteristics of attractive city out of the four, whereas
the four cities are extremely different from Piacenza and Venice result pretty weak.
the historic, artistic, natural and cultural
Foreign Direct FDI per 100 in-

Arrivals per
2006 Population Investments habitants (thou-
inhabitant
(thousands €) sands €)
Genova 875,732 141 1,028,244 117
Piacenza 273,689 85 22,873 8
Turin 2,236,941 64 13,892,644 621
Venice 829,418 854 117,220 14
Source: Istat, 2008
Table 2. Foreign direct investments
By comparing the data about tourists other hand, Venice attracts many tourists
and FDI attraction with the other Italian because of its history and famous charm;
provinces (103 on the whole), some “spe- its position comes just after two cities well-
cializations” refer namely to Turin and known for being winter seaside destina-
Venice. On the one hand, Turin, following tions (Bolzano and Rimini). Piacenza is
Milan – the main Italian economic attrac- near the average of the other provinces,
tor at the international level – is able to whereas Genoa shows good tourism and
attract foreign firms and capitals. On the investments performances:
700 MILANO
TORINO
600
FDI per 100 inhabitants (€ thousands)
500
400
300
200
GENOVA
100
BOLZANO
PIACENZA VENEZIA
RIMINI
0
- 200 400 600 800 1.000 1.200
Tourist Arrivals per 100 inhabitants
Figure 1. FDI and tourists arrivals (2006 values weighted by population)
Conclusions framework of strategic planning; all proce-

dures concern a multidimensional combina-
The multiple and fragmented aspects of tion of activities, negotiations, decisions
the contemporary cities need to be well and efforts that take place under the wider
coordinated and clearly communicated; umbrella of the strategic planning process.
that is why urban and territorial areas that With the idea of strategic planning comes
succeed in differentiating themselves are along the concept of governance, which
the ones able to manage different comple- encompasses horizontal cooperation, bot-
mentary planning tools. Place marketing tom-up management and coordination of all
and city branding turn out to be more suc- local powers, energies and actors and goes
cessful when they are carried on within the against the hierarchical, top-down govern-
ing styles. Similarly, events seem to leave a Regions. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
more positive legacy when they are used to Ashworth, Gregory J. & Voogd, Henk
accelerate or facilitate the accomplishment 1995 Selling the City; Marketing Ap-
of existing plans. When they are included proaches in Public Sector Urban Plan-
within wider strategies, well planned proc- ning. Chichester: Wiley.
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provide the basis for cities’ economic and 2007 Destination Branding for Small Cit-
social development. ies. Portland: Creative Leap Books.
Even though strategic planning, place Bobbio, Luigi & Guala, Chito
marketing and city branding are the com- 2002 Olimpiadi e Grandi Eventi. Roma:
mon tools used to develop and enhance a Carocci Editore.
city, it is important to apply them in the Borelli, Guido
appropriate way as each situation is unique 2005 La Politica Economica delle Città
and what works in a place may not work Europee: Esperienze di Pianificazione
elsewhere. In order to be successful, strate- Strategica. Milano: Franco Angeli.
gic plans and marketing actions should be Bryson, John
based on the local distinctive characteris- 1988 Strategic Planning for Public and
tics and provide a long-term systematic Non-profit Organizations. San
involvement. In spite of all the differences Francisco: Jossey Bass.
among the four cases taken into considera- Ciciotti, Enrico & Rizzi, Paolo
tion in this paper, the empirical evidence 2005 Politiche per lo Sviluppo Territoriale.
shows how cities which have been undergo- Roma: Carocci.
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Genoa, have improved their appeal and 2007 La Vetrinizzazione Sociale. Il
changed their look by taking advantage of Processo di Spettacolarizzazione degli
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image to communicate. That is where the Boringhiri.
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investments’ attraction are obtained and 2007 The Warhol Economy. Princeton:
that is also where creativity and culture Princeton University Press.
are mostly employed to build an innovative Dall’Ara, Giancarlo
image. The city is the scene where good 2009 Il Marketing Degli Eventi. Matelica:
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cording to the nowadays need to reconfig- Edensor, Tim
ure and reinvent itself, by keeping the best 2005 Industrial Ruins: Space, Aesthetics
from the past but looking at the future. and Materiality. Oxford: Berg.
These considerations and findings, Fabris, Giampaolo P.
which are still to be widened and investi- 2008 Societing il Marketing Nella Società
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ful implications for academicians, but espe- Faludi, Andreas
cially for city managers and policy-makers 1984 Planning Theory. Oxford: Pergamon
both at national and international levels. Press.
Yet, measuring the effects of place market- Florida, Richard
ing techniques and city branding actions is 2002 The Rise of the Creative Class and
still an open question essential to evaluate How It's Transforming Work, Leisure,
urban policies. Community and Everyday Life. New
York, NY: Basic Books.
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Locale: Riflessioni Critiche”. Rivista Morgan, Nigel, Pritchard, Anette & Pride,
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Guala, Chito sevier Butterworth – Heinemann.
2007 Mega Eventi. Modelli e Storie di Perulli, Paolo
Rigenerazione Urbana. Roma: Carocci. 2004 Piani Strategici. Milan: Franco Angeli
Houghton, Graham & Counsell, Dave Pike, Steven
2004 Regions, Spatial Strategies and Sus- 2008 Destination Marketing. Oxford: El-
tainable Development. London: sevier.
Routledge. Pine, Joseph B. & Gilmore, James H.
Kavaratzis, Michalis 1999 The Experience Economy. Boston:
2004 “From City Marketing to City Brand- Harvard Business School Press.
ing: Towards a Theoretical Framework Schmitt, Bernd H.
for Developing City Brands”. Journal of 1999 Experimental Marketing. New York:
Place Branding , 1(1):58-73. The Free Press.
Kavaratzis, Michalis Trigilia, Carlo
2005 “Place Branding: A Review of Trends 2005 Sviluppo Locale. Roma: Laterza
and Conceptual Models”. The Marketing Twitchell, James B.
Review 5(4):329-342. 2005 Branded Nations. New York: Simon &
Klingmann, Anna Schster Paperbacks.
2007 Brandscapes. Cambridge: The MIT
Press.
Lindblom, Charles
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Spaces. New York, NY: Kogan Page.
The International Journal of Web Based Communities (IJWBC), Inderscience
http://www.inderscience.com/browse/index.php?journalID=50
Second Call for Papers - Special Issue
Cultural Heritage and Tourism: Trends and Innovative Strategies for Learning and Management
Guest Editors: H. Fernández (EUTL - ULPGC, Spain) & M. Asensio (UAM, Spain)
IJWBC aims at bringing together new vital understanding of WWW communities and what new initiatives mean. The
main scope of the special issue is to focus on the changes and the impact of the technology in the heritage sites, museums
and cultural tourism. Many of the contexts and challenges faced by heritage institutions are the result of rapid changes at
the nexus of society and technology. One of the issues that we did not take into account in our initial applications was the
human factor. Most technological applications require a design, documentation; managing and updating that depend on
those institutions. To obtain satisfactory results requires a common understanding of the main factors involve in cultural
communication. Managing those resources (i.e. databases, news...) involves developing interfaces for content managers
(CMS) adapted to the institutions and users. The topic is even more important when content providers are even the
general public (Web 2.0 or web 3.0) which is the case of web based communities. To develop a view of digital heritage
informed by both theory and the practical methods and skills necessary to become creative and effective new media
professionals and users in the heritage and tourism sector.
Subject Coverage
Contributed papers may deal with, but are not limited to: Learning communities, New Media and E-Society.
Learning communities
Virtual Learning Environments and Issues, Evaluation of technologies applied to Heritage, Best practice examples
concerning heritage sites and museums management, Educational experience from heritage, museums and tourism,
Heritage (Cultural, historical, natural,…), New tools and platforms for m-Learning, Management and Development of
learning resources, Creative, technology and learning, Evaluation and Assessment.
New Media and E-Society
Digital museum and heritage, Innovative technology, Tourism Impacts, eLearning Organisational Issues, Case studies
examining and identifying successes, Users, design and interactivity, Reports and empirical evaluation of resources,
programs, web pages …
Notes for Prospective Authors

Submitted papers should not have been previously published nor be currently under consideration for publication
elsewhere. All papers are refereed through a peer review process. A guide for authors, sample copies and other relevant
information for submitting papers are available on the Author Guidelines page.
http://www.inderscience.com/www/authorguide.pdf.
Important dates:
Submission of Title and Extended Abstract deadline: 1 March, 2010
Full paper submission deadline: 15 April, 2010
Final version of the paper: 30 May, 2010
Editors and notes:

Notification of intent to submit and submission of the title and extended abstract should be done directly to Heredina
Fernández (hfernandez@dede.ulpgc.es) in the form of a PDF file attached to the e-mail.
The final version must be according to the journals format prerequisites on
http://www.inderscience.com/mapper.php?id=31
(1) H. Fernández, E. U. de Turismo de Lanzarote (EUTL), Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC), Spain.
(2) Mikel Asensio, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain.
www.pasosonline.org
Rise of Culture and Fall of Planning in Izmir, Turkey
Şebnem Gökçen Dündari

Dokuz Eylül University (Turkey)
Abstract: Culture-led regeneration is now a rising feature of cities as they seek to establish themselves
as competitive cities of culture. The rise of culture impacts considerably upon the quality of life in cities.
The competition takes two major strategies: mega projects and mega-events. While the main cities of the
economically advanced nations go through a wide range of experiences, their successes and failures
should be taken into consideration by those other cities that wish to imitate the ones leading in the rank-
ing. Cities of the developing world, however, may meet completely different problems even during the
stage of planning. This paper reviews such a case, namely Izmir, by way of stating the city’s intentions
to benefit from culture-driven strategies as seen through its indicators, and showing the evidence that
cause it to fail in reaching its goals. The final statement shall emphasize the importance of cultural poli-
cies to be formulated on a wider perspective.
Keywords: Rise of Culture; Planning; Cultural Tourism; Izmir; Culture-Led Regeneration.
Resumen: Actualmente, la regeneración a través de la cultura es un rasgo dominante de las ciudades que
pretenden establecerse como ciudades culturales competitivas. El alza de la cultura impacta considera-
blemente en la calidad de vida de las ciudades. La competencia se lleva a cabo principalmente de acuer-
do con dos estrategias: mega-proyectos y mega-eventos. Mientras las principales ciudades de las nacio-
nes desarrolladas atraviesan una multitud de experiencias, sus éxitos y fracasos deben ser tenidos en
cuenta por las ciudades que desean imitar a aquellas otras que encabezan el ranking. Sin embargo, las
ciudades del mundo en desarrollo pueden encontrar problemas muy diferentes, incluso durante la fase de
planificación. El artículo analiza uno de estos casos, específicamente Izmir, examinando las intenciones
de la ciudad de beneficiarse de estrategias basadas en la cultura vistas a través de sus indicadores, y
mostrando la evidencia que la ha llevado a fracasar en este objetivo. La última parte enfatiza la impor-
tancia de formular la política cultural de acuerdo con una perspectiva más general.
Palabras clave: Alza de la cultura; Planificación; Turismo cultural; Izmir; Regeneración a través de la
cultura
i
Assistant Prof. Dr., Dokuz Eylül University, Faculty of Architecture, City and Regional Planning. E-mail: seb-
nem.gokcen@deu.edu.tr.

52 Rise of Culture and Fall of Planning in Izmir
Introduction its sectoral capabilities, culture-led regene-

ration has now become a new feature of
In recent years, urban economic devel- cities. All these aspects contribute to define
opment strategies have sought to establish the cultural image of the city and develop
cities as competitive places of culture by specific marketing strategies.
capitalizing their advantages as sites of Today, cultural tourism seems to be
cultural tourism. Such rise of culture as a omnipresent as well as omnipotent as a
significant component of economic and concept embraced globally by local, nation-
physical development, appears to have al and transnational bodies such as UN-
been ignited by the end of the 1970s and ESCO or the European Commission. (Ri-
beginning of the 1980s. It is not coinciden- chards, 2007). The globalization of cultural
tal in this sense that emergence of the con- tourism is the result not only of the fun-
cept of ‘cultural tourism’ as a separate damental and social changes experienced
product category dates to the late 1970s worldwide, but also of the changes in the
(Tighe, 1986). It has been during those structure of tourism itself (Urry, 1990).
decades that the re-structuring of the Letting alone the fact that it may be large-
economy led by changes in production, its ly seen as a subset of cultural heritage
location in the global scale and the de- management rather than a tourism activi-
industrialization have been reflected upon ty (McKercher, 2002), even the concept of
the economical, social as well as spatial cultural tourism has gone through major
settings of cities, altogether giving cultural changes in the course of globalization. In
policies and culture-led urban regeneration the past, it was largely associated with
policies a pivotal role in new urban entre- high culture and with ‘cultured’ people, but
preneurialism (Bianchini, 1993; Miles & today cultural tourism includes many pop-
Paddison, 2005). Prior to this, urban cul- ular cultural attractions within the scope
tural policies were relatively unimportant. of ‘everyday life’ of the local communities
Yet, for many post-industrial cities, cultur- (Richards, 2007). Accepting the fact that
al policy has been used to assist with the globalization as an integration of economic,
problems of urban decline and incorpo- social and cultural systems dominates the
rated into other areas of policy such as current flows around the world, it is there-
tourism, heritage and entertainment. The fore not surprising for cultural tourism
role of culture has been central in develop- strategies to gain importance on local
ing a tourism destination and attracting a grounds.
tourism market (Richards, 2002) for rea- The goal in pursuing cultural strategies
sons of experiencing an economic rise. for economic development is twofold. First,
In its broadest sense, culture can be de- fostering culture as a sector, through pro-
fined as heritage, arts and creative indus- motion of sports, culture and arts, shop-
tries, as well as people’s everyday lifestyles ping or gastronomy, creates jobs and gen-
(e.g. leisure, shopping, gastronomy, etc.), erate revenues. Second, these initiatives
which are seen to breathe new life into become part of the city’s marketing efforts,
cities, towns and communities1. Thus, in in which cities strive to become attractive
the context of regeneration, culture refers locations for businesses, affluent families
to anything from architecture, heritage or tourists (Strom, 1999). This creates a
buildings and attractions, to the visual and continuous cycle of development where the
performing arts, temporary or regular growth of the tourist interest in the city
events, to entertainment and leisure com- and the strengthening of the urban tourist
plexes, as well as the way of life (Smith, brand evidently also affect the city’s attrac-
2007), including the ethnoscapes (multicul- tiveness as a place to live, work, study,
turalism), the creative milieu (artists, invest and so forth. The big picture under-
writers, musicians, designers etc.), and the lying the emergence of this goal, however,
creation of culture (art and design schools is supposed to take a rather more octopus-
etc.). Defined as such, in line with recent like growth policy, where strategies shall
developments where culture as space is make up a network that are directly re-
loaded with further meaning according to flected upon spatial considerations concern-
Şebnem Dündar Gökçen 53
ing the city’s planning and design. neration of cities. The growth of the tourist
The outcome of the new strategy where interest in the city and the strengthening of
culture has been adopted as the new driver the urban tourist brand also affect cities’
in urban economic growth and competition attractiveness.
has followed rather speedy ways (Miles & Taken either as a driver, a catalyst or a
Paddison, 2005), letting particularly the key component in urban development
cities of economically advanced nations (Evans & Shaw, 2004),2 culture evidently
experience an urban cultural renaissance experiences a “rise” (Miles & Paddison,
(Evans, 2001; Bianchini & Parkinson, 2005) concerning its impacts upon not only
1993). Yet, this pace is not the same in the economic development, but also the
cities of developing nations, leaving some overall quality of life in cities. Cultural
cities at the periphery of such a competi- policy involves such strategies and activi-
tion. This is often due to the fact that there ties that promote the production, dissemi-
are ‘neurotic difficulties of small nations nation, marketing and consumption of the
attempting to be noticed on an interna- arts (Rentschler, 2002 as cited by Mulcahy,
tional level’ (Sudjic, 1999 as cited by 2006). This policy leaves concrete impacts
Smith, 2007a, 5). upon the urban spatial environment that
Of such peripheral cases can be named give the city its identity and a place in the
the city of Izmir (Turkey), where the global ranking list. Culture-led regeneration is
trend representing the ‘rise of culture’ can recognized as a comprehensive and leading
be manifest in her intentions to be noticed strategy within this picture.
on a larger scale, but yet with lack of com- Sjoholt (1999) speaks of two types of
prehensive planning and integrated strat- culturally-induced marketing of cities:
egies providing the evidences for her fail- long-term permanent efforts and mega-
ure to succeed in taking the steps of urban events. It is possible to regard these major
regeneration. The specific case has been strategies as routes, the first of which may
elaborated in terms of the indicators and be referred to as mega-projects3. These
evidences for culture-led regeneration. stand for large-scale developments that
aim not only at serving the inhabitants,
Rise of Culture: Major Strategies but also at representing the city nation,
even world-wide. The second strategy in-
It has always been the main ambition of cludes mega events, standing for short-
cities to gain or retain their position among lived cultural actions, which, as Roche
the highest-ranking cities throughout the (2003) states, nonetheless have long-lived
history. Competition was always present, pre- and post-event social dimensions.
yet not as severe and intensive global as These two routes appear to prevail in the
today. While cities seek for new ways to present strategies of those cities that in-
diversify the range of local economic base tend to experience an urban renaissance,
in order to enhance their competitive posi- which incorporates culture as a consump-
tions in a world shaped by principles of tion, production and image strategy (Table
ranking, the idea that culture can be em- 1). Among these strategies, regeneration
ployed as a driver for economic growth has appears as a major component in imple-
become almost the new orthodoxy. The menting such cultural goals so that, once
tourism imperative appears to constitute a works are completed, intervention areas
crucial tool for a goal as such. Yet, the cul- will become successful places to work, live,
tural, entertainment and sporting activi- shop and recreate (Bianchini & Parkinson,
ties were traditionally not regarded as part 1993; Bassett, 1993; Griffiths, 1995; Hall,
of the tourism industry. However, consi- 1998; Zukin, 1995; McCarthy, 2006; Mont-
dering that such investments do entail a gomery, 2003). Thus, the revival of mega-
touristic revitalization of urban environ- scale projects 4 in recent times is not coin-
ments, providing a touristic promotion, cidental in the same respect. Whether as
bringing prestige to the city, increasing the huge edifices (or iconic buildings) that
quality of life and creating further tourism symbolize the place they are located at
potential (Law, 2002), ‘cultural tourism’ [such as the famous Guggenheim Museum
constitutes the key driver underlying rege- in Bilbao, known as the origin of the Bilbao
Effect in related literature (Rodriguez, gether make up the big picture, showing
Martinez and Guenaga, 2001; Jenks, the ways of how cities can compete. Landry
2005)]; or as identifiable cultural quarters (2000) emphasizes the importance of such
of production (or competitive creative in- events as symbolic triggers that can act in
dustry clusters) to which artists and cul- building a creative environment, while Ri-
tural entrepreneurs are attracted [such as chard and Wilson (2007) claim that they
the Sheffield Cultural Industries Quarter avoid the pitfalls of homogenization and
(late 1980s) and the Manchester Northern serial monotony by difference of creativity.
Quarter (1993)] and cultural quarters of As manifest from afore-mentioned
consumption frequently at either cultural routes of culturally-induced marketing of
heritage sites and cultural quarters (such cities, increasing number of cities are look-
as the Temple Bar in Dublin, 1990-1991) or ing today at cultural, retail and entertain-
on landfill and abandoned industrial sites ment redevelopments to attract people back
regenerated (such as Gateshead in Newcas- into the city (Bassett, 1993; Griffiths, 1995;
tle upon Tyne) (Montgomery, 1995; Mont- Zukin, 1995; Bianchini, 1999; Law, 2000).
gomery, 2003; McCarthy, 1998); or as the Many cities which have harnessed culture-
alluring landscapes of Theme Parks (Roche, driven strategies and experienced a rise in
2000), which may take the form of foreign their economic performance are deemed as
village theme parks (Hoffstaedter, 2008) those cases where:
[such as Huis Ten Bosch, known as the - creation of high quality environments
Netherlands in Nagasaki, Japan (1992) or had a positive impact upon development
Walt Disney World Resort in Florida] or of of areas in proximity or upon the entire
large-scale recreational parks in the form of city itself,
architectural museums [such as Poble Es- - the physical transformation of urban
panyol in Barcelona (1929) or Den Gamble landscapes could be used as a place-
By in Denmark (1914)], the permanent making tool to represent the city world-
efforts on mega scale do take many ways to wide,
get the city a significant leading place in - affirmative results could be generated in
ranking. the short-term and have a trickle-down
The temporary events, as an alternative effect,
route along which cultural development - contribution to or even change of the
may flourish, on the other hand, also take city image was at issue,
several different ways: selection of Culture - the importance of cultural heritage sites
Capitals, as initiated by European cities was emphasized,
since 1986 and followed by its Arabian - an increase in attractiveness of urban
(since 1996) and American (since 2000) locations could mean more private in-
versions; EXPO’s, organized since 1851, vestments to come,
but known to focus mainly on national - tourism revenues could be transferred
branding since 1992; all sorts of global into new investments,
organizations in science and arts, interna- - in addition to social cohesion, crime
tional congresses, scientific meetings, fes- could be reduced and economic diversifi-
cation could mean a support
Mega – Projects Mega – Events against problems of unemploy-
ment, and
Iconic Buildings Capitals of Culture - vitality of cultural environ-
Culture-led Urban Re- ments was reflected upon their
Fairs and EXPOs
generation Projects overall economic performance
Theming, Theme Parks International Events of and welfare indicators.
and Flagship Museums Art, Science and Sports Depicted as such, these out-
comes indeed offer an encouraging
Table 1. Major strategies of cultural marketing picture for declining or underdeve-
loped cities. Yet, it is interesting to
tivals, biennales, design weeks, etc.; and
note that the above experiences belong to
finally sports organizations , such as
5
those cities of mainly the economically
Olympiads, races, sports activities as
advanced nations (Miles & Paddison, 2005,
World Cups, Universiad, etc., they alto-
833). Yet, still so, some experiences do - Mega projects are not geared at creating
demonstrate a shortfall between the initial equitable cities or localities due to se-
expectations and reality. This leads to the lectivity in choosing prestigious loca-
discussion that prior to taking giant steps tions leading to ignorance of disadvan-
in the will to ‘upgrade’ our cities via the taged groups (Loftman & Nevin, 1995),
culture-driven strategies imported from since the target group appears to be the
culturally-famous cities of recent times, local middle class and cultural tourists
the failures of the very same cities of de- (Evans & Shaw, 2004).
veloped nations should provide good exam- - In time, the success of specific cases lead
ples of what to consider from a holistic to an imitation process, termed as crea-
approach. tion of ‘clone cities’ by Law (1993).
- Mass production leads to commodifica-
Some Key Issues: The Risks tion of culture and the spread of cultural
capitalism (Miles & Paddison, 2005)
Having pursued one or more of cultural- where cultural assets are somewhat ex-
ly-induced marketing routes to compete, ploited (Richards & Wilson, 2006) while
can it guarantee to bring about an econom- creating identical landscapes (Hall,
ic rise in urban development? Can cultural 1998).
policies underlying urban planning activi- - The competition demands for more in-
ties ensure an easy rise in urban develop- novative and unique developments, but
ment, or does this decision have to be made this leads to ephemerality due to the
from a broader perspective? Or can plan- danger of becoming obsolete (Harvey,
ning ‘fall’ despite the intention to raise ‘cul- 1989) in rather short periods of time,
ture’ as a sector in the city? With the need since there always can be newer and
to discuss the extent to which culture-led more innovative urban services offered
regeneration may succeed or fail to become elsewhere, and this calls for re-branding
a solution to urban development problems, as tourist destinations cannot afford to
the factors underlying urban cultural de- rest on their laurels under conditions of
velopment and efforts in planning/design growing competition and changing con-
need to be considered elaborately. sumer tastes.
The literature on culture and regenera- - Fragmentation of cities is inevitable
tion gives a great deal of attention to specif- (Newman & Verpraet, 1999; Loftman &
ic experiences of cities and their ‘newly- Nevin, 1995), as cultural quarters create
regenerated’ cultural quarters that have a spatial and social gap with the neigh-
become somewhat famous for their ‘rising’ bouring areas on the one hand, and as
image, making them be known as a re- potential pieces of cities are given such a
markable destination for cultural tourism. facelift that increase the prestige of re-
However, there are indeed critics of cul- generated site causing uneven develop-
ture-led regeneration, arguing that cultural ment of different spatial pieces of the ci-
projects are not necessarily more effective ties.
than other types of economic development - Scarce public sector resources may be
in achieving regeneration (cited from Ben- transferred away from welfare-related
nett, 1995 and Hansen, 1995 by McCarthy, social needs (Loftman & Nevin, 1995).
2002; Özdemir, 2003; Loftman & Nevin, - Any possible crisis of the private sector,
1995). This necessitates looking at the oth- including the sectoral risks of tourism,
er side of the picture. Temple Bar in Dub- may become a threat in the realization
lin, for instance, is a successful case quoted of regeneration projects (Hall, 1998).
very often, but it is also an example of how - As regenerated areas may become such
the needs of inhabitants may fall behind places where the inhabitants can no
those of the visitors and investors (Özde- longer afford to live there or as the
mir, 2005; Montgomery, 1995; McCarthy, growing economic and social inequalities
1998). between different pieces of urban set-
Some key issues concerning the unin- tings suffer from polarization, gentrifi-
tended outcomes of culture-led regenera- cation may occur as one of the possible
tion shall be summarized as follows: outcomes in culturally regenerated
quarters (Bianchini, 1993). has gone through one of the most impor-
These points are significant in the sense tant, and even the most radical shifts dur-
that for the wide variety of different cases ing the War of Independence. The 1922
to be ‘imitated’ there is also the need to Fire has been the most significant pheno-
beware of the possible unintended out- menon that paved the way for this shift.
comes. This is even more crucial for cities of Destroying almost all the bonds of the city
developing nations. It should be empha- with its past, this fire constituted an oppor-
sized that, no matter if it is a well- tunity to create a brand new city (Eyüce,
established or a developing city, problems 2005). The second shift can be attributed to
are likely to emerge due to lack of a com- its attractiveness as a city to be migrated
prehensive policy where cultural initiatives to. In time, as the city has become subject
are integrated into broader urban and re- to severe flows of migration, it has fallen
gional regeneration programmes. behind in covering its basic needs, and the
planning procedures have been unsuccess-
Fall of Planning: Case of Izmir ful to catch up with the pace of urbaniza-
tion. The first comprehensive planning
The literature on culture-led regenera- effort was made in 1973, when the city’s
tion or creation of cultural quarters that Master Plan was approved. However, this
contribute to development of cultural tour- plan has been subject to revisions in 1978,
ism focuses, as mentioned earlier, on main- 1989, 1994 and 2007. It shall be noted that
ly the case studies of those cities located at the revisions until 2007 have been only
economically advanced nations, no matter partial interventions in order to compen-
whether they achieved success or failure. sate the major problems being faced. De-
Yet, there is hardly any evidence on those spite the problems entailed by urban
cities, which do intend to take a part with- growth, the 2000s are those years during
in the flows of cultural networks, but are which urban consciousness and civic en-
devoid of the major tools to realize their gagement appear to be on the agenda. In-
goals. The city of Izmir in Turkey is an itiatives (NGOs) such as the Izmir Devel-
example of such. There are indicators that opment Agency, the Chambers of Industry
the city does have the potential circums- and Trade, as well as the Architecture and
tances as well as the required intention to City Planning, have acted as the leading
adopt culture-driven policies for its urban actors in the planning and development
development, but yet there also are evi- process of the city.
dences that this process is not even at the Izmir has an experience that makes it
beginning stages of planning. different from other cities of the country.
The story of Izmir is presumed to consti- Its cosmopolitan structure that always op-
tute a unique case in terms of its tendency posed the central government policies
to adopt culture-driven strategies of devel- caused the city to politically be left in the
opment rooted in its historical past. With periphery. When combined with problems
its remarkable history that goes from the entailed by migration, the post-1980s have
Smyrna of the past, the cosmopolitan city of witnessed somewhat hard times for the
different cultures, to the Izmir of our time, city, where even basic infrastructural in-
symbolizing the western gate of the coun- vestments had difficulties to be realized.
try, the city appears to go through major These conditions may be regarded as signif-
changes that bring if further away from its icant in the sense that the city was left
background. As the third largest city of alone to find its own way out of such a cri-
Turkey, it is recently undergoing a major sis. Diversification of economic sectors,
restructuring of much of its infrastructure going for re-imaging the city and bidding
and, more important, its physical form and for mega-events can be mentioned among
appearance. its targets that gave culture a different
The urban growth of Izmir has five main place in its future. Yet these intentions
breaking points (Table 2). Prior to the dec- were not documented on any written strat-
laration of the Republic, the city was egy the city adopted so far.
known as the most important city of the The city’s intention to benefit from what
Ottomans in terms of foreign trade6. Izmir the rest of the world heads to, namely cul-
ture-led regeneration, shall be scrutinized namely Izmir Port District Urban Design
via its indicators. How these intentions fail Idea Competition.. The boundaries of the
to take it where it targets to be at shall competition fit into what the 1973-Master
then provide the evidences, to be hereby Plan had designated as the Central Busi-
discussed. ness District years ago. The main assump-
Indicators I: Urban Design Idea Compe- tion of the competition was that the Trade
tition – 2001 The recent times display the Port would be moved to Nemrut Bay,
city’s intention to define its future along another location on the northern axis one-
the route of cultural regeneration. This hour drive away from the city and then
intention is manifest in the organization of the port would be allocated to touristic
an international competition in 2001, transportation including cruise tourism.
Periods Major Characteristics

▪ Modernization of the city with its cosmopolitan structure: 1st nationalist
architectural movement
▪ Spatial reflections of Westernization: Intra-regional transportation:
investments in railroad system and port providing the raw materials for
Pre-Republican Pe- European capitalism; Commercial transformation: khans replaced by
riod hotels, bazaar streets, fevkani (commercial) mosques; Services linked to
the West: banking, insurance, newspapers, posting; Education: missio-
nary schools; Suburbanization starting in 1865; Different social groups of
multi-identity: Levantines, Jews, Greeks, Armenians (foreign merchants)
▪ The most important city of the Ottomans in terms of foreign trade
▪ Structural transformations of the Republican Ideology: “erasing the
past”: early Modernism of Contemporary/ “Western” Izmir; brand new
Republican Period
architectural understanding
(1923-1948)
▪ Post-war (Independence War) troubles: the need to re-erect the city
after the 1922 Fire devastating almost three fourths of the city
▪ As attractive in agricultural terms, rise of the migration flows to Izmir
during the 1940s
▪ 1940s: 2nd nationalist architectural movement
Liberal Period
▪ Accelerated urbanization and intense flows of migration
(1948-1960)
▪ Emergence of squatter settlements in peripheral areas
▪ Post-1950s: international style (invitation of foreign architects including
René Dange-1925, Le Corbusier-1948 and Bodmer-1959)
▪ Rapid development of inner-city industrialization
▪ 1973 Master Plan: Linear macroform strategy in north-south direction
and intense industrial development
Planned Period ▪ Foreign investments
(1960-1980) ▪ 1970s-need for housing: “uninterrupted walls” of buildings dominating
the city’s spatial appearance
▪ Condominium Act resulting in rise of population density via increase in
building heights: over-density
▪ Piecemeal developments
▪ Development of collective consumption areas
▪ New populism indexed upon urbanization (urban development exemp-
Neo-Liberal Period tions, allocation of title deeds, slum reclamation, revision plans, mass
(post-1980) housing)
▪ De-industrialization and beautification of prestigious areas
▪ Conflict between politicians and NGOs on mega-scale projects
▪ Efforts for mega-events: Universiad (2005); EXPO 2015 nominee
Table 2. Major characteristics of urban development in Izmir. Source: revised from Dündar, 2002
.
The areas in proximity to the port, recreation and all sorts of cultural activi-
where mainly the pre-industrial buildings ties that were to support cultural tourism.
of architectural and historical importance (Competition Brief, 2001). One of the places
remain as availing the site for regeneration where the Roman culture settled in the city
based on utilization of industrial heritage, (creating an ethnoscape) also took place
were to be allocated to hotels, commerce, within the boundaries of the plan. The offi-
cial master plan for the new city center has

been approved in 2003, where ideas of the
winning project (Figures 1 and 2) that gave
the competition area the mission of being
the Third Izmir (EgeMimarlık, 2005), were
regarded as the departure point of the
planning process. This master plan was
remarkable for being based on an urban
design project for the city’s center of the
future.
Figure 1. Izmir port district urban idea design competition – First prize, J. Brandi
Figure 2. Izmir port district center master plan
[Around 70 international sports activities

Indicators II: Universiad - 2005 In 2005, were held in the city (IBB, 2009)]. During
Izmir has been the host city for a special the Universiad, 131 countries attended the
mega-event: Universiad Summer Games, event with 5372 sportsmen and 2512 staff
which is known as the second greatest members adding up to 7884 visitors from
sports event on world scale. This event has all around the world. The number of total
provided the city with an increase in the visitors were estimated to be 357.000 (IBB,
number of sports facility areas 7 as well as 2009), but there appears to be no detailed
improvement of existing infrastructure. It statistics concerning the touristic activities
is stated that the number of persons en- in the post-event period. Yet, the success of
gaged in sports activities displayed a consi- the event is believed to have aided in the
derable rise [from 1630 in 2006 to 22,174 in cultural marketing of the city. It was
2008 (IBB, 2009)] in the years to follow. claimed tht the event made the city the
Additionally, there have been many post- envy of all other Turkish cities, as it was
event sports organizations hosted by Izmir the only international mega-event hosted in
Figure 3. Izmir urban region regional master plan
Turkey for several decades. promised to create a newly-designed

Indicators III: Master Plan of Izmir - exhibition area (3.7 million m2) in Inciralti,
2007 Izmir may be said to remain devoid of a coastal district of the city with a pleasant,
any large-scale plan since the 1970s. The green and relaxed atmosphere. There was
master plan for the entire city could be likely to have been a wide range of
approved only in 2007. Until 2007, the city investments in Izmir including a high-
had to suffer from the absence of a vision speed train connection between major
and major strategy that the upper scale cities, improvement of the existing metro
plans could offer. The main planning system in the city as well as the existing
processes were dominated by such imple- airport, and creation of the most extensive
mentations that occasionally bypassed the archaeological museum of the world. The
regular legal procedures for property-led slogan of the city was ‘Izmir Population:
developments. The reports of the master 700 million’ with regard to the target of
plan involve the intention of the city to attracting visitors from all over the world.
attain a leading position among the well- Expressed as such, even the slogan itself
known cities of the world with its ‘cultural’ within the nomination processes shall be
assets. taken as a proof of the city’s intention to
Indicators IV: Bid for EXPO 2015 - 2008 get a more active part on a “mega” scale.
Izmir has been the official candidate city Indicators V: Izmir Culture Workshop -
for EXPO 2015 and its bid theme was ‘New 2009 Organized by the Metropolitan Muni-
Routes to a Better World / Health for All’. cipality of Izmir as a one-day event on the
The winner of the bid, however, was an- 24th of October, Izmir Culture Workshop
nounced to be Milan in Italy. If Izmir had appears to have launched a virtual culture
won, its bid would have made it the first campaign in the city (Anonymous, 2009).
fair in the Eastern Mediterranean with a This step has been reflected in the media as
health theme. The officials of the city had depicting the city’s future as an ‘interna-
tional metropolis of art, culture and design’, entire Roman District was allocated to re-
a ‘brand’ assumed to make the city the envy creational uses until the Chamber of City
of all other Turkish cities. The workshop Planners (CCP) Izmir Branch sued the plan
has been the first held in the entire coun- and seized the legal process. The objections
try. Its ramifications involved discussions of the CCP do in fact manifest the insuffi-
on cultural policies, different branches of ciencies of the planning process. Unless
arts and their relations with the city, urban such conflicts were raised on the urban
design, cultural heritage and cultural in- agenda, the plan would be based on the
dustries. The crowded number of partici- idea that the entire population would be
pants (around 100 ex-
perts from Izmir, Istan-
bul and Ankara) de- Filing Final Final Conclusion: Case Total
clared their conclusive Dates judgement: judgement: appealed on claims
remarks in ten major negative positive Trial filed
statements. Despite the 2003 2 1 3
short lifespan of the 2004 2 2
considerations and post- 2005 1 1
event complaints of 2006 2 3 3 8
those academicians and 2007 1 3 4 4 12
practitioners working 2008 3 5 20 28
on related subjects who 2009 1 1
criticized the limits of Total 3 13 14 25 55
the organization that Table 3. Case record statistics against the Partial Master Plan
lacked broader grounds for the New Center of Izmir, 2003 - 2009Source: Metropolitan
of participation, the Municipality of Izmir, Law Office Database, 2009.
one-day event can be
deemed almost as a
displaced from that specific part of the city
sphygmograph, measuring the cultural
center. But on the condition that the areas
pulse of the city from the eye of its govern-
can be regenerated into touristic uses,
ing bodies, professionals and experts.
there is still the danger of gentrification.
Indicated as such, the goal of adopting
There exist a variety of such disputes that
culture as a means of urban development
have caused the plan to be sued. Of the 55
seems to confront major obstacles. This
claims filed, 25 of them are still on trial,
statement has its evidences as can be dis-
indicating that the plan may have to be
cussed below:
Evidences I: Cases on Court The Master revised once again.
Evidences II: Post-event Circumstances
Plan for Izmir City Center, which has been
The Universiad 2005 was the first mega-
based on the idea competition, was ap-
event held in Turkey since the Mediterra-
proved in 2003, but it has been subject to nean Games in 1971, which also was hosted
plenty of objections carried on to court (Ta- by Izmir. The city should have proved the
ble 3). The result was that the 2003 plan country its success, but yet the Turkish
had to be revised repeatedly, first in 2005, Tourism Strategy - 2023 (Kültür ve Turizm
then in 2006, and finally in 2007. The main Bakanlığı – Turkish Ministry of Culture
problem appears to be the property owner- and Tourism, 2006) does not include any
ship issues, indicating that the inhabitants statement that gives the city any mission to
are yet not committed to the city center carry in terms of cultural tourism or crea-
plan, and cannot imagine what sort of long- tive industries. Secondly, there appears to
term benefits can be achieved. One of the be no studies based on encouraging the
disputes that necessitated the plan to be diversification of tourism, namely urban
sued stems from the changing land-use tourism, cultural tourism, congress tourism
decisions concerning the Roman district, or cruise tourism that targets mainly the
which was under threat of being displaced city center and not the peripheral villages
in an urban land where land prices rise and that attract all the visitors and in turn,
where the touristic potential conflicts with investments. Thirdly, concerning the re-
the unlivable quality of environment. The newed and newly-constructed sports facili-
ties that are currently in world standards,
there appears to be no special management Evidences V Conflicts on the EXPO

programme to encourage their use8. site - 2008 Location of the Expo site in the
Evidences III: Conformity of Planning outer suburbs of Izmir was planned to al-
Goals The goals of the Izmir Port District low visitors to the EXPO to combine their
City Center Master Plan on scale 1/5000 visit with the access to waterfront areas or
appear to be conflicting with those of the the city. The planning process of the site,
Izmir Urban Region Regional Master Plan however, was subject to remarkable con-
on scale 1/25000. Considering that the in- flicts between the officials and the Cham-
tentions of the CBD of Izmir, specifically,
ber of City Planners (CCP) in Izmir. The
the change in the function of the port from
CCP Izmir Branch has taken the conflict to
trade into a touristic port, is disregarded in
the upper-scale plan, stating that Izmir will the State Council by suing the Ministry of
enhance its identity as a city of trade port Culture and Tourism about the anticipated
(IBB, 2007: 77). Since the function of the location of the EXPO site. The subject mat-
port appears to have a triggering effect ter of the action was concerned with the
upon regeneration of the entire area, this existing planning proposals for the area,
conflict between the goals remains as a which was claimed by CCP to be contradic-
major obstacle. tory to the proposed Fair use (CCP, 2007).
Evidences IV: Cultural Infrastructure In the existing master (on scale 1/5000)
In the will to measure the compatibility of and development plans (on scale 1/1000),
the policies with the existing cultural and the anticipated EXPO site was partly allo-
social infrastructure, even the data of cul- cated to Agricultural Uses and partly to
tural centers shall provide a good example the Touristic Development Area (as an-
of what the city actually lacks as a metro- nounced by the Ministry of Culture and
polis of 3.2 million. The problem with the Tourism on the 20th of January, 1991).
cultural facilities pertains to the capacities, After becoming a candidate for the EXPO,
insufficiency of opera house, the unba- the Ministry has revised and expanded the
lanced distribution of cultural centers that boundaries of the tourism development
are located mainly within the central dis-
area in 2007. This was the major reason
tricts, but are lacking in peripheral ones
causing the dispute. Furthermore, owing to
and finally, the multi-purpose quality of
cultural centers, which do not provide any the natural characteristics of the site, the
special events in terms of their standar- area was announced to be a 1st degree
dized spatial characteristics (Table 4). Fur- Natural Conservation Site by the decision
thermore, the majority of these centers are of the Conservation Council of Cultural
stated to be not suitable for scientific meet- and Natural Entities (decision numbered
ings. There are many cultural activities 8050, dated 1st of July, 1999). The quality
held in Izmir, yet those on a large scale of constituting a 1st degree natural conser-
expressed in big numbers of audiences can- vation site means having all sorts of re-
not be held at the central districts. The strictions against any building activities to
problem of loosing the bid for EXPO 2015 is take place. But the degrees of the site’s
identified also as the insufficiency of the conservation quality was once again re-
city’s cultural infrastructure in comparison vised (though partly) down to 2nd and 3rd
to Milan, its rival. degrees (with the decision numbered 10168
and dated 17th of December, 2002) (Siyah,
Number Capacity 2009). On the other hand, there has been a
Cultural Cen- 18 10523 history of disputes concerning the planned
ters land uses of the site for more than a dec-
Amphi- 1 300 ade. The distinctive characteristics of the
theaters
coastal area make the lands be subject to
Outdoor 4 7.700
Theater severe competitions targeted at higher
Theaters 7 376 rental value, such that destruction of agri-
Opera House 1 400 cultural lands may entail possibilities of
Movie Theater 23 9388 further urban development. The inhabi-
TOTAL 54 28687 tants of the Inciralti district have been
Table 4. Existing cultural facilities in Izmir, fighting to have their agricultural lands
2009. Source: IBB, 2009, 46. converted into high-rise residential areas,
although the dispute is ongoing. The possi- sources, then consumption-based strate-
bility of having the area allocated entirely gies will have to conflict with goals for cul-
to uses of touristic development would ture-led regeneration. The world expe-
mean supporting the speculative side of rience has shown that unless a cultural
the discussion. Yet, since the EXPO was vision coherent with the local characteris-
lost, the case was dismissed and the plans tics is adopted, then the result shall in-
had to be revised once again in 2009. evitably be expressed in terms of ignorance
Depicted as such, all the above- of disadvantaged groups, imitation leading
mentioned intentions of the city for its to cloning contextually alien cases to Izmir
cultural marketing appear to be blocked by or ephemerality of gained benefits.
the evidences proving the “fall” of planning Lack of a comprehensive strategy also
in Izmir. This shall mean, however, that it causes legitimation of those top-to-down
is not the ‘rise of culture’, but lack of com- decisions that by-pass the local planning
prehensive strategies and goals to be processes. In the case of Izmir, the main
blamed as the reason for the ‘fall of plan- actor in causing this bypass has been the
ning’ in the case of Izmir. Ministry of Culture and Tourism for the
determination of the EXPO site, which has
Conclusion left out all participatory frameworks out-
side the nomination process. On the condi-
While culture-driven city marketing tion of a sound policy framework adopted
takes different routes in various cities con- by the local government, which would ena-
cerning the production of such goods and ble the officials to take earlier and partici-
services that can be translated into dis- patory action to tackle all problems of deal-
cernable societal and economic outcomes, it ing with mega-events as such, the reflec-
is crucial to formulate a comprehensive tion of cultural strategies upon urban
policy of culture. There should be a wider space would be no surprise at all.
perspective in adopting policies and these It is evident that failures of the plan-
policies should definitely be supported by ning system constitute a major obstacle
the central government. National policies, against any possible scenarios for culture-
strategies and subsidies shall support the based identity of the city. Given that Izmir
intentions of a city, or otherwise the city is undoubtedly stands at a breaking point to
left to retain its peripheral position, as the determine its future, considerations of cul-
case of Izmir displays. ture-led development shall as well occupy a
The practical evidences from the case of critical role in formulation of cultural poli-
Izmir indicate that there remain some les- cies to be discussed in relation to both na-
sons to be learned in both the short and tional and local scale decisions. The discus-
long term. The abundance of cases in the sions on the case of Izmir are aimed to pro-
court reveals the failure of the planning vide the answers to the afore-mentioned
system where the main intention has been questions on problems concerning the tar-
to get the highest benefit from land as a geted culture-led rise of cities with particu-
commodity (i.e., the Port District), but the lar focus on an occasional ‘fall’ in their
world is full of examples where commodifi- planning and design.
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Arts Management, Law, and Society. Policies and Socio-spatial Fragmenta-
35(4):319 – 330. tion in Metropolitan Bilbao”. European
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1999 “The Impact of Partnership on Urban 178.
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dies,.33 (5):487-491. İzmir İnciraltı örneği”. Unpublished
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2009 “The New Mega-projects: Genesis and Graduate School of Natural and Applied
Sciences, Izmir, Turkey.

Sjoholt, Peter has led to increasingly diversified areas of consumption
1999 “Culture as a Strategic Development that are recently viewed as ‘cultural’ (Richards, 2007).
Device: The Role of ‘European Cities of 2
Evans & Shaw (2004) identify three models through
Culture’, With Particular Reference to
which cultural activity is incorporated into the regenera-
Bergen”. European Urban and Regional
tion process, either as planned or not. ‘Culture-led
Studies, 6(4):339-347. regeneration’ takes cultural activity as the catalyst or
Smith, Andrew main engine of regeneration. In ‘cultural regeneration’,
2007 “Sport Events, Tourism and Urban cultural activity is fully integrated into an area strategy
Regeneration”. In Smith, Melanie (Ed.): alongside other activities in the environmental, social
Tourism, Culture and Regeneration (pp. and economic sphere. Finally in ‘culture and regenera-
85-100). tion’ cultural activity is not fully integrated at the stra-
Smith, Melanie K. tegic development or master planning stage.
2007a “Towards a Cultural Planning Ap- 3
proach to Regeneration”. In Smith, Me- These marketing efforts are referred to as mega-
lanie (Ed.): Tourism, Culture and Rege- projects (Oureta & Fainstein, 2009), rather than its
neration (1-13). UK: CAB International. earlier definitions as ‘flagship projects’ (Hall, 1998) or
as ‘prestige projects’ (Loftman & Nevin, 1995), be-
Strom, Elizabeth
cause they emphasize the ‘mega’ scale aspects of the
1999 “Let’s Put on a Show! Performing Arts
target of competing on global grounds.
and Urban Revitalization in Newark,
New Jersey”. Journal of Urban Affairs, 4
In the period between 1960-80, the urban renewal and
21(4):423-435. large-scale developments were highly criticized, which
Sudjic, Deyan brought a decline in the 1980s and 1990s for reasons of
1999 “Between the Metropolitan and the negative environmental and social consequences. Re-
Provincial”. In: Nystrom, Louise (Ed.) cently, mega projects are getting more popular, which
City and Culture: Cultural Processes can as well be expressed as their “revival”, yet often
and Urban Sustainability (178-185). connected with tourism and sports development and
Kalmar, Sweden: The Swedish Urban incorporating the designs of world-famous architects
Environment Council. (Orueta & Fainstein, 2009).
Tighe, Anthony J. 5
Yet, the tourism value of sport-led strategies has
1986 “The Arts/Tourism Partnership”. been subject to much scepticism, The view that
Journal of Travel Research. 24(3):2-5. sport event organization does not necessarily stimu-
Urry, John late cultural regeneration and functions rather as a
1990 The Tourist Gaze: Leisure and Travel deterrent for other kinds of cultural tourism, stems
in Contemporary Societies. London: from the fact that many destinations have failed to
Sage. capitalize on the events and could not increase their
Zukin, Sharon attractiveness once the event is over. Nevertheless,
1995 The Cultures of Cities. Cambridge, it should be noted that failures may be an issue only
Blackwell Publishers. if events are not embedded within other regenera-
tion schemes formulated under a broader strategy
launching a series of diverse tourism initiatives
(Smith, 2007).
NOTES 6
According to travelers, Izmir was the “Pearl of
1 Levant”, the “Capital of Levant” or the “Petit
Culture may be seen as encompassing different layers
Paris” as referring to its cultural environment in
such as culture as the arts (where the culture of the
the 19 th century.
cultured class is cultivated through acts of cultural
consumption which extend beyond the visual and per- 7
The newly-built tennis courts complex was rec-
forming arts to design and architecture, media, food and orded to be the second greatest in the world after
drink or fashion etc), anthropological culture (involv- Wimbledon in the UK.
ing the way of life of a society or group where it is the 8
cultivation of the mind and its intellectual and aestheti- The tennis courts complex mentioned earlier, for
cal sensibilities, which leads to being educated, po- instance, is reported to be subject to obsolescence
lished and refined on the way to become civilized) due to not being used because of problems of loca-
(Mulcahy, 2006) and as culture as space (where any tion and management.
built environment is seen as a source of information
about present and past history, culture, and activities of
people), which altogether makes culture an institution. Recibido: 15/09/2009
Culture as a sector, on the other hand, is briefly what Reenviado: 20/12/2009
covers the production and consumption side of the
phenomenon (Dündar, 2010), becoming a new feature
in economical terms. Today, the culturization of society Sometido a evaluación por pares anónimos
www.pasosonline.org
The Ambiguous Image of Linz: Linz09 – European Capital of Culture
Elitza Iordanova-Krastevai
Eugenia Wickensii
Ali Bakirii
Buckinghamshire New University (United Kingdom)
Abstract: The importance of destination image is widely recognised for its significant effect on the
behavioural intentions of tourists. As such, efforts to build and/or improve destination images are critical
to the success of destination tourism development. An important prerequisite for the successful long-
term destination image improvement and promotion is the knowledge of tourists’ perceptions of the
attributes of the destination’s image. This exploratory paper seeks to obtain some insight into this par-
ticular knowledge and to provoke discussions by contrasting the projected image of Linz as a tourist
destination promoted by its policy makers with the perceived image held by Linz’s potential tourists in
the context of the European initiative, “Cultural Capital of Europe” 2009. The paper juxtaposes the re-
sults of Linz’s 2008 image monitoring survey conducted by its policy makers with those of an explora-
tory survey conducted for this study. The latter was designed to capture the image components of Linz
held by a convenient sample of domestic and foreign potential tourists to Linz.
Keywords: Destination Image; Linz; European Capital of Culture; Cognitive; Affective.
Resumen: La importancia de la imagen del destino ha sido reconocida debido a su efecto significativo
en las intenciones de comportamiento de los turistas. Como tal, los esfuerzos dirigidos a crear o mejorar
la imagen del destino son críticos para el éxito del desarrollo del destino turístico. Una condición impor-
tante para la mejora eficaz de la imagen y la promoción a largo plazo es el conocimento de las percep-
ciones de los turistas y los atributos de la imagen del destino. Este artículo exploratorio, pretende obtener
perspectivas sobre este punto y provocar discusiones, contrastando la imagen proyectada de Linz como
destino turístico promovida por sus responsables de política turística, y la imagen de Linz percibida por
los turistas potenciales, según el contexto de la iniciativa Europea “Capital Europea de la Cultura” 2009.
Este artículo yuxtapone las conclusiones de una encuesta de control de la imagen de Linz dirigida por
los responsables de política turística, con los resultados obtenidos a través de un estudio exploratorio
llevado a cabo para este estudio. Este ultimo ha sido diseñado para capturar los componentes de la ima-
gen de Linz a través de una muestra de conveniencia de turistas potenciales de Linz, tanto nacionales
como internacionales.
Palabras clave: Imagen de destino; Linz; Capital Europea de la cultura; Cognitiva; Afectiva.
i
Ph.D candidate, Buckinghamshire New University. Email: elitza.iordanova@bucks.ac.uk.
ii
Professors, Buckinghamshire New University. Email: eugenia.wickens@bucks.ac.uk; ali.bakir@bucks.ac.uk.

68 The Ambiguous Image of Linz
Introduction personal characteristics, form the received

place images.
The significance of tourist destination Baloglu and Brimberg (1997) have ana-
image has been broadly acknowledged as it lyzed destination image in terms of an in-
correlates with people’s perceptions of a dividual’s mental representation of knowl-
place and can affect the destination selec- edge, beliefs, feelings, and global impres-
tion process (Gartner, 1993), tourists’ be- sions about the destination. The cognitive
haviour in terms of revisit and recommen- component of destination image is related
dation (Echtner & Ritchie, 2003; Bigné, to the tourist destination’s attributes – the
Sánchez & Sánchez, 2001), and the levels of beliefs and knowledge one holds regarding
experienced satisfaction (Hose & Wickens, a destination (White, 2004). The affective
2002; Chon, 1990, 1992). It has also been component expresses the emotions (e.g.
established that destination image influ- pleasure, excitement) that a tourist desti-
ences the earliest stage in the decision nation is able to evoke in individuals (Mar-
making process by encouraging individuals tin & Bosque, 2008; Baloglu & Brinberg,
to form expectations and assumptions 1997) or an individual’s feelings about a
about the destination prior to their actual destination (White, 2004). Baloglu and
experience of it (Fakeye & Crompton, Brinberg also suggest that the sum of both
1991). Baloglu and Mangaloglu (2001) ar- perceptual (cognitive) and affective compo-
gue that destinations mainly compete on nents create a destination’s overall image.
the basis of their perceived image relative Echtner and Ritchie (1993) made a sig-
to those of their competitors. Hence, the nificant contribution to the destination
identification of the image of a destination image literature by proposing a model of
held by its tourists is much more signifi- destination image that consists of attrib-
cant than the promoted image in under- ute-based and holistic components that are
standing the destinations’ attributes. made up of functional (the more tangible
Bramwell and Rawding (1996) discuss aspects of the destination) and psychologi-
the current projected and received place cal (the more intangible aspects) character-
images in the place marketing literature istics. These researchers argue that desti-
(Kotler, Haider & Irving, 1993) by using nation images can be arranged on a contin-
the destination image formation model uum ranging from traits which can be
proposed by Gunn (1972). This model con- commonly used to compare all destinations
sists of ‘organic’, ‘induced’ and ‘modified to those which are shared by very few des-
induced’ images. The organic image is tinations, and could include unique fea-
based primarily on information assimilated tures, events or ‘auras/atmospheres’ (e.g.
from non-touristic, non-commercial sources the aura of the Vatican, the mystique of
and the opinions of family and friends. The Nepal).
altered, induced image is formed through Since it is generally recognized that
accessing additional, more commercial tourists use both cognitive and affective
sources of information; whereas the mod- dimensions in the process of destination
ified induced image is based on first hand image formation (Baloglu & McCleary,
information and destination experience. 1999), marketing campaigns may have to
Bramwell and Rawding (1996) describe stress both the physical attributes of a
projected place images as the ideas and place, and the amalgam of emotions and
impressions of a place that are available for feelings that it is able to evoke in the tour-
people’s consideration. They may be created ist’s mind (Martin & Bosque, 2008). Fur-
deliberately as the result of marketing ef- thermore, recent studies (Pike, 2002;
forts (induced image) or they may emerge White, 2004) suggest that destination im-
without premeditated planning and from age research may also benefit from explor-
information sources not directly associated ing both the cognitive and affective dimen-
with the destination (organic images). They sions. Pike’s (2002) review of 142 destina-
suggest that the interaction between these tion image papers from 1973 to 2000 shows
projected images and the tourist’s own that only six studies took into consideration
needs, motivations, prior know- both the cognitive and the affective image
ledge/experience, preferences, and other components. Similarly, White (2004) finds
Iordanova-Krasteva et al. 69
that past studies have concentrated on whereas in an unstructured method, the

items that represented respondents’ per- participants are allowed to more freely
ceptions of the more physical characteris- describe their impressions about a destina-
tics of a destination rather than exploring tion. Both approaches have advantages and
both cognitive and affective dimensions (see shortcomings that have to be considered
for example, Baloglu & Mangaloglu, 2001; when designing a particular research pro-
Baloglu & McCleary 1999; MacKay & Fe- ject. For instance, structured methods are
senmaier, 2000). San Martín and Rodríguez easy to administer, simple to code and the
del Bosque (2008) emphasize that a tourist results can be analysed using sophisticated
destination image should be recognized as statistical techniques (Marks, 1976 cited in
a multi-dimensional phenomenon that in- Echtner & Ritchie, 1993). However, as
cludes not only beliefs or knowledge about structured methods focus their attention on
the place’s attributes, but also the individ- destination image attributes, where re-
ual’s feelings toward the destination. Emo- spondents are asked to evaluate a list of
tions, White (2004) points out, are better previously selected attributes, they fail to
predictors of destination visitation and capture the holistic and unique components
customer purchase intentions than the of a particular destination. This disadvan-
more commonly used cognitive component. tage is neutralized by the unstructured
In addition, San Martín and Rodríguez method, which allows the holistic compo-
del Bosque (2008) urge destination image nents of a destination image to be captured.
researchers to pay attention to the role of Nevertheless, capturing the image’s holistic
cultural values, as individuals’ perceptions components still depends on the partici-
could be filtered by the preconceptions en- pants’ verbal and writing skills, and their
gendered by the culture of their country of willingness to share their opinions and
origin. Cognitive and affective destination knowledge about a particular destination.
image components may also be distorted by It can, therefore, be argued that in order to
socio-cultural stereotypes caused by cul- explore all the components of a destination
tural and physical distance (Baloglu & image, both structured and unstructured
McCleary 1999; Tasci, Gartner & Cavusgil, methods need to be employed (Echtner &
2007). A study conducted by San Martín Ritchie, 2003; Iordanova-Krasteva & Wick-
and Rodríguez del Bosque (2008) partially ens, 2008).
supports the proposition that the shorter
the cultural distance between destination Linz: A Case Study
and tourist, the more favourable the cogni- The European Capital of Culture (ECC)
tive/affective image of the tourist destina- Initiative
tion. Hunt (1975) and Scott, Schewe and
Frederick, (1978) also find that destination The ECC initiative was launched in
image formation is determined partly by 1985 by Melina Mercouri. Its main aim is
geographical distance from the destination; to bring the member states closer together
people are more likely to have visited the through the “expression of a culture which,
places near their homes or gathered infor- in its historical emergence and contempo-
mation about particular destinations rary development, is characterized by hav-
through the mass media or from friends ing both common elements and a richness
and family. born of diversity” (European Commission,
Significant in destination image re- 1985). The ECC has earned itself a reputa-
search is the fact that the number of stud- tion as a platform for sharing the diverse
ies using structured methods (Baloglu & cultural wealth in Europe, attracting
McCleary, 1999) outweighs the number of enormous attention and public interest.
studies utilizing unstructured ones (Reilly, The competition for recognition as a capital
1990; Perdue, 2000; Jutla, 2000). Pike of culture is so intense that it compares to
(2002) reports that the majority of the 142 that of the Olympic Games nomination
papers he examined used structured tech- (Richards, 2000).
niques. In a structured method a variety of The majority of hosting cities use the
general image attributes are specified and ECC to improve the international profile of
integrated into a standardized instrument, the city and its region, attract visitors, en-
hance pride and self-confidence, promote Linz09, argues that:

themselves and their countries as cultural “…Linz will be the most interesting city
centres, and occupy a solid place on the in Austria in 2015. That may sound uto-
cultural map of Europe (Palmer/Rae Asso- pian to many, yet it is also imaginable
ciates, 2004). However, Bologna (2000), within the logic of contemporary reality.
Bruges (2002), and Genoa (2004) used the For Linz is already an interesting city
ECC to transform their images; for exam- today. A city with a brisk pace, a city
ple, to move from superficial tourism to- that enables, an unconcernedly solution-
wards contemporary cultural tourism and oriented city, a social model city, a rural
to renew or regenerate their image. city, a wealthy city, a globally open-
minded city. And a city where culture,
Linz’s Bid industry and nature can enter into a
symbiosis like hardly anywhere else…”
Linz is Austria’s third largest city with a This ambitious mission statement is
population of 190,000. The intention to provoked by Linz’s image problems not only
develop Linz from an industrial city to a because of its association with Hitler, being
future-oriented cultural and technological the place where he grew up, but also be-
city was underpinned by a Cultural Devel- cause Linz, despite its diverse cultural life,
opment Plan in 2000. The consequent es- has always stood in the shadow of Vienna
tablishment of technology and new media and Salzburg. The objectives, however,
businesses, open spaces, the ‘Independent required to realise this ambitious vision are
Art Scene’1, “culture for all”, along with the two-fold: firstly, to give international audi-
lively, well developed cultural infrastruc- ences an idea of what Linz is all about and
ture provided an exceptional starting point secondly, to change the clichéd stereotype
for the city’s desire to host the ECC. Three of Linz as a blue-collar town of chimney
big hallmark events are considered as the stacks (Linz Europa Tour 2007 – 2009).
cultural trademarks of Linz and dot its
cultural calendar: the International Street Linz’s Nazi Past
Artist Festival, the Ars Electronica Festi-
val, and the Linz Cloud of Sound (Linz Cul- The panel evaluating Linz’s bid to host
ture, 2009). the ECC Event recommended that a dis-
The nomination of Linz (the capital of play of material relating to the city’s his-
the province Upper Austria) for the title of tory in the context of the Third Reich would
European Capital of Culture (Linz09) was be a real benefit and should be included as
submitted in 2004. The main focus of its part of the programme (The Selection Panel
presentation was on its attempts since for the European Capital of Culture, 2009).
1985 to change itself from an industrial to a Adolf Hitler was born in the outlying vil-
high-tech cultural city. Linz’s representa- lage of Braunau and only grew up in Linz.
tives, thus, presented the Austrian town as Linz is ‘Hitler’s town’ in the same way that
a creative, cultural and dynamic one, hav- Salzburg is Mozart’s. During the Nazi pe-
ing worldwide significance (The Selection riod Linz was transformed from a small
Panel for the European Capital of Culture town into an industrial city with a potential
2009). Linz’s authorities think of the ECC to become a cultural metropolis on the Da-
as a project that: nube as Hitler had planned. After 1945 the
“is endowing its [Linz’s] image with in- main concern of the Linz’s authority was to
teresting new contours ...offers a big distance the city from Nazi culture and
chance – already during the lead-in to Hitler, highlighting traditionally humanist
the big year but especially during the cultural values (Linz Cultural Development
time thereafter … for an ambitious cul- Plan 2000). Traces of the Nazi’s past, how-
tural program and for tourism market- ever, are still part of everyday life in Linz –
ing. Linz09 has the potential to signifi- in the appearance of the so-called ‘Hitler-
cantly increase international awareness bauten’2 and in the materials used for
for this city….” (www.linz09.at). buildings - Mauthausen granite was paid
Developing this line of thought, Martin for with the lives of concentration camp
Heller (2008), the artistic director of prisoners (Mission Statement, 2009).
Linz’s policy makers have decided to ac- elicit the respondent’s spontaneous associa-
cept the challenge to exploit, rather than tions with Linz, prompted similar re-
ignore, the most disgraceful associations of sponses from the three groups. They all
the town. For many people Adolf Hitler is firstly associated Linz with its tourist
one of the last names that would be ex- sights (most frequently, Poestlingberg, the
pected to be incorporated into a destination main square, the old town); secondly with
promotion campaign. Visitors to Linz can its cultural life (most frequently, the
explore Nazi remnants in the town, for Brucknerhaus /Anton Bruckner/Bruckner
example, by watching footage of survivors Festival, the Ars Electronica Centre, the
being led through a residential area or by Cloud of Sounds, the Lentos Museum, the
visiting a former underground aircraft fac- Pflasterspektakel and even the ECC); and
tory that was part of the Mauthausen thirdly with its shopping facilities.
/Gusen concentration camp complex. Ulrich Another question was designed to find
Fuchs, the deputy manager of Linz09, the attributes of Linz, and was phrased
states with regard to the Hitler issue: thus: “I will read out several attributes and
"..whenever you come to Linz in the your task is to say which attributes fit
coming year, you will find something re- which city - Linz, Innsbruck, Graz or Kla-
lated to this topic. We are not sweeping genfurt. One attribute can be applied to
Hitler under the carpet." one, several or none of the cities.” Respon-
The point of view of Martin Heller, the dents described Linz as an industrial city
artistic director of Linz 2009, is similar to (89 respondents), modern (65), with attrac-
that of Fuchs. He stated that: “…the only tive cultural range (61), friendly city (60),
way of dealing with Hitler is to be com- high-tech oriented city (59), famous for
pletely honest…” digital art in Europe (56), dynamic (56),
The director of the Upper Austrian State and an interesting city (53).
Museums, Peter Assmann, recognized that Being closed in structure, the pre-
an exhibition about Linz’s Hitler past selected sets of answers to these two ques-
might be seen as going too far, because tions predetermined the answers. The re-
Hitler's legacy is still a very difficult and sulting responses, therefore, represent “vox
sensitive topic. However, he elaborates: "I auctoritas” rather than “vox populi” and
don't see any glorification of Hitler in the reveal the image of Linz through the eyes
exhibition. Hitler is fact, so we just face of its authorities. The survey missed the
this fact and we face it with many argu- opportunity to expose a more comprehen-
ments…” (Pierce, 2009). sive and nuanced account of the image of
Linz which might have been held by these
Linz’s Projected Image respondents. Of more concern is the fact
that, even though Linz’s authorities are
The organizers of Linz09 conducted aware that “Linz09 has the potential to
Linz’s image monitoring survey and pre- significantly increase international aware-
sented the results approximately six ness for this city….” (www.linz09.at) and
months before the official start of Linz09. aim to make Linz “….the most interesting
This survey had several objectives: to iden- city in Austria in 2015” (Martin Heller,
tify the position of Linz amongst its direct 2008), international tourists were not in-
competitors – Graz, Innsbruck and Klagen- cluded in this image monitoring survey.
furt; to uncover the image held by the re- Nor did the survey design allow respon-
spondents; and to find out how strongly dents to express their feelings, opinions
Austrians support Linz hosting the ECC. and perceptions of Linz. It is also of note
The sample consisted of three groups – that the predetermined responses did not
500 non-local Austrians, 500 people living allow respondents to express a view about
in the Province of Upper Austria, and 513 Linz’s recent historical past, despite the
citizens of Linz. For the purposes of this recommendation of the ECC evaluation
paper, however, only the responses to those panel and Linz authorities’ response to that
questions related to the image of Linz are recommendation.
considered.
One survey question which sought to
Methodology age groups mentioned in the demographic

questions.
As the first stage of a broader study, an The first question focused on the re-
online survey was conducted (January to spondents’ spontaneous associations with
March 09) consisting of three open-ended Linz, in an attempt to capture as many
questions. The main aim of this survey was aspects as possible of the image of Linz as a
to acquire an exploratory knowledge of tourist destination. This question was an-
Linz’s cognitive and affective image compo- swered by the majority (59) of the respon-
nents as held by its potential visitors, and dents. Only two Austrians left the question
gain a better understanding of the multi- unanswered. For 13 international respon-
dimensionality of this image. A link to the dents, however, Linz did not evoke any
online survey was posted on the homepage particular association; neither knowledge
of Linz09 and on several online platforms or beliefs nor feelings or emotions.
for travellers. The outcome of this first The majority of the respondents were
stage of the study is to inform the design of aware that Linz is in Austria and near the
a comprehensive, structured questionnaire River Danube. This may suggest that Linz,
to be administered in the field as part of on the one hand, benefits from its “um-
the second stage of the study conducted in brella mark”, Austria, as being a popular
the summer months of 2009 in Linz in the and favourite destination for many people;
context of the ECC. and, on the other hand, suffers from being
The open ended questions design al- overshadowed by the “big names” in Aus-
lowed respondents to share their feelings, tria - Vienna and Salzburg. For example, a
perceptions and knowledge of Linz; thus Bulgarian respondent wrote: “I associate
acknowledging San Martín and Rodríguez Linz mainly with music and with the New
del Bosque’s (2008) suggestion that desti- Year concert of the Vienna philharmonic
nation image should be analysed as a orchestra”. Other respondents from Swit-
multi-faceted phenomenon that includes zerland and Austria concurred: “... Linz is
not only beliefs or knowledge about the in Austria, usually they have lots of
place’s attributes, but also the individual’s monuments and museums, therefore, I
feelings about the destination This ap- associate it with cultural and historical
proach also eliminates the likelihood of a heritage and of course traditions!”; “I asso-
particular type of research bias that can ciate it with nothing else but with Aus-
arise with predefined sets of answers (Jen- tria...”. This coin has a reverse side, how-
kins, 1999). The online survey was aimed ever, as a German respondent wrote: “Linz
at both repeat and first-time domestic and is small, old-fashioned Austrian town, noth-
international tourists with no geographical ing else”. Linz’s richness of monuments and
limitations, in an attempt to capture some museums, Pöstlingberg (a mountain), cul-
of the multi-faceted aspects of the image of ture, history and traditions also emerged as
Linz. This allows the various socio-cultural spontaneous associations with Linz in re-
stereotypes caused by cultural and physical spondents’ minds. They, however, failed to
distance to be reflected in the responses name any particular museum or monu-
(Baloglu & McCleary 1999; Tasci et al., ment. Traditional cuisine as part of Linz’s
2007) culture found its place in the responses: “I
associate it with delicious chocolate and
Analysis and Discussion Austrian traditions, and probably with
provincial lifestyle...” (a Cypriot respon-
The total number of responses was 88, of dent) and “with its symbol – the Linzer
which 74 were completely filled in and ana- Cake” (a German respondent). Only two
lyzed. The majority of the respondents (55) respondents (Austrians) wrote that the
were international potential tourists of European Capital of Europe 2009 repre-
Linz from, Great Britain, Germany, Swit- sents their association with Linz.
zerland, Portugal, Italy, Cyprus, France, Music also contributed to the spontane-
Poland, Bulgaria and the USA. There were ous associations with Linz: one Bulgarian
as many male as female respondents, and respondent said that Linz is “…a centre of
the age distribution corresponded to all the live music and arts...”, and an Austrian
respondent associated Linz mainly with being boring, cold, unpleasant, and even, in
Anton Bruckner3 and Dennis Russel Da- the words of a German respondent,
vies4. “…darkness and poverty like in the books
Indications that Linz is still struggling of Dickens...”. The assumption that Linz
to shed its industrial image in favour of a either benefits or suffers from the conse-
high-tech cultural one were found in some quences of its association with the “um-
of the answers: “unfortunately my first brella” of Austria was further evidenced by
association with Linz is with the steel in- some respondents: “...Austrian order, there-
dustry in the town...”. It is also interesting fore unpleasant feelings”, “unpleasant emo-
to note that only Austrian respondents tions, order and discipline”, and “I cannot
mentioned the steel industry. really say...probably Austrian order?”. It is
Two domestic and two international re- interesting to note that respondents who
spondents (from France and Bulgaria) mentioned Hitler as a spontaneous associa-
mentioned Hitler as the first association tion had more positive than negative feel-
with Linz and its dark history - a woman ings about Linz. However, respondents who
from France wrote: “the first word that did not have any other associations with
comes to my mind is Hitler?”, and a man Linz apart from being an Austrian town
from Austria added: “I think, I associate near the Danube, projected negative feel-
this town mainly with Hitler and his ‘view’ ings and emotions such as, boring, dark,
of the world...” and unpleasant.
The next question sought to elicit infor- The third question was designed to elicit
mation about the feelings and emotions some of the attractions of Linz, based on
evoked by Linz as a tourist destination. the respondents’ knowledge about Linz.
There were two main reasons for this ques- Half of the international respondents
tion. Firstly, the authors’ concern that the stated that they did not have any particu-
physical characteristics of a place are lar knowledge about Linz, and some of
evoked and instilled into an individual’s them have never been there; nevertheless,
mind more easily than affective associa- one Austrian wrote: “nothing particular in
tions (Echtner and Ritchie, 1993) and fact”. For others, the ancient origin of Linz,
therefore would probably prevail in the Hitler, and its culture are linked, as one
answers to the first question and distort Austrian wrote: “…originated in the place
the paper’s findings. Secondly, emotions, as of the ancient Rome town Lencia, it should
White (2004) suggests, are better predictors become Hitler’s capital city” and
of tourists’ pre and post-behaviour and also “…Austria, Hitler and rich in cultural
form an indivisible part of marketing cam- events”.
paigns (San Martín & Rodríguez del Twenty one international respondents
Bosque, 2008). mentioned different cultural events in Linz
For 22 of the respondents (9 Austrians (Bruckner festival, Cloud of Sound, Inter-
and 13 international), Linz does not arouse national Street Artist Festival), museums
any feelings or emotions and the answers (Lentos, Ars Electronica Center). Fre-
were neutral at best: “…nothing, even quently used words/phrases included: cul-
though I live in Austria I do not know much tural life, cultural heritage and/or histori-
about Linz”. However, to the majority of cal heritage and traditions. Seven respon-
respondents, Linz brings to mind more dents (only one was Austrian, the rest were
positive than negative feelings or emotions. from Portugal, Germany and Bulgaria)
Linz evokes feelings and emotions in tonal- mentioned Hitler, thus lending support to
ity: “…beautiful, modern and enjoyable”; the assumption that knowledge of Linz’s
“one single word – home, sweet home...”; association with Hitler is not necessarily a
“….love, happiness, party”; “…nostalgia for negative factor in the formation of the
my childhood”; “day-dreaming”; “joy, pleas- overall image of the city. Two respondents
ure”, and even “curiosity” and “wish to visit (one from Switzerland and one from Aus-
it”. tria) mentioned the European Capital of
On the other hand, more negatively ori- Culture 2009; the Austrian respondent
ented answers were given by a few respon- wrote: “Linz is the European Capital of
dents, who sketched a profile of Linz as Culture 2009 and I am sure they will show
the beauty of Linz!”. The River Danube also that better understanding of destination
found a place in the answers; one Austrian image can be reached by listening to the
described it as: “...perfect for chilling out in “vox populi” rather than relying on a prede-
the sun at the Danube...”, and “the old Da- fined set of answers that reduce respon-
nube, playing with the sunset”, mentioned dents’ opinions to several ticks. It also
by a Swiss. shows that destination image research
Although the sample was small, the should not underestimate the unstructured
open-ended questions, even online and with method (Echtner & Ritchie, 2003), as it
limited space for answering, offered the allows participants to more freely describe
researchers more than a glimpse of the their impressions about a destination.
unadulterated Linz through the eyes of its It can also be argued that the official
potential tourists. Through these re- image monitoring survey failed to identify
sponses, the authors were able to elicit the strengths and weaknesses of Linz’s
some of Linz’s unique characteristics and image, as the list of attributes used by the
understand aspects of its individuality. officials did not include, for example, sensi-
Following from Echtner and Ritchie’s tive issues such as the Hitler’s “heritage”.
(1993) suggestion that destination image As a consequence, it is difficult to see how
includes unique features, events or Linz’s authorities intend to improve Linz’s
‘auras/atmospheres’; Linz’s personality is image if they choose to remain unaware of
seen to have been formed through a myriad it’s’ weak attributes as perceived by its
of the controversial Hitler’s heritage, the tourists.
steel industry (whose roots can be traced The authorities’ survey also failed to
back to the Nazi’s period); the amazing capture the uniqueness of Linz, its “soul”,
architecture and the well-preserved old mainly because Linz’s officials did not con-
town; the new face of Linz presented by the sider the multi-dimensionality of its image.
Ars Electronica Centre, the Lentos museum The constituents of such image encompass
and Brucknerhaus; the natural and eternal not only beliefs or knowledge about the
beauty of Postingberg, the River Danube, destination but also individuals’ feelings
as well as its ancient origin and cultural towards the destination. The refusal to
and historical heritage. These unique char- consider the multidimensional aspects of
acteristics of Linz appear to have influ- Linz’s image is surprising, as the literature
enced Linz’s affective image components, broadly acknowledges that tourists use
making it for the majority of respondents, a both cognitive and affective image compo-
pleasurable, enjoyable and modern place. nents to form a destination’s image (Ba-
loglu & McCleary, 1999, White, 2004).
Conclusion These gaps in the authorities’ knowledge,
expressed mainly in the lack of understand-
The study, though exploratory, makes ing of the tourists, might militate against
an important contribution to the under- reaping the full benefit of the ECC, particu-
standing of projected and perceived images larly, as the latter is designed to change the
in the context of tourism destination pro- chosen destination’s (Linz) image. It might
motion; Baloglu and Mangaloglu (2001) also lead to inconclusive results of a short-
argue that destinations mainly compete on term nature and misleading conclusions, as
the basis of their perceived image relative marketing campaigns should emphasize
to those of their competitors. What emerged both the physical attributes of a place, and
from this study also suggests that there is a the amalgam of emotions and feelings that
difference between the projected image of it evokes in the tourist’s mind (San Martín
Linz as promoted by the city’s authorities & Rodríguez del Bosque, 2008).
and its perceived image as viewed by the Another critical shortcoming of the offi-
respondents. This tentative finding com- cial image monitoring survey is the fact
plements Bramwell and Rawding (1996) that the officials of Linz did not include
who argue that projected images may be international tourists in their sample and
created deliberately by marketers, while relied on Austrians only. This is of concern,
perceived images reflect tourists’ views of as there is evidence to suggest that the
the destination. The finding also suggests shorter the cultural distance between des-
tination and tourist, the more favourable search, 23:201–221.

the cognitive/affective image of the tourist Chon, Kaye-Sung
destination will be (San Martín & 1990 “The Role of Destination Image in
Rodríguez del Bosque, 2008). People are Tourism: a Review and Discussion.” The
also more likely to have visited the places Tourist Review, 2:2-9.
near their homes or gathered information Chon, Kaye-Sung
about particular destinations through the 1992 “The Role of Destination Image in
mass media or from friends and family Tourism: an Extension”. The Tourist
(Hunt, 1975; Scott et. al., 1978). The online Review, 2:2-7.
survey of this study despite its exploratory Echtner, Charlotte M. & Ritchie, Brent J.
nature, however, showed that international R.
tourists’ knowledge about Linz is rather 1993 “The Measurement of Destination
limited; thus confirming San Martín and Image: An Empirical Assessment.”
Rodríguez del Bosque’s (2008) findings con- Journal of Travel Research, 31(4):3-13.
cerning the relationship between geo- Echtner, Charlotte M. & Ritchie, Brent J.
graphical distance and knowledge about R.
the destination. Notwithstanding the 2003 “The Meaning and Measurement of
above, it is apparent that Linz evokes feel- Destination Image.” Journal of Tourism
ings and emotions mainly by benefiting Studies, 14(1).
from the image of Austria, and this should European Commission
be capitalized on. 1985 Resolution of the Ministers Responsi-
The findings of the online survey also ble for Cultural Affairs Concerning the
suggest that despite the Cultural Develop- Annual Event “European City of Cul-
ment Plan 2000 and the buzz about the ture”. Doc. 7081/84, 4th June. Brussels:
European Capital of Culture in 2009, Linz European Commission.
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meagre rather than pompous image; the 1991 “Image Differences Between Prospec-
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ECC. the Lower Rio Grande Valley.” Journal
of Travel Research, 30(2):10- 16.
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NOTES
1
Independent Art Scene consists of alternative
cultural initiatives (initiatives that are not inte-
grated in public institutions) as well as small, inde-
pendently working artistic teams.
2
Cheap homes that Hitler built for industrial work-
ers
3
Anton Bruckner is a famous composer born in
Linz
4
Dennis Russel Davies is an American conductor
and pianist currently working in the Bruckner-
haus in Linz.
Recibido: 15/09/2009
Reenviado: 20/12/2009
URL: www.cieturisticos.com.ar E-mail: cietcr@sinectis.com.ar
En 1991 el Ciet comenzó a editar la Revista Latinoamericana de Turismo. La misma

cambió su denominación al año siguiente por Estudios y Perspectivas en Turismo. Se edita
en forma trimestral y estudia al turismo desde la óptica de las ciencias sociales. Constituye
un foro interdisciplinario para la expansión de las fronteras del conocimiento del turismo.
Contiene artículos arbitrados anónimamente que versan sobre los variados aspectos del
fenómeno turístico: económico, social, geográfico, antropológico, ecológico, psicológico, etc.
Cuenta con artículos de base y con secciones fijas:
- Crónica de Eventos, donde se ofrece una síntesis de reuniones tanto de carácter nacional
como internacional.
- Guía de Publicaciones, brinda una síntesis de los principales libros y revistas vinculados al
turismo
- Reseña de Publicaciones Especializadas, pensada para dar cabida a comentarios de libros
y de revistas que contengan temas relacionados con el turismo.
- Agenda Turística, que permite una adecuada planificación para participar de eventos rela-
cionados con el turismo.
Actualmente se encuentra disponible en forma gratuita, los primeros dos números de la

Revista Digital del Ciet. Son selecciones de diversos artículos, especialmente escogidos por
su interés, de entre números anteriores de la publicación "Estudios y Perspectivas en Tu-
rismo". Están editados en formato .pdf lo que permite descargarlos fácilmente y utilizando
poca memoria. La puedes encontrar en: www.cieturisticos.com.ar
www.pasosonline.org
The Effect of Country Based Image in Accurance of Brand in

Cultural Destinations
Hulya Kurguni
Dokuz Eylül University (Turkey)
Abstract: Despite its location and historical and cultural attractions, Izmir has been unable to consistent-
ly achieve its tourism goals, as evidenced by fluctuating numbers in tourism earnings and a small share
of the international tourism market. This discrepancy might be attributed to Turkey’s image in the minds
of world travelers, as well as to a low recognition of Izmir. The purpose of this study is twofold: (1) to
identify visitors’ impressions that have been effective on their choice of Turkey as a vacation destination
and (2) to determine whether there is a relationship between these impressions and their perceptions
about Izmir. According to the study results there is a relationship between the variables related to partic-
ipants choosing Turkey and their impressions about Izmir.
Keywords: Image; Brand; Country image; Destination branding; Destination image.
Resumen: A pesar de su situación geográfica y sus atracciones culturales e históricas, Izmir se ha visto
constantemente imposibilitada para alcanzar sus objetivos turísticos, como se puede comprobar por las
fluctuaciones en sus ingresos turísticos y por su pequeña cuota del mercado turístico internacional. Este
discrepancia se puede atribuir a la imagen de Turquía en la mente de los viajeros internacionales, asi
como al limitado reconocimiento de Izmir. El objetivo de este estudio es doble: (1) identificar las impre-
siones de los visitantes que han sido efectivas en su elección de Izmir como destino vacacional y (2)
determinar si hay una relación entre estas impresiones y las percepciones sobre Izmir. De acuerdo con
los resultados del estudio, existe una relación entre las variables relacionadas con la selección de Turquía
y las impresiones sobre Izmir.
Palabras clave: Imagen; Marca; Imagen de país; Marca del destino; Imagen de destino.
i
Assist. Prof. Izmir Vocational School Department of Economics and Administrative Programs. Dokuz Eylül Univer-
sity-Turkey. Email: hulya.kurgun@deu.edu.tr.

80 The Effect of Country Based Image in Accurance of Brand
Introduction feelings, and global impressions about an

object or destination’’. There have been
A tourist destination is at present often many studies which have sought to identify
no longer seen as a set of unique cultural, the key attributes that are embodied in a
natural or environmental resources, but as destination’s image, particularly those as-
an overall appealing product available in a sociated with individual countries (Hankin-
certain area (Cracolici & Nijkamp, 2008). son, 2004).
Today, most destinations claim to have Coshall (2000) defines image as the in-
magnificent scenery, wonderful attractions, dividual’s perceptions of the characteristics
friendly local people, and a unique culture of destinations. According to Kotler, Haider
and heritage. However, these factors are no and Rein (1993) images represent a simpli-
longer differentiators, and successful desti- fication of a large number of associations
nation branding lies in its potential to re- and pieces of information connected with a
duce substitutability (Hudson and Ritchie, place. A country’s image results from its
2009: 217). geography, history, proclamations, art and
Kotler and Gertner (2002) suggest that music, famous citizens and other features.
to be successful in the tourism industry a All of these have been repeatedly and
country must be very specific about what it strongly associated with certain localities
wants to market and to whom. So as the (Kotler & Gertner, 2002: 251).
competition for tourists and their spending More recent research provides evidence
dollars continues to increase, it follows that that the image of a place influences touris-
a definition of destination branding should tic decisions (Baloglu & McCleary 1999a;
include the concepts of destination image Pike & Ryan 2004; Tapachai & Waryszak
and competitiveness (Blain, Levy & Ritchie, 2000). Development of new theories to un-
2005). derstand how consumers make their deci-
The purpose of this study is to identify sions is also important to the tourism in-
images that have been effective on travel- dustry (Oh, 2000). There are many factors
ers’ choice of Turkey as a vacation destina- that affect tourist flows to destinations.
tion and to determine whether there is de- Tourist flows are dependent on destination
pendency between these images and their characteristics such as climate, scenery,
perceptions about Izmir. services, amenities, and cultural attributes
In respect to its population, Izmir is the (Coshall, 2000: 85). For destination marke-
third largest city in Turkey. It is a cultural ters, perhaps the most significant aspect of
destination that is trying to acquire a signi- an image is its influence on travel behavior
ficant and growing market share. It is a (Leisen, 2001: 50). As Jenkins (1999) states
strategic site for all kinds of cultural activi- in his article, destination images influence
ties with its universities, museums, concert a tourist's travel decision-making, cognition
halls, cultural and art associations. As su- and behavior at a destination, as well as
ch, it is home to many national and inter- satisfaction levels and recollection of the
national festivals. Izmir is a five thousand experience.
year old city, situated on the west of the The traveler creates an image by
Anatolian peninsula. There are many his- processing information about a destination
torical sites throughout the city of Izmir. from various sources in the course of time.
Despite its location and historical and cul- This information is organized into a mental
tural attractions, Izmir has been unable to construct that in some way is meaningful to
consistently achieve its tourism goals. Ac- the individual (Leisen, 2001: 50). Gunn
cording to the recent statistics 1,056,948 (1972) suggests that destination images fall
foreign visitors came to Izmir in 2009. on a continuum, beginning with the organic
image, followed by the induced (cited in
Country Image and Destination Image Leisen, 2001: 50).
Tourism scholars generally agree that
Baloglu and McCleary (1999a: 870) de- destination image holds at least two dis-
fine destination image as ‘‘an attitudinal tinctive components -cognitive and affective
construct consisting of an individual’s men- (Baloglu & Brinberg, 1997; Baloglu &
tal representation of knowledge (beliefs), McCleary, 1999a, 1999b; Gartner 1993;
Hulya Kurgun 81
Walmsley & Young 1998)). The cognitive, izations in particular, but the concept of
or perceptual, element refers to knowledge branding for tourist destinations has re-
and beliefs about a destination, while the ceived little attention to date (Tasci & Ko-
affective element refers to feelings about a zak , 2006).
destination (Stepchenkova & Morrison, According to Cai (2002) a destination
2008, Beerlí & Martín, 2004). According to brand can be defined as “perceptions about
Echtner and Ritchie (2003), destination a place as reflected by the associations held
image is not only the perceptions of indi- in tourist memory” and he suggests that
vidual destination attributes but also the destination branding constitutes the core of
holistic impression made by the destina- destination image.
tion. Destination image consists of func- Ritchie and Ritchie (1998, cited in Blain
tional characteristics and psychological et al. 2005: 329) have defined a “destination
characteristics. Furthermore, destination brand” as a name, symbol, logo, word mark
images can be arranged on a continuum or other graphic that both identifies and
ranging from traits which can be commonly differentiates the destination. Further-
used to compare all destinations to those more, it conveys the promise of a memora-
which are unique to very few destinations ble travel experience that is uniquely asso-
(Echtner & Ritchie, 2003: 44). Klenosky ciated with the destination. It also serves to
and Gitelson (1998) suggest that the com- consolidate and reinforce the recollection of
mon-unique continuum that influences pleasurable memories of the destination
images also plays a role in the recommen- experience. Such a concept serves to en-
dation process. hance destination marketing by providing
Destination image can even contribute potential tourists with pre-trip information
to forming the destination brand. Thus, a that allows them to identify a destination,
strong brand position of a destination is differentiate it from its competitors, and
dependent on the positive destination im- build expectations about the likely holiday
age. A brand name of a destination that is experience offered by the destination (Mur-
often confused with the destination image phy, Moscardo & Benckendorff, 2007: 5).
could be a significant factor in the destina- Hall (2008) states that brands also need
tion selection process, as well as in the to be connected with some tangible dimen-
loyalty to a destination. In other words, sion in order to be “believable”. In the case
destination image, as well as destination of place brands, this is the physical manife-
brand, can influence the customer´s loyalty station of place in terms of architecture,
to a destination (Tasci & Kozak, 2006). design, and the lived experience of a loca-
tion. In essence, this is the “hardware” of
Destination Branding place brands (Hall, 2008: 236).
Brand equity is a difficult concept to un-
Although the concept of branding has derstand when it comes to tourism destina-
been applied extensively to products and tions. Since a tourism destination is not a
services, tourism destination branding is a private entity and cannot be sold in the
relatively recent phenomenon (Blain et al., market place, brand equity cannot be fully
2005: 328). As experience and culture gain measured (Tasci, Gartner & Cavusgil,
importance, cities worldwide are engaged 2007). According to Aaker (1991; 1996),
in constructing images and representations brand equity is a multidimensional concept.
of their locations in accordance with these It consists of brand loyalty, brand aware-
new trends. Therefore the culture-led, ex- ness, perceived quality, brand associations,
perience-oriented policymakers are looking and other proprietary brand assets.
towards the discipline of urban branding Destination branding appears to be
(Jensen, 2007: 212). emerging as one of the most compelling
It seems that there is confusion between tools available to destination marketers
brand and image especially in the tourist seeking a competitive advantage (Murphy
destination context. Moreover, there is a et al., 2007). The study, entitled “The City
dearth of research into the measurement of Brand Barometer” and created by London-
destination image in general and the con- based Saffron Consultants, ranks 72 of
sideration of branding for individual organ- Europe’s largest cities based on a compari-
son of their assets and attractions against kish embassy/consulate (Baloglu &
the strength of their brands. To determine Mccleary, 1999a; Sonmez & Sirakaya,
what people want most in a place, Saffron 2002). The uniqueness dimension was as-
commissioned a YouGov poll of 2,000 sessed by the item: “please list any distinc-
people in the UK. Respondents were asked tive or unique tourist attractions that you
two questions with a series of multiple can think of in Izmir” (Stepchenkova &
choice answers. The most desirable Morrison, 2008). Brand loyalty was meas-
attributes, in order of weighted importance, ured by two questions (Pike, 2009; Sonmez
were: sightseeing and historical attractions; & Sirakaya, 2002). The first asked partici-
cuisine and restaurants; good shopping, pants to indicate whether they had pre-
particularly low cost; good weather; ease of viously visited this destination. The second
getting around on foot or by public trans- asked participants to indicate the likelih-
port (Saffron Consultants, 2008). ood of choosing this destination as the next
international vacation destination. The
Study Methods appeal of Izmir as a tourist destination was
operationalized as a single-item 5-point
The questionnaire was developed with Likert type scale /question (In general, how
measures that have been used in previous appealing is Izmir to you as a tourist desti-
research highlighted in the literature re- nation?) ranging from 1= very unappealing,
view. It consisted of four sections: questions to 5= very appealing. The dependent va-
relating to effective points in respondents’ riables were operationalized through three
decisions to visit Turkey as a vacation des- questions (‘I enjoy visiting this destination’,
tination; questions relating to respondents’ ‘This destination would be my preferred
perceptions about Izmir; questions relating choice for a vacation’ and ‘I would advise
to the variety and type of information other people to visit this destination’) on a
sources used regarding selected destina- scale ranging from 1= strongly disagree, to
tion; and questions designed to gather de- 5= strongly agree.
mographic information. The foreign tourists visiting Izmir
On the first section of the questionnaire formed the research’s sample. Tourists
17 perceptual/cognitive items, which were visiting Izmir, representing a more hetero-
selected on the basis of a review of previous geneous population, were surveyed for the
literature regarding destination image, pretest. A face-to-face survey was con-
were used. Respondents were asked to eva- ducted with 62 tourists in Izmir. No issues
luate each statement on a 5-point scale were found regarding wording, clarity of
ranging from 1 (not at all important) to 5 the questions, or layout.
(very important). On the second section of The final questionnaire was applied to
the questionnaire brand associations of tourists in the Adnan Menderes Airport, in
Izmir were measured by asking respon- the hotels at the centre of Izmir, in Ephe-
dents to indicate their perception about the sus and Mother Mary. The questionnaire
destination. 21 perceptual/cognitive items study began at the beginning of June, 2009
were selected from a combination of litera- and carried out until the first week of July,
ture review. These were measured using a 2009. Elimination of unusable question-
5 point scale ranging from 1 (strongly dis- naires resulted in a total of 293 completed
agree) to 5 (strongly agree). Affective eval- responses.
uations of Izmir as a vacation destination
were measured on a 7-point scale using Results
affective image scales developed by Russel
and his colleagues (Baloglu & McCleary Factor analysis, using the principal
1999a, 1999b). On the third section of the component extraction method with varimax
questionnaire, the six information source rotation, was applied to the 17 percep-
categories included professional advice tual/cognitive items related to Turkey. The
(tour operators, travel agents, and airlines); cleanest rotated solution was obtained by
word of mouth (friends relatives, and social omitting one item due to simultaneous
clubs); advertisements (print or broadcast loading (There are great beaches). This
media); books/movies/news; internet; Tur- solution generated three factors explaining
Hulya Kurgun 83
53.10% of the variance. The Kaiser-Meyer- are highlighted in Table 1. The reliability
Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy was coefficients range from 0.65 to 0.84, thus
.85 and the Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity adequately meeting the standards for such
was significant (p=.000). The three factors research (Nunnally, 1967).
Explained
Factor Eigenva- Cronbach’s
Factor Meana Variance
Loading lue Alpha
(%)
Factor 1: Local attractions
Archeological treasures .813 3.791 4.106 23.551 .84
Unique architectural styles .808 3.418
Important museums and art
.743 3.327
galleries
Rich cultural heritage .724 3.902
Local festivals .667 2.749
Attractive cities .609 3.554
Natural scenic beauty .594 4.031
3.539
Factor 2: Hospitality and ser-
vices
Relaxing and restful place .787 4.168 3.248 19.167 .79
Good quality restaurants and
.757 4.186
hotels
Friendly local people .652 4.330
Appealing cuisine .571 4.000
Pleasant weather .557 4.412
Safe place .555 4.151
High hygiene standards .552 4.041
4.184
Factor 3: shopping and prices
Shopping facilities .779 3.482 1.143 10.388 .65
Low prices .708 3.853
Grand Mean 3.671
Total variance explained 53.106
a on a scale ranging from 1= not at all important to 5= very important
Table 1. Factor analysis of perceptual/cognitive images related to Turkey
Factor analysis, using the principal 51.7% of the participants are men and
component extraction method with varimax 64% are under the age of 45. While 34.4%
rotation, was applied to the 21 items re- of the participants belong to the associated
lated to brand associations of Izmir. The degree group, 30.2% of them are part of the
cleanest rotated solution was obtained by bachelor degree one, 18.2% of them are
omitting 3 items due to simultaneous load- included in the post bachelor degree group
ings (‘The accommodation facilities are and 17.1% graduated from high school.
good’, “this destination has a good name When evaluated according to their natio-
and reputation’, ‘personally, I feel safe nality the highest percent of participants
while visiting this destination’). This solu- belongs to the UK group with 19.9%. Fol-
tion generated five factors explaining lowing this comes Germany (13.0%), France
58.23% of variance. The Kaiser-Meyer- (8.6%), Ireland (8.2%), the USA (7.5%),
Olkin Measure of Sampling was .78 and Norway (7.5%), and the Netherlands
Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity was significant (6.5%). The lowest percent of participants is
(p=.000). The five factors are highlighted in from Portugal (0.3%), Venezuela (0.3%),
table 2. and Bulgaria (0.3%). When examined in
relation to profession, it is seen that 17.7% those with income between 40.000$-
of the participants are middle manage- 50.999$ (29.9%). On the other hand, the
ment, 13.0% are students, and 11.9% are lowest income group is formed by those who
self employed/ business. The lowest profes- are between 80.000$-99.999$ (8.8%). 14.2%
sion group with 1.4% is formed of the re- of the participants have expressed that
tired/still working group. When the partici- they earn 100.000 and over in terms of in-
pants are examined by means of their income.
come group, the highest group is seen to be
Explained
Factor Eigen- Cronbach’s
Factor Meana Variance
Loading value Alpha
(%)
Factor1: People and facilities
Good cafes and restaurants .722 3.876 4.569 12.598 .651
Friendly local people .720 4.321
Appealing local food .558 3.941
Lots to see and do .517 4.010
Grand Mean 4.037
Factor 2: Cultural attractions
Historical places .713 3.990 2.165 11.961 .703
Cultural attractions .707 4.000
Mythological destination .702 3.450
Offers natural scenic beauty .520 4.021
Grand Mean 3.865
Factor 3: Outdoors
Water sports opportunities .610 3.697 1.449 11.873 .656
Good beaches .609 3.934
Economical destination .599 3.784
Not crowded .552 3.484
Pleasant climate .504 4.355
Grand Mean 3.851
Factor 4: Services
Get good service in hotels .943 3.474 1.165 11.685 .934
Get good service in restaurants .943 3.460
3.467
Factor 5: Value for money
Good shopping opportunities .754 3.818 1.134 10.117 .659
Worth the money .632 3.716
Family destination .546 3.767
Grand Mean 3.767
Total variance explained 58.234
a on a scale ranging from 1= not at all important to 5= very important
Table 2. Factor analysis of perceptual/cognitive images related to Izmir
When asked about the likelihood of tra- 3.4% answered negatively. Nearly 85% of
vel to Izmir on their next international the participants found Izmir appealing or
vacation, 65.4% of the respondents ans- very appealing, and about 4% found it very
wered positively. When the participants unappealing or unappealing.
asked if they would advise other people to When the participants’ average of ex-
visit this destination (Izmir), 61.4% of the pressions about why they chose Turkey as
respondents answered positively and only a vacation destination are examined, it is
Hulya Kurgun 85
seen that the three most important expres- destination’,‘this destination would be my
sions are ‘pleasant weather’ (mean: 4.412), preferred choice for a vacation’ and ‘I would
‘friendly local people’ (mean: 4.330), ‘safe advise other people to visit this destina-
place’ (mean: 4.151). The expression that tion’). Nine factors were entered into the
has the lowest rate is ‘local fests’ (mean: regression model, including three cognitive
2.749). 0n the other hand in the expres- image factors relating to Turkey and one
sions measuring their perception about affective and five cognitive factors relating
Izmir, the highest three averages of expres- to Izmir. The results of the regression
sion are seen to be the ‘pleasant climate’ analysis that was made to examine the
(mean: 4,3554), ‘friendly local people’ effect of 9 factors on ‘I enjoy visiting this
(mean: 4.321), and ‘offers natural scenic destination’ dependent variable are pre-
beauty‘ (mean: 4.021). The lowest averages sented in Table 3. When the regression
of expression are the ‘get good service in model is examined, it is seen that four fac-
restaurants’ and ‘get good service in the tors (‘People and facilities’, ‘Cultural attrac-
hotels’ (both with means: 3.434). tions’, ‘Services’ and ‘Value for money’) ex-
In the expressions of participants form- plain the participants’ visiting Izmir and
ing their impressions about Izmir, the enjoying their visit at about the 39.5% lev-
highest rate belongs to the expression of el. The standardized estimates (beta coeffi-
‘word of mouth’ (mean: 3.682). Following cients) of each variable indicate its relative
this expression follows ‘internet’ with an importance in explaining the ‘I enjoy visit-
average value of 3.629. The lowest rate has ing this destination’. In this model, the
been noticed to be the ‘Turkish embassy’ standardized estimate of ‘People and facili-
(mean: 2.622). ties’ suggests that this variable is positively
When looking at the ANOVA test’s related to the ‘I enjoy visiting this destina-
(post-hoc, benforini test) results, it is seen tion’ and is the most important factor in
that there are differences between the an- explaining the dependent variable (β=
swers that the participants have given to .368). Similarly, ‘Value for money’ (Factor
Factor 5 (Value for Money) according to 5) (β= .242), ‘Services’ (Factor 4) (β= .158)
education level (p= .003). Respondents from and ‘Cultural attractions’ (Factor 2) (β=
the college/associate degree group are seen .139) are positively related to the depen-
to have the highest average (mean=3.93) dent variable.
and those with post bachelor’s degree have The results of the regression analysis
the lowest average (mean=3.59). There are that was made to examine the effect of 9
differences among the answers participants factors on ‘this destination would be my
have given to Factor 3 (Outdoors) according preferred choice for a vacation’ dependent
to age groups (p=01). It is seen that the 45- variable are presented in Table 4. The
54 ages group has the highest average stepwise regression analysis identified
(mean=4.02) and the 16-24 age group has three factors (value for money, outdoors
the lowest average (mean=3.65). There are and affective images) as statistically signif-
differences among the answers that partic- icant in explaining the dependent variable
ipants have given to Factor 4 (Services) (R2 = .326). The resulting regression coeffi-
according to annual income (p=03). It is cients indicate that value for money (Factor
seen that the $100,000 or more income 5) has a positive relationship with the de-
group has the highest average (mean=3.84) pendent variable and is the most important
and the $40,000-59,999 income group has factor (β= .370) in explaining participants’
the lowest average (mean=3.13). choices for a vacation involving Izmir. Simi-
The regression analysis was estimated larly, ‘Outdoors’ (Factor 3) (β= .222), and
with the stepwise technique to scrutinize affective images (β= .158) are positively
the effect of independent variables over related to the dependent variable.
dependent variables (‘I enjoy visiting this
Standardi- Collinearity
zed Coeffi- Statistics
Model cients Std.
Beta t value Sig.
Tolerance Error
VIF
4 (Constant) 1.077 .282 .298
Factor1: People
.368 6.490 .000 .072 .716 1.396
and facilities
Factor 5: Value
.242 4.355 .000 .065 .748 1.336
for money
Factor 4: Servi-
.158 3.273 .001 .028 .991 1.009
ces
Factor 2: Cultu-
.139 2.498 .013 .061 .748 1.336
ral attractions
Dependent Variable: I enjoy visiting this destination. Overall model: F= 42,797; R2 =
.395,
adjusted R2 = .386; p = .000
Table 3. Regression analysis
Standardi- Collinearity
zed Coeffi- Statistics
Model cients t Std.
Beta Value Sig.
Tolerance Error
VIF
3 (Constant) -1.337 .182 .420
Factor 5: Va-
.370 6.388 .000 .082 .761 1.313
lue for money
Factor 3: Out-
.222 3.894 .000 .086 .786 1.272
doors
Affective ima-
.158 3.025 .003 .074 .940 1.064
ges
Dependent Variable: This destination would be my preferred choice for a vacation.
Overall model: F= 42,485; R2 = .326, adjusted R2 = .319; p = ,000
The results of the regression analysis The standardized estimate of ‘value for
that was made to examine the effect of the money’ (Factor 5) suggests that this varia-
9 factors on ‘I would advise other people to ble is positively related to the ‘I would ad-
visit this destination’ dependent variable vise other people to visit this destination’
are presented in table 5 (R2 = .335). The and is the most important factor in explain-
stepwise regression analysis identified four ing the dependent variable (β= .381). Simi-
factors (‘Value for money’, ‘People and facil- larly, ‘People and facilities’ (Factor 1) (β=
ities’, ‘Affective images’ and ‘Local attrac- .175), ‘Affective images’ (β= .124) and ‘Local
tions’) as statistically significant in explain- attractions’ (Factor 1: Cognitive images
ing the dependent variable. related to Turkey) (β= .115) are positively
related to the dependent variable.
Hulya Kurgun 87
Standar- Collinearity Statis-

dized Coef- tics
Model ficients Std.
Beta t value Sig.
Tolerance Error
VIF
4 Constant .736 .462 .375
Factor 5: Value
.381 6.688 .000 .073 .781 1.280
for money
Factor1: People
.175 3.000 .003 .080 .748 1.337
and facilities
Affective images .124 2.315 .021 .068 .891 1.122
Factor 1: Local
attractions
.115 2.158 .032 .050 .898 1.114
(related to Tur-
key)
Dependent Variable: I would advise other people to visit this destination. Overall model:
F= 32,957; R2 = .335, adjusted R2 = .325; p = .000
Conclusion fests. This result points to the fact that a

lot of local fests are taking place each year
When the reasons for the participants’ in Turkey. However, these do not obtain as
coming to Turkey are examined, it is ob- much attention as similar international
served that climate holds the first place. events. To make them a factor in choosing
This situation can be understood, as Tur- Turkey, local fests must be restructured.
key is known widely with its trinity of sea, This may be done by unifying some fests
sun and sand. On the other hand the other like successful international examples or
important equities that have value for the changing some fests’ identity.
tourism sector, such as cultural attractions, When the participants’ perception of
can be said to have less contribution to the Turkey is examined, their reason for choos-
image that might affect the choices of par- ing this country show similarities with two
ticipants. The determination of friendly of the positive expressions (‘Pleasant cli-
local people as the second most important mate’ and ‘Friendly local people’). This sit-
reason of choice is also an important point. uation shows that the elements of image of
This result is proof of the local public’s eco- Turkey in the mind of participants are pa-
nomic and social participation and their rallel to the elements forming Izmir’s brand
social support to tourism activities. equity. In other words, the opinions about
Except the professionals giving the tour- Turkey given by the participants were
ism services, the positive approach of the proved by their experiences in Izmir.
public living in this region is perceived to In the Izmir perception survey the low-
lead to such a perception. This shows that est average is determined to be ‘get good
Turkey has been maintaining such a cha- service in restaurant’, and ‘get good service
racteristic of itself over many years. Mean- in hotels’. This result shows that in Izmir,
while, another significant result is related the restaurant and hotel service quality is
to the perceptions of safety of the place. below the expectation of participants. In
Because of its geopolitical location, creating the two most important fields of the tour-
both a hospitable and safe country image is ism sector, such a low perception presents a
becoming important. It can be gathered critical point about Izmir’s brand equity.
from this result that some negative inter- Despite the existence of values belonging to
national and national developments taking the destination that may raise brand equity
place in the region currently have little for participants’ visiting Izmir, the defi-
effect over it. ciency in two vital fields,-accommodation
In the participants’ choosing of Turkey, and eating-drinking, is thought-provoking.
the lowest significance is that of the local
When looking to the subject of the Iz- 2023 Booklet of The Ministry of Culture
mir’s brand equity, it is clear that meas- and Tourism. Among the 2023 strategies
ures must be taken about the so-called well the importance of city branding activities to
being of perception. It is very crucial to increase tourism arrivals has been
form an effective model, particularly in the stressed. In the cities that have potential,
4 and 5 stars hotels. Furthermore, the ser- importance is given to city branding man-
vice standards of restaurants should be agement activities. Izmir is considered
controlled by the municipality and im- third among these cities.
proved. The works carried out for Izmir’s brand
When effective information sources used equity are diverse, while its economic pow-
by the participants are considered in con- er is far from affecting international lob-
nection to their impressions about Izmir, bies, which are not providing international
‘word of mouth’ and ‘internet’ are seen to be consulting services or giving professional
in the first place. In this respect, in the brand management service to the city. That
works of Izmir about brand equity, internet also shows a situation that is different from
accessible pages, blogs and chat-rooms are the successful examples’ and models. In the
within reach as alternatives that should be academic field there are also not enough
enhanced. The dynamic structure of the studies about Izmir’s brand equity. Re-
internet gives importance to the partici- searches about the high budgeted events,
pants’ sharing of thoughts in real time and such as the Universiade 2005 organization
to making visual and other information and the EXPO enterprise should be carried
current. out to develop and manage brand equity
There is a difference between the an- effectively.
swers of the participants to Factor 3 (Out- When topics such as the building of Iz-
doors) according to age groups (p=01). The mir’s brand equity effectively, developing
answers of participants have shown that and managing it, are examined, the effect
the lowest average is for the 16-24 age of tourist movements on commercial gain
group. By looking at this result, it is seen must be used as a motivation tool. There-
that presenting values that will be impor- fore, it is a requirement to make a scientific
tant in terms of brand equity for this age projection regarding the expected income
group becomes essential. Fests, water and the share of the investments that will
sports, shopping possibilities, affordable be made for brand equity projects.
packages and entertainment possibilities Despite time, budget, structure of sam-
must be recreated and are seen as a re- ple and the difficulty in reaching scattered
quirement. places during the field work, this study
There is a relationship between the va- points to the fact that Izmir’s brand equity
riables regarding participants choosing is dependent on Turkey’s image, and its
Turkey and the impressions about Izmir. parallel development would be beneficial.
This result can be interpreted as Turkey’s Besides this, the study points to the need to
image contributes positively to Izmir’s per- increase the quality of accommodation and
ception and the elements of its brand equi- eating-drinking services in order to benefit
ty. Izmir’s brand equity. Meanwhile, in order
As a consequence, it can be said that to attract the 16-24 age groups, elements
there is a positive relation between the such as internet applications, fests, water
country’s image and any destination’s sports, shopping and entertainment possi-
brand equity in the country. Because of this bilities must also be developed quickly.
relation, touristic destinations can’t be This study is of great importance as it
thought to be independent from the coun- will guide the works that will be made to
try’s image. Therefore, in the creation of develop Izmir’s brand equity. Further re-
brand equity for Izmir, the determination search about this issue that includes the
of positive attributes of the country and the participation of all the shareholders in a
selection of elements that must be stressed broader context is of vital importance for
are of great importance. There is a place for the determination of Izmir’s brand equity
the development of Izmir’s brand equity effectively.
subject in the Turkey’s Tourism Strategies-
Hulya Kurgun 89
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Sönmez, Sevil & Sirakaya, Ercan Reenviado: 20/12/2009
www.pasosonline.org
Sustainable Cultural Events Based on Marketing Segmentation: The

Case of Faro Capital of Culture
Patricia Oom do Vallei

Júlio Mendesii
Universidad of Algarve (Portugal)
Abstract: The city of Faro was designated by the Portuguese government as the 2005 National Capital
of Culture. The Faro 2005 National Capital of Culture took place between May and December in several
cities of the Algarve region, with most events occurring in Faro. The programme consisted of 185 differ-
ent performances represented through music, cinema, theatre, ballet and plastic arts. The paper analyses
segments of the population that participated in the Faro 2005 event and discusses the relation between
the event’s success and the degree of satisfaction of the participants. The contribution of the paper lies in
pointing to the importance of an adequate marketing approach of large-scale events, such as cultural
events, in order to achieve greater audience appeal/impact, in order to ensure sustainability.
Keywords: Cultural events; Promotion, Management, Segmentation, Cluster analysis.
Resumen: La ciudad de Faro fue señalada por el gobierno portugués como la Capital Nacional de la
Cultura en el 2005. Faro Capital Nacional de la Cultura 2005 se celebró entre mayo y diciembre en va-
rias ciudades de la región del Algarve, teniendo lugar la mayoría de los acontecimientos en Faro. El
programa consistió en 185 actos diversos que incluyeron música, cine, teatro, ballet y artes plásticas. El
artículo analiza los segmentos de la población que participó en el acontecimiento Faro 2005 y debate la
relación entre el éxito del acontecimiento y el grado de satisfacción de los participantes. La contribución
del artículo reside en apuntar hacia la importancia de una perspectiva de marketing adecuada en los
eventos a gran escala, tales como acontecimientos culturales, para alcanzar mayor atractivo/impacto en
vías a asegurar la sostenibilidad.
Palabras clave: Eventos culturales; Promoción; Gestión; Segmentación; Análisis cluster.
i
Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Economics, University of Algarve, Portugal. Email: pvalle@ualg.pt.
ii
Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Economics, University of Algarve, Portugal. Email: jmendes@ualg.pt.

92 Sustainable Cultural Events Based on Marketing Segmentation
Introduction (Colbert, 1994: 102). Kotler and Scheff

(1997) argue that the first responsibility of
The globalisation of economies has led to a marketer is to segment its consumer
the standardisation of customs and prac- base, by aggregating consumers into simi-
tices in western societies. This has had a lar groupings. For Smith (1956: 6), market-
strong impact in the management para- ing segmentation is a strategic matter. It
digms of cultural industries. It is vital that “consists of viewing a heterogeneous mar-
the industry adopts new management prin- ket as a number of smaller homogeneous
ciples in order to secure sustainable cul- markets”. Colbert (1994: 103) noted that
tural institutions and activities. “although conceptually the principle of
In the face of increased competition and market segmentation may seem simple, in
funding constraints, there is a need to practice, defining the segments can be
make artistic products progressively more problematic”. When considering personal
unique from program managers and spe- characteristics, it is possible to identify
cialists. In this context, it is necessary to segmentation criteria based on sociodemo-
differentiate and develop creative, exciting graphic (age, gender, income, education,
and memorable cultural experiences in and family status), geographic (distance)
order to satisfy the needs, desires and ex- and psychographic factors (interests and
pectations of all involved stakeholders. If opinions, social class, family life cycle).
we look to marketing principles, the basic Segments should be distinct, identifiable,
premise is that a company should identify reachable and suitable in size (Frank,
what the market and stakeholders want Massy & Wind, 1972; Wedel & Kamakura,
and then look to satisfy these needs. 1998). For Kotler and Scheff (1997), each
The primary goal of marketing in the segment should be mutually exclusive, ex-
arts is to attract an appropriate number of haustive, measurable, substantial and ac-
participants. To accomplish this, cultural cessible.
managers must consider market segmenta- Each segmentation approach can be
tion, targeting and positioning of cultural classified as being an a priori segmentation
products. Proper communication is another (Mazanec, 2000; Dolnicar, 2004; Colbert,
important strategic element in drawing 1994) or an a posteriori segmentation
participants. In this sense, marketing can (Myers & Tauber, 1977; Mazanec, 2000;
be seen as the philosophy of reaching tar- Dolnicar, 2004). An a priori segmentation
geted market segments and producing ma- refers to a situation in which cultural or
jor cultural events consistent with its mis- event program managers are aware of the
sion. segmentation criterion or the segments to
Participants naturally tend to hold dif- which the product is performed. An a pos-
ferent preferences and as such are at- teriori segmentation refers to situations in
tracted to different cultural products. How- which data needs to be analysed at the
ever, it is possible to identify common pref- management level in order to understand
erences among them: some enjoy theatre the market structure before market seg-
while others may prefer dance or music or ments can be identified. Colbert (1994)
opera. Because each participant holds a refers to this approach as “cluster-based
unique set of experiences and perceptions, segmentation”.
more than one product needs to be made According to Kotler and Scheff (1997:
available. This introduces the concept of 95), “the segmentation variables most
segmentation and it’s relevance in cultural commonly used by arts organisations are
event management. demographic and geographical […] Demo-
graphic characteristics play a significant
Literature Review role in identifying current and potential
performing arts attendees”. To segment a
Besides identifying clear objectives, the market, an organisation should combine
selection of target markets is one of the two or more demographic variables. Kotler
most powerful decisions made in the mar- and Scheff (1997) note that education and
keting planning process, that is, “the most income variables are commonly used to
powerful weapon in the marketer’s arsenal segment performing arts attendees. When
Oom do Valle & Mendes 93
we consider other variables in the arts tional strategy in the arts and cultural sec-
segment the market, we provide a richer tors is highlighted by Kotler and Scheff
analysis. Lifestyle segmentation (also (1997: 299) who state that in the “vast ma-
called psychographic segmentation) is also jority of arts marketing strategies, influ-
addressed as important since deep individ- encing behaviour is largely a matter of
ual characteristics impact on individual communication”. Colbert (1994: 175) indi-
behaviour. Once the target market segment cates that it “can educate the consumer
has been identified, organisations need to about a product” while Hill, O’Sullivan and
evaluate segment attractiveness and the O’Sullivan (1998: 180) note that the promo-
current or potential strengths the organisation strategy is especially important when
tion has in serving a particular segment. it’s “aim is to reach not only existing arts
Target markets are generally defined as customers, but to arouse the interest of new
"consisting of a set of buyers, having com- audiences”. Cultural organisations “project
mon needs or characteristics that the or- an image to specialised public as well as to
ganisation decides to serve" (Kotler & the general public. Their image derives
Scheff, 1997: 109). Cultural organisations from consumer perceptions based on others’
can specialise their supply to suit the needs opinions, critics’ reviews, experience, pro-
of a particular group. According to Kotler motional campaigns, and so on” (Colbert,
and Scheff (1997: 114), "an organisation 1994: 174).
should focus on market segments that it The traditional promotion mix includes
has a differential advantage in serving". four major tools: adverting, personal sell-
This represents an important marketing ing, sales promotion and public relations.
decision. Each market segment will re- Sponsorship is one of the most prominent
spond differently to cultural products or to promotional tools in the arts sector. Direct
promotional appeals. A correct targeting marketing comprises a number of promo-
strategy will lead to effectiveness of prod- tional actions that tend to be successful to
uct strategy development and promotion. communicate with the public. The effec-
There is general consensus in the mar- tiveness of any promotional strategy de-
keting literature that satisfaction of con- pends on how well the target audience is
sumer needs and desires is essential. Oliver identified. Although traditional media,
(1997: 13) has defined customer satisfaction such as newspapers, are also used to adver-
as "a judgement that a product or service tise cultural events, their total cost and
feature, or the product or service itself, cost per target customer are relatively high
provided (or is providing) a pleasurable (Berneman & Kasparian, 2003: 40).
level of consumption-related fulfilment". According to Hill et al. (1998) in the arts
Satisfaction results from a subjective or cultural sector, public relations repre-
judgement about whether or not the se- sent a popular promotional tool. However,
lected alternative meets or goes beyond the distribution of printed material such as
expectations. In other words, satisfaction flyers is often a common means. “Since
can be described as a “psychological out- cultural events are sensitive to time and
come” that results from acquiring a product place and by their highly targeted audi-
or a service (MacKay & Crompton, 1990: ences it is important that advertising me-
48). A better understanding of the satisfac- dia could be flexible and reach out to a mo-
tion level with the management process in bile, urban audience” (Berneman & Kas-
the cultural sector is important to ensure parian, 2003: 40). Grossman (1987: 76)
effective product development, pricing, and states that “outdoor media offer such ad-
place and promotional strategies. Satisfied vantages”. Pechmann and Stewart (1990)
individuals are also more likely to share believe that repetition has a positive effect
pleasurable experiences with friends and on advertising recall (cited in Berneman &
relatives (Hallowell, 1996; Pizam, 1994; Kasparian, 2003: 43).
Ross, 1993). From this, it is clear that satis-
faction levels are variables of importance Setting
that provides a posteriori market segmen-
tation. The city of Faro was nominated by the
The importance of adopting a promo- Portuguese Government as the National
Capital of Culture for 2005. Since the pro- national visitors.

ject’s pre-announcement in 2001 until the
end of the event in December 2005, Portu- Study Methods
gal witnessed four governments come into
office together with different political ide- Questionnaire and data
als. This caused instability and disruption
in the organisation, preparation and execu- Data for this study results from a struc-
tion of the project. tured questionnaire containing four sec-
Faro 2005 took place from May to De- tions and carried out until the end of De-
cember in several cities of the Algarve re- cember 2005. Section I refers to questions
gion, with most events occurring in the city regarding the event/the individual per-
of Faro during the summer months. It of- formances. Section II includes questions on
fered a diversified cultural program con- Faro 2005. Section III considers cultural
sisting of 185 different events distributed habits while section IV collects socio-
in eight artistic categories: performing arts, demographic data such as gender, age,
exhibitions, literary work, theatre, dance, marital status, occupation, educational
circus, music and cinema. qualification and nationality. In this study,
The three main objectives of Faro 2005 sections II to IV are explored.
are as follows: (1) to stimulate an inte- The participants of Faro 2005
grated approach of initiatives and invest- represented the target population of the
ments from the private and the public sec- study. The sample was determined as a
tors in order to establish partnerships in function of the number of monthly events
order to create cultural projects that would for the following categories: performing
improve the image of the city and its re- arts, exhibitions, literary work, theatre,
gion; (2) to have a diversified product strat- dance, circus, music and cinema. A multi-
egy in order to target different segments stage sampling method was applied, start-
and different cities of the region; (3) to im- ing with a random selection of 30% of the
prove the value and the reputation of the scheduled events for each month. Once
cultural uniqueness of the region. events were selected, a systematic proce-
Faro 2005 had two major targets: a) the dure was used to identify the individuals
segment of persons who normally attend who would complete the questionnaire.
cultural events and b) a vast segment of Questionnaires were distributed at the
individuals who normally do not consume entrance of the performance venue, thirty
cultural events. The main objective was to minutes prior to the start of the session.
attract local residents to these events. Those distributing the questionnaires iden-
However, since Algarve is one of the most tified themselves and explained the pur-
important Portuguese tourism destina- pose of the study. Questionnaires were col-
tions, Faro 2005 also aimed to reach non- lected at the end.
local residents such as domestic and inter-
Characteristics Distribution of answers

Gender Female: 61.9 %; male: 38.1%
Age 15 – 25: 20.6; 26 – 40: 40.8%; 41 – 65: 29.9%; older than 65:
5.7%; mean = 37.72 years old; standard deviation = 14.33 years
old ; median = 34
Nationality Portuguese: 100%; other: 0%
Educational qualifi- Elementary: 9.2%; Secondary: 23.4%; College: 50.5%; Master or
cation Phd: 16.9%
Marital status Married: 42.8%; single: 48.1%; divorced: 9.1%
Occupation Managerial and professional occupations: 33.4%; associate pro-
fessional and technical: 32.9%; students: 7.4%; sales and cus-
tomer services or administration and secretarial: 13.0%; other:
13.3%
Table 1. Demographic characteristics of the sample
Although a total of 2050 enquiries were ments in the data. In order to identify these
carried out, only 1020 were considered for segments, a cluster analysis was applied.
the purposes of the study, namely those The complementary use of CATPCA and
containing responses to all questions. Table cluster analysis is recommended because
1 reports the characteristics of this re- even though the former technique can evi-
stricted sample. 61.9% of respondents are dence the presence of segments, only a
female, 48.1% are single and 42.8% are cluster analysis can validate and identify
married. All of the respondents are Portu- which case belongs to each segment . Once
guese (87.1%), possess higher qualifications the cluster of respondents was identified,
(67.4%) and hold “managerial and profes- cross-tabulations and chi-square tests were
sional occupations” (33.4%) and “associate applied for profiling purposes. All analyses
professional and technical” (32.9%). Almost were carried out using SPSS 16.
half of the respondents are aged between
26 and 40 years of age (40.8%). Results
Data analysis methods Table 2 shows the distribution of re-

spondents using the five response levels of
For this study, satisfaction levels with the seven variables measuring the satisfac-
Faro 2005 were used as the criteria for tion levels of FARO 2005. As can be ob-
segmentation purposes. Seven variables served, and for all items, a significant pro-
were considered to measure satisfaction, portion of responses can be found in the
namely, the programme of events, original- median category, 3 – not satisfied nor un-
ity, differentiation, notability, organisation, satisfied, which suggests a substantial
promotion of events. These variables were number of respondents feeling indifferent
all measured using a Likert five-point scale for most of the items. Overall, the satisfac-
ranging from 1 – very unsatisfied to 5 – tion categories (4 and 5) have higher
extremely satisfied. weights than the dissatisfaction categories
This study applies two multivariate sta- (1 and 2) (36.05% versus 21.45%, using the
tistical methods to obtain and validate the average percentages shown in the last line
segments of the respondents: categorical of the table), suggesting a positive global
principal components analysis (CATPCA) appreciation of the event.
and cluster analysis. Using CATPCA, the Comparing the average proportion
joint relationship among the seven satisfac- within each response level, two additional
tion attributes is explored. Since these findings should be highlighted. On one
variables are measured using a likert scale, hand, the item that reports higher levels of
they are qualitative (categorical and ordi- satisfaction is the cultural program, fol-
nal) and CATPCA is a multivariate tech- lowed by the item events’ organisation.
nique particularly suitable to analyse cate- These items sum 43.3% and 37.8%, respec-
gorical variables This method explores the tively, in the response levels satisfied and
associations among the categories of the set very satisfied, exceeding the average per-
of qualitative variables, allowing their centages for these response levels. On the
graphical representation in a perceptual other hand, the item that reveals higher
map. Such a map is very useful since it levels of dissatisfaction is the events’ pro-
simplifies the data interpretation: on one motion, representing 33.2% of the response
hand, related variables or categories are levels unsatisfied and very unsatisfied,
depicted as points close together on the surpassing the corresponding average per-
map; on the other hand, the unrelated centages.
categories are represented as points spaced
out on the map.
If variables are related, which was the
case, the perceptual map yielded by the
CATPCA can suggest the existence of seg-
Variables measur- Distribution of answers

ing satisfaction
1 – Very 2 – Un- 3 – Not 4 – Sa- 5–
unsatis- satisfied satisfied tisfied Very TO-
fied nor unsa- satis- TAL
tisfied fied
Cultural program 4,7% 9,9% 42,1% 34,2% 9,1% 100%
Events’ originality 5,0% 15,0% 45,1% 26,2% 8,7% 100%
Events’ differen- 4,7% 15,5% 47,4% 24,8% 7,6% 100%
tiation
Events’ notability 5,0% 18,5% 47,8% 21,7% 7,0% 100%
Events’ organisa- 7,5% 15,2% 39,5% 28,2% 9,6% 100%
tion
Events’ promotion 13,4% 19,8% 34,0% 24,8% 7,9% 100%
Number of events 6,3% 16,5% 42,0% 26,6% 8,7% 100%
Average percent- 100%
ages 6,7% 15,8% 42,6% 26,6% 8,4%
Table 2. Respondents’ distribution by the response levels of the variables measuring satis-
faction
Categorical principal components analysis represents dimension 2. Dimension 1 is the

most important because it accounts for
Before implementing CATPCA, the cor- 68.1% of the total variance. In the map, the
relations between each pair of satisfaction variables are indicated by the lines. Exhibit
items were assessed. All these correlations points represent the categories of variables
(Spearman and Kendall's tau_b) are higher in each line, that is, the five response le-
than 0.4 and are significant at the 0.01 vels. As Figure 1 shows, dimension 1 clear-
level (two-tailed). The Chi-square tests ly separates quarters 1 and 3 (Q1 and Q3)
carried between each pair of variables also from quarters 2 and 4 (Q2 and Q4), that is,
indicate significant dependence relation- the lower response levels in the items (i.e.,
ships between the variables (Chi-square the categories very unsatisfied),
tests: p-value = 0.000). represented on the left-hand side of the
If the satisfaction items are correlated, map, from the higher response levels (i.e.,
the relations among them can be jointly the categories very satisfied), represented
analysed and graphically represented on the right-hand side.
through CATPCA. The satisfaction items In general terms, variables evidence
were considered in CATPCA as ordinal similar geometrical pattern since they are
variables. Since only two eigenvalues were closely represented. This occurs because, as
higher than 1, this method suggests that previously mentioned, variables are strong-
two dimensions should be retained, ac- ly and significantly correlated. However,
counting for 77.7% of the total variance of the map displays two different patterns in
the original data. In both dimensions, the terms of the slope of the lines. For the va-
Cronbach's Alphas exceed 0.5 (they are riables promotion, organisation and array
0.922 and 0.565 in dimension 1 and 2, re- of events, broken lines show a positive
spectively). slope. Lines representing the other va-
Figure 1 is the perceptual map that riables exhibit a negative slope. Dimension
represents the optimal quantifications of 2 captures this diversity, distinguishing
each category or response level. The num- quarters 1 and 2 from quarters 3 and 4.
bers along the lines indicate the response Thus, high (low) values in dimension 2
categories from 1 (very unsatisfied) to 5 suggest a high (low) satisfaction level in
(extremely satisfied) in terms of each satis- terms of promotion, organisation and num-
faction variable. The horizontal axis indi- ber of events.
cates dimension 1 and the vertical axis
Figure 2 is another output from CAT- A cluster analysis using the Ward’s
PCA that represents the component load- method and the squared Euclidean dis-
ings for each variable in each dimension. tance was carried out in order to validate
This map complements the previous one. these groups and to enable, afterwards,
As can be observed, four satisfaction vari- their profiling. The dendrogram suggests
ables have a similar pattern, reporting three clusters. Next, this solution was con-
loadings around 0.8 in dimension 1 and firmed by the k-means clustering. The re-
loadings around -0.2 in dimension 2. The sulting final cluster centres and number of
other three variables, promotion, organisa- respondents included in each segment are
tion and number of events present a differ- shown in Table 3. These centres were rep-
ent profile, showing a positive loading in resented as small ellipses in the first per-
dimension 2. However, the variable promo- ceptual map produced by CATPCA, and
tion is the one that strongly departs from shown in Figure 3. The centres are clearly
the others. in the middle of the groups suggested by
CATPCA, validating the existence of these
Cluster analysis groups. The centre of segment 1 is depicted
on the right-hand side of the map, the cen-
Figure 1 suggests that three segments of tre of segment 2 appears in the lower left-
respondents can be identified as a result of hand side of the map and the centre of
the relationships among the satisfaction segment 3 is represented in the upper left-
variables. These segments show the follow- hand side. Thus, the segments can be de-
ing features: the right-hand side of the map nominated as “generally more satisfied
suggests a segment including the most sat- respondents” (segment 1), “less satisfied
isfied respondents; on the same horizontal respondents especially in terms of promo-
line on the left-hand side, the map suggests tion and organisation” (segment 2) and
a segment of least satisfied respondents; on “globally less satisfied respondents” (seg-
the left-hand lower side, the map indicates ment 3). Segment 1 represents the greatest
a third segment, namely, respondents par- number of respondents (553 or 54.2%) and
ticularly unsatisfied in terms of promotion. segment 3 represents the smallest number
Dissatisfaction is also verified with organi- of respondents (132 or 12.9%).
sation.
Dimensions from CATPCA Segment 1 Segment 2 Segment 3

“Globally more “Less satisfied “Globally less
satisfied respon- respondents satisfied respon-
dents” especially with dents”
events’ promo-
tion and organi-
sation”
Dimension 1 0,50 -0,37 -1,68
Dimension 2 0,43 -1,07 0,93
Number and percentage of 553 (54.2%) 335 (32.8%) 132 (12.9%)
cases in each cluster
Table 3. Final cluster centres and number of respondents in each cluster
Profiling segments of respondents ise each segment.

Table 4 displays the distribution of re-
In carrying out the analysis, a variable spondent for each segment across the re-
cluster membership was created which sponse levels of satisfaction variables used
identifies which respondent belongs to in CATPCA as segmentation criteria. As
which segment. Next, the variable was expected, significant dependence relation-
compared to other variables also presented ships were reported between cluster mem-
in the questionnaire in order to character- bership and each satisfaction variable (in
the seven chi-square independence tests, p- of satisfaction in the first four items,
value = 0.000). These findings were antici- though less than those found in segment 1.
pated since satisfaction variables were used However, a large proportion of respondents
as the segmentation basis. The percentages in segment 2 indicate high level of dissatis-
in bold represent the segment profile in faction in the items promotion, organisa-
terms of these variables. As anticipated, tion and number of events. Segment 3 dis-
segment 1, representing more than half of plays opposing characteristics than Seg-
the sample, includes the most satisfied ment 1, that is, most respondents in this
respondents for all the items. Most respon- segment report high levels of dissatisfac-
dents in segment 2 also report high levels tion for all items.
Variables used in the CATPCA Segment 1 Segment 2 Segment 3

Satisfaction with cultural program
1 or 2 – Very unsatisfied or unsatisfied 2,4% 11,9% 72,7%
3 – not satisfied nor unsatisfied 40,5% 51,0% 25,8%
4 or 5 – Satisfied or very satisfied 57,1% 37,0% 1,5%
Total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Satisfaction with events’ originality
Total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Satisfaction with events’ differentiation
4 or 5 – Satisfied or very satisfied 37,8 36,4% 0,0%
Total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Satisfaction with events’ notability
Total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Satisfaction with events’ organisation
Total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Satisfaction with events’ promotion
Total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Satisfaction with the number of events
Total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Table 4. Frequency distribution of variables used in the CATPCA in the three clusters solu-
tion
Validity of the solution was checked us- posed to the segmentation algorithm. This
ing additional variables that were not ex- verification is performed by crossing the
variable cluster membership with three and recommend them to others. An oppo-
variables that are indicators of overall sa- site trend characterises members of seg-
tisfaction. These are: overall satisfaction ment 3, i.e., those least satisfied. When
with the Faro 2005 event, intention to par- compared to segments 1 and 2, segment 3
ticipate in similar events in the future and reports the highest values in terms of no
intention to recommend to friends and fam- intention to participate in future or recom-
ily. Table 5 shows these crosstabs with all mend. Segment 2 presents a median profile
showing significant dependence relation- in terms of these variables. Members of this
ships with the variable cluster membership segment also exhibit high levels of overall
(chi-square independence tests: p-value = dissatisfaction or indifference regarding the
0.000). As can be seen, the majority of event (73%), though these values are lower
members of segment 1 are globally satisfied than those reported by members of segment
or very satisfied with the event and around 3.
85% intend to participate in similar events
Overall satisfaction variables Segment 1 Segment 2 Segment 3

Overall satisfaction with the event Faro
2005
1 – very unsatisfied 0,2% 1,7% 22,5%
2 – unsatisfied 1,4% 16,8% 44,2%
4 – satisfied 48,9% 22,9% 3,3%
5 – very satisfied 11,7% 4,0% 0,8%
Total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Do you intend to participate/assist to
similar events in the future?
1 – yes 84,1% 78,4% 61,4
2 – maybe 0,7% 0,0% 1,5
3 – no 15,2% 21,6% 37,1
Total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Would you recommend these events to
friends and family?
1 – yes 85,9 77,7% 49,6%
2 – maybe 1,7 0,9% 3,1%
3 – no 12,5 21,4% 47,3%
Total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Table 5. Frequency distribution of variables assessing overall satisfaction in the three clus-
ters solution
Segments are now described in terms of members in the three segments are statis-
socio-demographic characteristics. In this tically different in terms of gender, educa-
analysis, no significant dependence rela- tional qualification and belonging to cul-
tionships were identified between cluster tural association (chi-square independence
membership and age, occupation, and tests: p-values < 0.032). As table 6 evi-
marital status (chi-square independence dences, members belonging to segments 1
tests: p-value > 0.1). This finding suggests and 2 (the segments exhibiting higher lev-
that respondents in each segment have els of satisfaction) are predominantly fe-
similar characteristics to those reported in male. It is also notable that members of
Table 1 according to these variables. Table segment 2, that is, those that are more
6 shows the socio-demographic variables in critical regarding promotion and organisa-
which segments register significant differ- tion of the event, tend to possess higher
ences. For a 5% significance level or lower, qualifications. In contrast, members of
segment 1 (those most globally satisfied) cultural association. The percentage is also
hold lower qualification level in general. high in segment 2 (35.5%) and lower among
Another relevant finding is that almost half members of segment 1 (28.1%), those most
of members belonging to segment 3, that is, satisfied.
those globally less satisfied, belong to a
Socio-demographic variables Segment 1 Segment 2 Segment 3

Gender
Female 65,2% 62,3% 47,7%
Male 34,8% 37,7% 52,3%
Total 100% 100% 100%
Educational qualification level
Elementary 11,4% 6,6% 6,1%
Secondary 25,4% 19,5% 25,4%
College 48,6% 57,5% 56,2%
Master or Phd 14,6% 16,5% 12,3%
Total 100% 100% 100%
Belonging to cultural association
Yes 28,1% 35,5% 45,2%
No 71,9% 64,5% 54,8%
Total 100% 100% 100%
Table 6. Frequency distribution of socio-demographic variables in the three clusters solu-

tion
In the following analysis, the segments Concerning the main motivation for par-
were profiled in terms of cultural prefer- ticipating in cultural events, and assuming
ences and main motivation to assist to cul- a significance level of 5%, a significant de-
tural events. Results from the chi-square pendence relationship was identified be-
test show a non-significant dependence tween this variable and cluster member-
relationship between cluster membership ship (chi-square independence test: p-value
and cultural preferences (p = 0.301). In all = 0.013). As Table 7 shows, the most com-
segments, music appears as the preferred mon reason for participating in cultural
cultural activity (overall percentage = programs include: enjoyment for this type
36.5%), followed by theatre (26%), movies of event, the artists, recommendation from
(16.4%), dance (14.7%) and other (6.4%). friends and to follow friends or relatives.
Main motive to assist to cultural events Segment 1 Segment 2 Segment 3

Enjoy for this type of event 46,1% 48,9% 37,9%
Enjoy the artists 11,1% 14,5% 12,1%
Friends’ recommendation 11,5% 12,6% 9,7%
To follow friends or relatives 10,3% 9,1% 17,7%
Because in a Faro Capital of culture event 6,5% 6,6% 2,4%
To visit the events’ places 3,6% ,6% 5,6%
Having nothing better to do 2,3% ,9% 4,0%
Critics’ suggestion 1,7% 1,9% ,8%
To find friends 1,0% ,6% 2,4%
Other 5,9% 4,1% 7,3%
Total 100% 100% 100%
Table 7. Frequency distribution of main motive to assist to cultural events
However, while the motives enjoyment for tween these variables is statistically sig-
this type of event and recommendation nificant (chi-square test: p-value = 0.000).
from friends have a stronger weight among Regarding the means of promotion about
members of segments 1 and 2 (those most the events, Table 8 reveals that, globally,
satisfied), the motive to follow friends or friends and relatives are most important
relatives is significantly more important followed by the official program/agenda of
among members of segment 3 (the overall the event, the outdoors and the region’s
least satisfied). It is also within this seg- cultural agenda. Segments also report some
ment that the motives having nothing bet- differences in terms of the importance
ter to do or to visit the places report the given to means of promotion. However, the
highest values (4% and 5.6%, respectively). relationship between cluster membership
A final analysis shows that segments and means of promotion is only significant
are dissimilar in terms of knowledge about at a 7% significance level. Among members
the cultural offer that integrated the Faro of segment 1, the official program/agenda of
2005 event. As Table 8 elucidates, the pro- the event is the most important mean.
portion of respondents within each segment Family and friends have the most relevant
that were aware of the program of events is role among members of segments 2 and 3.
much higher in segment 1 (75.6%), espe- Members of segment 1 are also relatively
cially when compared with this proportion strongly aware of the outdoors and the re-
in segment 3 (56.5%). The relationship be- gion’s cultural agenda.
Main motive to assist to cultural events Segment 1 Segment 2 Segment 3

Did you know the Faro 2005’ pro-
gramme?
Yes 75,6% 65,6% 56,5%
No 24,4% 34,4% 43,5%
Total 100% 100% 100%
Means of promotion
Official program/agenda of the event 31,9% 28,2% 20,3%
Family and friends 30,1% 35,3% 39,8%
Outdoors 10,2% 6,8% 4,7%
Region’s cultural agenda 8,1% 5,2% 9,4%
Social communication 4,2% 5,8% 7,0%
E-mail 3,9% 5,8% 4,7%
Internet 2,9% 3,9% 2,3%
Other 8,7% 9,1% 11,7%
Total 100% 100% 100%
Table 8. Frequency distribution of Faro 2005’ programme awareness and means of promo-
tion
Discussion and Conclusions tainable and the habits and cultural prac-
tices of the local population are respected.
The results obtained in the study are a For this particular case, these consid-
direct consequence of a management proc- erations were not taken into account. A
ess which contained a combination of survey and identification of the habits and
weaknesses, though considered relatively cultural practices of the region were not
successful by having attracted participants, carried out in order to understand the
and make this event an interesting case needs, desires and expectations of the pub-
study. lics of the region. The event was conceived
In the pre-event phase, i.e., the prepara- from a production view and not, as would
tion phase of the event, it is important to have been expected, with a view towards
ensure that the planning process is sus- cultural marketing.
The fact that 54% of the people surveyed The communication process clearly rep-
(segment 1) are globally satisfied with the resented one of the weakest points of the
event is in effect a positive result and, to Faro 2005 event. In effect, and due to the
some extent, rewarding to those working nonexistence of a clear communication
towards the project from the start. strategy and action plan, this hampered
On the other hand, and without meas- the success of the event. Gaps in the pro-
urable objectives, it is difficult to analyze motion of the event and/or incoherencies in
and discuss the impact of decisions made, the strategy of communication used were
as well as strategies implemented. The observed. Segment 2, representing ap-
drawing of new public and the development proximately 1/3 of those surveyed, made
of sustainable cultural projects that look to this observation.
both short and long-term outcomes repre- On the other hand, the project did not
sent two of the most highlighted objectives consider strategies for a communication
during the event. plan nor timings for follow-up assessments.
The management process of new public Also, no concern was given in terms of
assumes the quantification and continuous reaching specific market targets. It is
systematic monitoring of all networks, therefore no surprise that about 55% of
communication programmes, concerns and those surveyed (segment 2) were medially
reactions from current and potential par- satisfied with the organisation and com-
ticipants. This is only possible following a munication aspects of the events.
line of market observation and analysis The fact that 13% of the people surveyed
through a priori and post studies of market (segment 3) were largely dissatisfied with
characterization, segmentation, targeting the event, indicates a discrepancy between
and positioning of events and, with a focus the expectations of participants and the
on the levels of satisfaction and loyalty of assessment made. This group clearly con-
participants. firms that the management process did not
For this specific case, the segmentation take into consideration market knowledge
process emerges during the conclusion or that should have formed part of the study
consolidation (after event) stage, based on analysis in the pre-event stage.
findings presented in this study. Hence, it The initiative taken to collect feedback
is difficult to understand that the targeting in the concluding or consolidation stage of
or positioning of all cultural activi- the event through surveys is regarded as a
ties/initiatives developed throughout this positive element.
project, have been carried out. The results obtained in terms of seg-
Without clear objectives, market knowl- mentation of participants show clearly
edge, habits and practices as well as expec- that, in order for the project to have been
tations in this window of opportunity in managed in a sustainable way, however,
terms of regional and cultural growth, coherent articulation between planning and
event management becomes essentially organizational processes are necessary.
operational management (budget distribu- Following a clear direction and progress
tion, advertisement, etc.). project evaluation based on a strategic view
The planning essentially developed over towards the market, maximises satisfaction
programming work (185 events distributed levels for all involved stakeholders.
over 455 sessions) for the public between One limitation of this study is that data
May and December of 2005. This effort represents 2005 patterns and, therefore,
was, in part, negatively affected by the the reported segments may not be the most
difficulties associated to creation, structur- relevant at this moment. It would be im-
ing and financing process of Faro 2005. portant to repeat this type of research with
However, overall, the objectives established more updated data. However, it provides
were generally achieved and anticipated. event planners with very useful insights
The actual running of the event developed about the profile of segments of publics that
as best possible through team effort and attend cultural events ranging from high
dedication within the programme’s magni- culture to popular culture. As human be-
tude and timeframe. haviour tends to change very slowly, we
consider that these outcomes are still inter-
esting and helpful to those who plan events Mazanec, Josef A.

to residents in a mature tourism destina- 2000 “Market Segmentation”, In Jafari,
tion like the Algarve. Jafar (Ed.): Encyclopedia of Tourism.
London: Routledge.
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www.pasosonline.org
A Model Proposal on the Use of Creative Tourism Experiences in

Congress Tourism and the Congress Marketing Mix
Özen Kırant Yozcui

Orhan İçözii
Yaşar University (Turkey)
Abstract: Congress tourism has a great importance for the extension of the tourism season, enhancement
of employment opportunities and tourism revenues, promotion and efficient use of the facilities in the
area. Creative Tourism provides an authentic feel for a local culture through informal, hands-on work-
shops and creative experiences. Ensuring that the attendants of congress tourism take part in creative
tourism activities may be an example of the synergy to be achieved by including creative tourism in the
congress marketing mix. In this study the tourism marketing mix, programming, packaging, partnership,
people, product, price, promotion, place, are adapted for congress tourism and a model which illustrates
how to use the creative tourism experiences and activities within the marketing mix is proposed.
Keywords: Creative Tourism, Congress Tourism, Congress Marketing Mix.
Resumen: El turismo de congresos tiene una gran importancia para la extensión de la temporada turísti-
ca, el aumento de los ingresos derivados del turismo y las posibilidades de empleo, y para la promoción
y el uso eficiente de las instalaciones en el área. El turismo creativo proporciona una sensación auténtica
de la cultura local a través de talleres informales y prácticos, y de experiencias creativas. Asegurarse de
que los asistentes del turismo del congreso participen en actividades creativas de turismo puede ser un
ejemplo de la sinergia que se puede alcanza incluyendo el turismo creativo en el marketing mix de con-
greso. En este estudio el marketing mix de turismo, programación, empaquetado, colaboración, perso-
nas, producto, precio, promoción, lugar, se adapta para el turismo de congresos y se propone un modelo
que ilustra cómo utilizar las experiencias y las actividades del turismo creativo dentro del marketing
mix.
Palabras clave: Turismo creativo; Turismo de congresos; Marketing mix de congresos.
i
Ph.D.c Instructor in Boğazici University, Istanbul, Turkey. E mail: ozen.kirant@boun.edu.tr.
ii
Professor in Yaşar University, İzmir, Turkey. E-mail: orhan.icoz@yasar.edu.tr.

106 A Model Proposal on the use of Creative Tourism Experiences
Introduction and photography in Canada, folk music in

Mexico and so forth can be some of the ex-
As a reaction to mass tourism, other va- amples (Richards & Wilson, 2006).
rieties of tourism products, such as yacht- Creative tourism offers visitors the op-
ing, cultural, health, and congress tourism portunity to develop their creative potential
are gaining in importance. Besides its sea- through active participation in learning
son-extending effect for businesses and experiences, which are characteristics of
destinations, the importance of congress the holiday destination where they are un-
tourism is gradually increasing in Turkey dertaken. The key point for creative tour-
due to its positive effects on economic, cul- ism, therefore, is that the consumption
tural and social areas. In parallel to con- involved is active rather than passive, and
gress tourism, creative tourism experiences is aimed at developing the potential of the
lead to development in economic, social and individual (Richards, 2001). The major dif-
cultural terms in the destinations where ference between creative spaces, spectacles
they are offered. Creativity allows destina- and creative tourism is that creative tour-
tions to develop innovative products rela- ism depends far more on the active in-
tively rapidly, giving them a competitive volvement of tourists. Creative tourism
advantage over other locations. Creative involves not just spectating, but also a ref-
production attracts enterprises and indi- lexive interaction on the part of tourists
viduals involved in the cultural sector, ge- who are usually thought of as “non produc-
nerating important multiplier effects in the ers” in traditional analyses (Richards &
local economy and raising the aesthetic Wilson, 2007).
value of creative production locations (Ri- Creative tourism can be developed in a
chards, 2001). destination through a commercial business
Richards and Raymond defined “creative model. One of the key features of this mod-
tourism” as, “learning a skill on holiday el requires viewing creative tourism expe-
that is part of the culture of the country or riences as another tourism product. Crea-
community being visited. Creative tourists tive tourism experiences need to compete
develop their creative potential, and get with other products and be available
closer to local people, through informal through tourism marketing channels, using
participation in interactive workshops and the commission structures that other tour-
learning experiences that draw on the cul- ism products also use. Other key features
ture of their holiday destina- should include partnerships with tourism
tions"(http://www.creativetourism.co.nz/ businesses that have an established client
aboutus_ourstory.html). Raymond also base. Such partnerships may be set up with
indicated that interactive workshops that accommodation providers or by including
take place in small groups at tutor’s home workshops in local festivals. (Raymond,
and places of work, allow visitors to explore 2009).
their creativity while getting closer to local In the light of the explanations given
people. (Raymond,2007). These workshops above, this study proposes that creative
usually also include destinations’ values tourism may be considered together with or
such as art, culture, gastronomy and na- as a part of congress tourism. Those atten-
ture. dants and/or delegates who come for a con-
Some of the examples for creative expe- gress may participate in creative tourism
riences in New Zealand include creating activities, thus learning the social and cul-
own bone carving, claying or woodturning tural structure of the destination better.
souvenir, learning to make silver, making a Furthermore the number of days of their
hand-forged knife, meeting wine makers stay may thus increase and they may con-
and making own cheese, or olive oil tribute to the destination’s economy
(http://www.creativetourism.co.nz/index.ht through their extra spending. Those partic-
ml). But every destination has different ipants, who leave satisfied from the desti-
kinds of creative experiences which should nation, may come again and they may also
emphasize its own cultural assets and val- act as a positive reference for potential
ues. Making perfume in France, carving visitors. To achieve this, creative tourism
Yozcu and İçöz 107
experiences should be included in the mar- customer requirements, expectations and

keting mix, in order to positively affect the needs as well as distribution options, estab-
congress’ marketing activities. lish the most appropriate distribution sys-
Therefore, the next section proposes a tem, evaluate the practical options, design
model of integration of creative tourism and apply distribution networks and moni-
activities within the congress marketing tor the performance of the distribution
mix. Furthermore, an interview was car- channels (İçöz 2005). Intermediaries in the
ried out to determine the congress tourism travel distribution mix, i.e. hotel sales rep-
experts’ opinion regarding the applicability resentatives, travel agencies, tour opera-
of the model, from a practical perspective. tors, meeting planners, meeting offices,
internet, incentive planners, destination
A model proposal for the integration of cre- management businesses, must be included
ative tourism within the congress market- in congress tourism, so that the distribu-
ing mix tion mix may be formed. Intermediaries are
provided with information about creative
The eight P’s of Product, Price, Promo- tourism and activities are illustrated
tion, Place, Programming, Packaging, through the model practices. Intermedia-
Partnership, Person, which are the compo- ries tell their customers of such activities
nents of the tourism marketing mix, have and may also organize familiarization trips.
been adapted to congress tourism. Moreo- Thus, intermediary institutions act as a
ver, the mix has been enriched by including bridge to integrate creative tourism within
creative tourism activities and thus a mod- the congress or meeting.
el for “Congress Tourism Marketing Mix” is Demand for tourism destinations may
proposed (refer to Figure 1). display some instability due to some politi-
The basic factor affecting the saleability cal, climatic or economic reasons. If this
of the congress and meeting services is to situation continuously persists, then the
be able to establish an efficient and right destination marketing managers need to
marketing mix. The marketing mix is a make some arrangements in order to bal-
bridge of the relations between the busi- ance demand with supply. During the low
ness and its markets. Kotler (2003:15) de- seasons, creative tourism activities may
fines the marketing mix as, “the set of provide an opportunity to create demand.
marketing tools the firm uses to pursue its Instead of reducing prices in times of low
marketing objectives in the target market”. occupancy, differentiating the product is a
Kotler’s basic marketing concept applied to better alternative. Furthermore, during the
congress tourism focuses on the firms orga- high season, creative tourism activities
nizing the congress and meeting and on may also be used to justify higher prices.
their aim of achieving customer satisfaction As guests look for something different to
by using an appropriate marketing mix. choose from, creative tourism may provide
Market mix refers to the relative ranking of a distinctive advantage and a way to diffe-
business segments for a particular proper- rentiate.
ty, city, and area and is based on common Following the distribution mix, the
segment classifications (Hoyle, Dorf & product and creative tourism experiences
Jones, 1995). The marketing mix is com- should be programmed in relation to the
prised of every factor that influences the target market. This programming stage is
sales effort (Astroff & Abbey, 1988). The followed by the creation of the product mix.
model proposed in Figure 1 aims to incor- In this stage, congress centres and congress
porate creative tourism activities into the hotels, which are the major components of
congress marketing mix. congress tourism, must be evaluated as a
The model begins with the distribution tourism product. Traditionally, a tourism
mix. The distribution mix is evaluated from product may appear in two ways. It may
the viewpoint of congress tourism and crea- relate to the natural, historical and cultur-
tive tourism. As congress hotels and con- al resources a country or area possesses.
gress centres are service businesses, they Secondly, it may include all the services
make use of various distribution channels. that allow consumers to move and have a
However, first of all, one must identify the holiday, that is to say, all of the touristic
Industry Demand for Congress Tourism

 Private Sector Companies
 Associations and Corporate
 Non-profit organizations
Distribution mix
 Hotel sales representatives
 Tour operators
Feedback  Travel agencies
 Public relations departments
 Incentive planners
 Event planners
 Destination management companies
 Internet
Programming
 Target market for congress tourism
 Creative Tourism Workshops &
Feedback Experiences
Creation of Tourism
Feedback Product Mix
Packaging the prices

Pricing with creative tourism
activities
Promotion Mix
 Media  People in Congress
 Advertising Partnership Tourism
 Sales  People in Creative
 Personal Tourism
Sales
Marketing Mix for Con-
gress Tourism with
Feedback Creative Tourism
Consumer Behaviors
and Company Sales
Figure 1. A Model for the Integration of Creative Tourism within the Congress Market-
ing Mix
services that create a package tour (Haciog- gress and meeting services is different from
lu, 1991). mass tourism, congress tourism is a tour-
Even if the principal objective of con- ism product in that it is supplementary to
mass tourism. From the viewpoint of the the effect on the living standards of the
phrase “those businesses serving tourists or inhabitants. In such a way, the basic objec-
people” as indicated in Hacıoğlu’s definition tive of creative tourism, which is sharing
above, congress hotels and congress centres something with the local people, is also
are basically tourism products. According achieved.
to Richards and Raymond, historical, cul- After studying congress centres and
tural and artistic assets of the country or congress hotels as products, the price factor
any area are used within creative tourism, may be analyzed together with creative
which should encompass the culture of the tourism in the context of congress tourism.
destination and its community Typically two factors determine the price.
(http://www.creativetourism.co.nz/). The First, the event manager must determine
activities that may be used for creative the financial philosophy of the event. The
tourism, such as carpet weaving, olive oil second factor is related to the competition
making, soap making, molasses making, from similar events. These two factors - the
pottery, weaving, local embroidery, point cost of doing business and the marketplace
lace, fruit wine making, etc. should also be competition - influence the price.
viewed as a tourism product. However, the (Goldblatt, 1997) Also price plays both eco-
complexity of these products results in the nomic and psychological roles in the service
need to consider and market them in the sector. The psychological role of price is
form of a package. Furthermore, congress seen as essential in services since the con-
participants, planners and organisers must sumer only relies upon price as an indicator
go the place where the service is provided. of quality, when other service quality indi-
Thus, there is an opportunity to enhance cators are not available (Zeithaml, 1988).
the interest of the participants in the cul- In terms of its economic role, price deter-
ture of that area through their involvement mines the income of the business and af-
in creative tourism activities. For instance, fects the profitability (İçöz, 2005). One of
in an excursion to Şirince village organised the factors which makes price important in
for those attendants who come to the prov- terms of marketing is the fact that its effect
ince of İzmir for a congress, the partici- on sales may be monitored more easily
pants join creative tourism activities and than any other marketing component
discover the culture of the region by learn- (İslamoğlu, 2002, as cited by Özer, 2004).
ing how to make wine. Delegate expenditures are even greater
Needs and expectations of the local in the meetings sector (Hoyle et al., 1995).
people, cultural compatibility and touristic Due to their higher income and education
standards are extremely important for the level, congress attendees. are more sensi-
creation of any tourism product. As number tive towards the quality of the service,
of visitors increase, and tourism activities while they also expect a reasonable price.
assume some regularity, local residents will The challenge is to set a price that both
become involved and begin to provide ser- satisfies the consumers and brings profits
vices and facilities primarily or even exclu- to the business. When creative tourism
sively for visitors. Contacts between visi- activities are packaged in the congress or
tors and locals can be expected to remain meeting, the value of the overall product
high and increase for those locals involved may be increased. Therefore, creative tour-
in catering for visitors (Butler, 2006). De- ism activities included may be used to dif-
velopment of a tourism destination depends ferentiate from competitors and enhance
on the sincere desire and goodwill of the preference.
local governments and communities to Leisure time and personal disposable in-
make their living space a developed tour- come factors are different to some extent in
ism destination, and on their adoption of the marketing of congress tourism. This is
differentiation strategies (Olalı & Timur because the congress delegates participate
1988). International and national con- in congress tourism for business purposes
gresses organised at congress centres and and this time is not included in their holi-
congress hotels enhance the quality of the day periods. Furthermore, as their travel
destination. This is due to the high educa- expenses are usually paid by their respec-
tional and cultural level of the visitors and tive companies, their personal incomes are
not affected and this partly reduces the sire to participate (Hoyle, 2002). For in-
effect of price as a factor from the viewpoint stance, a congress organiser may watch,
of the participants. Therefore, those con- practise and record an activity - for exam-
gress attendants who participate in the ple the wine making activity - during the
creative tourism activities included in the inspection trip which is organised at the
programme of a congress are willing to take marketing stage of a congress, and then
part in such endeavours and enjoy them as may present this process to his/her custom-
they do not pay for it themselves. Therefore ers to enhance the preference of the organi-
such activities further enhance the motiva- zation.
tion of the participants. Partnership is also important for con-
In congress centres and congress hotels, gress tourism, which is an integrated in-
a package tour means presenting services, dustry. Without transportation, there is no
accommodation and space (Hoyle et al., point in having a self-contained accommo-
1995) in the form of a package. Transporta- dation facility. The purposes of the most
tion, half-board or full-board accommoda- excellent airports loose their economic val-
tion, some rebates to be used within hotel ue without accommodation facilities. All
premises and coffee breaks are usually corporations as included in the field of
included into such services. Their being partnership with congress centres are po-
economical is pre-eminent among the rea- tential customers for creative tourism.
sons why such services are preferred in the While participants who are coming for a
form of a package. Therefore, creative tour- congress are directly included in the crea-
ism activities are also included in such tive tourism activities, their friends and
package tours. These activities will be part colleagues can be potential customers, if
of the agenda and included in the social they get positive feedback.
program of the congress. Thus, both their People are a vital element of the mar-
promotion and their practicability is en- keting mix. While the importance attached
hanced. to people management in improving the
Entertainment, shopping, excursion, quality within companies is increasing, it
recreation and professional opportunities assumes a much greater importance within
as included in the extra conference oppor- the service sector (Palmer, 1994). Two ma-
tunities are among the factors affecting the jor groups of people can be mentioned in
area choice of congress and meeting organi- service marketing, employees and custom-
sations (Crouch & Louviere 2004). If we ers. Marketing’s main focus is consumers,
define creative tourism as entailing the who must be guided to the services and
tourist’s participation in activities at the must be satisfied through new and differ-
destination, we may also conclude that ent proposals. Most important of all, there
congress tourism often includes creative must be some interdepartmental coopera-
tourism. tion within the business for the satisfaction
Congress hotels and congress centres and repeat purchase of customers. It is the
provide consumers information about their employees who will ensure such coopera-
own respective services and use the com- tion and accomplish this aim. In creative
munication channels to promote their sales. tourism, the people factor has a special
Being components of the marketing mix, importance, as it is a person who will teach
such promotional instruments as advertis- and implement the creative activities and
ing, sales promotion, personal sales, public workshops. Furthermore, interaction with
relations, direct marketing, sponsorship the local community to achieve a mutual
and written communications (Cooper 2005) learning experience is stated as one of the
become especially important in those pe- aims of creative tourism (Richards & Wil-
riods when demand is low. Promotional son, 2006). Therefore the integration of the
activities make the intangible character of community within the congress tourism
congress tourism tangible. In addition, such marketing mix is essential in order to in-
activities may be used together with crea- crease the attractiveness of the product and
tive tourism, thus ensuring a greater atten- ensure that the benefits of tourism are
tion and desirability. Promotion is vital in passed through to the community.
creating awareness of the event and a de- The above model focuses on how creative
tourism activities may be integrated into resentatives of the company to visit the
the congress tourism marketing mix. It has members of the association and distribut-
the merit of pointing to the added value ing promotional booklets, interviewing with
and differentiation capabilities that crea- the person who shall be the workshop in-
tive tourism activities provide at the vari- structor and the head of the association
ous stages of the marketing mix. The fol- about the importance of the congress.
lowing section provides a discussion on its Moreover, an academician, who may lec-
practical applicability, based on an inter- ture on the importance of the use of olive
view with a congress organizer. oil for beauty and health, and an interna-
tional speaker, expert on the topic of
Applicability of the Model “changing and strengthening”, which is the
main theme of the congress, are invited as
In order to get insights into practical well. Furthermore, dressmaking and cake-
aspects of the model, an interview was held making workshops are also organised as
with an organisation company in June part of the social activities of the congress
2009. The specialty of the company is con- within the hotel. In order to do this, the
gress and meetings in the Izmir region, in hotel’s chef and the kitchen area of the
Turkey. The practicability of this model for hotel are used for a workshop. One of the
the marketing mix of an international con- halls of the hotel is prepared as a sewing
gress which the company will be organising area and training is provided under the
in the near future was evaluated, together supervision of the X sewing machine com-
with the general manager of the company. pany, which is a sponsor.
The future congress is organised by an as- At first sight the model looks different
sociation for its members under the theme and hard to organise for the company. Es-
“changing and strengthening”. pecially the workshops must be prepared
The starting point in the development carefully, as they will constitute an impor-
process starts with planning the best sea- tant marketing tool for this congress. How-
son for this congress. Creative tourism ac- ever, after arranging the details of the or-
tivities suitable to the characteristics of the ganization the company was more positive
region are also considered within the con- towards the idea. The general manager
gress. A programme and an offer will give indicated that the social program is very
way to the offering and pricing stages. In important for the participation, so that
this phase, such components as accommo- including creative marketing activities
dation, transfers, operational services, within the congress’ program will make it
guiding, rental of the place chosen for more attractive and increase the willing-
workshops, instructors, etc. are included ness to attend. Furthermore, the possibility
into the price. for profit of the organization is also thought
Due to the fact that the topic of the con- to increase not only because of the more
gress is related to women, an activity con- appealing program, but also because of the
cerning the use of olive oil as the women’s sponsorship capabilities that it provides.
secret of beauty is organised within the So the managers of the company became
social activities of the congress. The partic- generally convinced about the applicability
ipants are offered the opportunity to partic- of the model and its ability to increase the
ipate in the production of soap and shower number of participants and the profit for
gel with the help of an olive oil company the company.
operating in the region. It is also planned The manager interviewed also indicated
that such shower gels and soaps produced that this kind of model can not be used for
shall be offered for sale at the stands to be every congress or meeting. Especially those
erected at the foyer of the congress, and meetings which have an intensive program
that the profit made shall be credited to the can not use this model, as the creative
association. workshops or activities take too much time
The company first organised such pro- to learn and to practice. He also suggested
motional activities as preparing an e- that other target groups, such as spouses,
bulletin, distributing posters to the mem- could be included in the model. While the
bers of the association, using the sales rep- group is having the meeting, their spouses
can attend the workshops. This may in- the mix. The producer and instructor of the
crease the revenue derived from the meet- creative tourism experiences is a person. At
ing, and provide an incentive for partici- the same time, the organisation and suc-
pants to attend with an accompanying per- cess of the congress activities also depend
son. on the people factor, given that tourism is a
The applicability of the model can only labour-intensive sector. The mix is formed
be conclusively evaluated after the meeting after the completion of all these stages and
has taken place. Therefore, the authors sales are planned to be realised, consider-
plan to continue the research with following the consumer behaviours. Feedback is
up interviews. After the company uses the derived from the behaviour of consumers
model, feedback on its effect on the organi- and the company sales. Accordingly, the
zation’s marketing activities will be ob- marketing mix, the product mix, the pro-
tained. gram and the distribution mix are eva-
luated and controlled. The expected results
Conclusions from the model include increasing the
number of participants and enhancing the
The importance of the model is due to motivation of the group.
the considerable demand for a congress and Although the basic objective of congress
meetings from private companies, associa- tourism is formed by meeting organisa-
tions, unions and non-profit organisations. tions, a congress programme does not only
Hotel sales departments, tour operators, consist of meetings. Leisure times of the
travel agencies, DMCs, event planners, meeting or after the meeting, various ani-
which are included in distribution chan- mation or cultural events, shopping, trips,
nels, carry out target market surveys for excursions, etc. are organised. Therefore,
congress tourism and evaluate the incom- congress activities must be compatible with
ing demand. They schedule such demand other types of tourism in terms of time and
according to the seasonal conditions and space. In this context, the combination of
make a proposal for dates. Moreover, de- creative tourism and congress tourism may
pending on the seasonal conditions, crea- occur. Creative tourism experiences are
tive tourism activities are also considered combined with the marketing mix of con-
and decisions are made as to what work- gress tourism, thus making congress tour-
shops and experiences shall be used. Then, ism more efficient.
a product which is suitable for the target Although creative tourism has been dis-
market is identified and the pricing stage cussed for more than a decade, the integra-
commences. During this phase, the product tion of the concept within current frame-
may be priced both as a package or on an works has not been analyzed. In this sense,
individual basis. While pricing a package the current article aims at providing some
tour, the rental for the place where the thought about the fit of creative tourism
creative tourism experiences will be orga- activities within the congress tourism mar-
nised, the instructors for the workshops, keting mix. Furthermore, the study also
the catering services, and the costs of con- identifies the areas where creative tourism
gress tourism activities are included. Once may add value and increase the competi-
the price of the product is fixed, promotion- tiveness of the congress product. In this
al activities start in cooperation with sense the study pointed to the importance
transport companies and catering firms, of creative tourism as a profit enhancing
considering the attractive aspects of the capability for the organization. However,
destination selected. Sales promotion activ- researchers also determine that this form
ities are especially important for the proof tourism may be used to increase the
motion of the creative tourism experiences. learning experience of the tourists. This in
Personal sales and advertising activities turn may result in greater satisfaction,
are used in the marketing of congress tour- while the values and culture of the destina-
ism as well. In the latest periods, congress tion can also be preserved. Therefore, it is
centres are frequently promoted in the me- also important that the topic be analyzed
dia. Finally, the mix is completed with the from the tourists and the local community
people factor, which is the last element of perspectives. Further research needs to be
carried out to understand in more detail Özer, Özer

how effective creative tourism activities are 2004 Ziyaretçilerin Tatil Yeri Tercihinde,
to accomplish these objectives. Pazarlama Karması Bileşenlerinin Rolü,
Dalyan Örneği. Unpublished Master
Thesis, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Sosyal
References Bilimler Enstitüsü, İzmir.
Palmer, Adrian
Astroff, Milton T. & Abbey, James R. 1994 Principles of Service Marketing.
1988 Convention Sales and Service. USA: Berkshire, England: McGraw-Hill Book
Waterbury Press. Company.
Butler, Richard W. Richards, Greg
2006 “The Concept of a Tourist Area Cycle 2001 “The Experience Industry and the
of Evolution: Implications for Manage- Creation of Attractions”. In Richards
ment of Resources”. In Richard W.Butler Greg (Ed.), Cultural Attractions and Eu-
(Ed.): Aspects of Tourism: The Tourism ropean Tourism. USA: CABI Publishing.
Area Life Cycle Applications and Mod- Richards, Greg & Wilson, Julie
ifications. USA: Channel View Publica- 2006 “Developing Creativity in Tourist
tions. Experiences: A Solution to the Serial
Crouch, Geoffrey I. & Louviere, Jordan,J. Reproduction of Culture?” Tourism
2004 “The Determination of Convention Management, 27:1209-1223.
Site Selection: A logistic Choice Model 2007 “The Creative Turn in Regeneration:
from Experimental Data”. Journal of Creative Spaces, Spectacles and Tour-
Travel Research, 43(2):118–130. ism in cities”. In Melanie K. Smith (Ed.):
Cooper, Chris, Fletcher, John, Fyall, Alan, Tourism, Culture & Regeneration. USA:
Gilbert, David & Wanhill, Stephen CABI Publishing.
2005 Tourism Principles and Practice. Raymond, Crispin
England: Prentice Hall. 2007 “Creative Tourism New Zealand: The
Goldblatt, Joe J. Practical Challenges of Developing Cre-
1997 Special Events: Best Practices in ative Tourism”. In Richards, Greg &
Modern Event Management. New York: Wilson, Julie (Eds.): Tourism Creativity
John Wiley & Sons. and Development. New York: Routledge
Hacıoğlu, Necdet Taylor & Francis Group.
1991 Turizm Pazarlaması. Bursa: Uludağ 2009 “The Practical Challanges of Devel-
Üniversitesi Basımevi. oping Creative Tourism”. In Wurzburg-
Hoyle, Leonard H. er, Rebecca, Aageson, Tom, Pattakos,
2002 Event Marketing. New York: John Alex & Pratt, Sabrina (Eds.): Creative
Wiley & Sons. Tourism: A Global Conversation. Sante
Hoyle, Leonard H, Dorf, David C. & Jones, Fe, New Mexico: Sunstone Press.
Thomas J.A. Zeithaml, Valerie A.
1995 Convention Management and Service. 1988 “Consumers Perceptions of Price,
Michigan: Educational Institute Ameri- Guality and Value: A Means-End Model
can Hotel & Motel Association. and Synthesis of Evidence”, Journal of
İçöz, Orhan Marketing, 52(3):2-22.
2005 Hizmet Pazarlaması. Ankara:
Turhan Kitabevi. Websites
İslamoğlu, Hamdi.
2002 Pazarlama İlkeleri. Istanbul: Beta 1.http://www.creativetourism.co.nz/aboutus
Yayım. _ourstory.html (accessed: 25.07.09)
Kotler, Philip
2003 Marketing Management. USA: Pear- Recibido: 15/09/2009
son Education International. Reenviado: 20/12/2009
Olalı, Hasan & Timur, Alp Aceptado: 23/02/2010
1988 Turizm Ekonomisi. Izmir: Ofis Sometido a evaluación por pares anónimos
Ticaret Matbaacılık.
Revista Hospitalidade

http://www.revistas.univerciencia.org/turismo/index.php/hospitalidade
Prezados Pesquisadores
O Programa de Mestrado em Hospitalidade, da Universidade Anhembi Morumbi, tem a

honra de divulgar o lançamento da versão eletrônica da REVISTA HOSPITALIDADE,
disponível Portal de Revistas Científicas em Turismo:
http://www.revistas.univerciencia.org/turismo/index.php/hospitalidade.
A consolidação desta conquista é um esforço conjunto entre o Programa de Mestrado

em Hospitalidade e a ANPTUR - Associação Nacional de Pesquisa e Pós-Graduação em
Turismo, com o apoio do CEDUS - Centro de Estudos em Design de Sistemas Virtuais
Centrado no Usuário da Escola de Comunicações e Artes da Universidade de São Paulo,
responsável pelo desenvolvimento e manutenção desse repositório.
A REVISTA HOSPITALIDADE é uma publicação dedicada à reflexão sobre o tema da

hospitalidade em seus mais diferentes aspectos, contemplando idéias e pesquisas
relacionadas com as áreas de Turismo, Planejamento, Gestão Empresarial, Formação de
Recursos Humanos, Geografia Humana, Gastronomia, Administração e outras áreas
correlatas, objeto de estudo de cursos de pós-graduação Stricto Sensu de todo Brasil e
também do exterior.
Convidamos a todos para acessar os números que já foram publicados, bem como
enviar textos que englobem a temática tratada na revista.
www.pasosonline.org
Tourism and the branded city: film and identity on the Pacific rim.
Stephanie H. Donald and John G. Gammack. Ashgate, Aldershot, England ; Burlington, VT: 2007.
ISBN 978-9978-22-790-9
Burçin Hatipoğlu
burcin.hatipoglu@boun.edu.tr
This book is a part of the series titled derstanding in their book. The reader can
New Directions in Tourism Analysis, by sense the richness offered by multiple dis-
Ashgate Publishing. There is no doubt ciplines through the investigation of the
about the timeliness of the series, as it interrelationships between cinema, tourism
aims to fill a gap of theoretical development and the branded city. In this manner the
in tourism research. As scholars, we can different professional backgrounds of the
not deny the abundance of empirical inves- two authors, one from film and area studies
tigation done in the field of tourism com- and the other from psychology and business
pared to theory development. Tourism and informatics, have become complementary.
the Branded City attempts to fill this gap The book targets scholars across mul-
by introducing us to city branding and ci- tiple disciplines such as cultural research,
nematic cities. The stated aims of the book cinema and media studies (p.7). I believe
are (1) to provide an interdisciplinary theo- tourism marketing professionals and city
retical basis for understanding and criti- planners would also benefit from this book.
quing city branding as a cultural and polit- As the book forces one to read, feel, think
ical phenomenon, and (2) to introduce the and visualize it is very easy to drift away
audience to the practice (p.1). and take long breaks. While reading
The predominant approach of the book through the chapters, I started to question
is its interdisciplinary nature. It is easy to how little Istanbul, the city I live in, is
follow how this is achieved when the story represented in the film industry. I excitedly
of the book is understood. The book was continued to imagine what might develop
developed after a project titled ‘Branding from a collaboration between tourism offi-
Cities on the West Pacific Rim’, by an in- cials and film producers, especially during
terdisciplinary ‘technology and culture’ the European Capital of Culture 2010 cele-
group (p.26). The study for the project has brations. Even though the colorful style of
helped the group to appreciate the differ- the text makes it worth to read the book
ences among disciplines of culture studies, nonstop, the terminology from multiple
psychology, new media studies, electronic disciplines often tires the reader. Therefore,
business and digital technology, and yet as much as the book aids the reader to de-
shown how these can complement each velop new perceptions, it is only recom-
other to make meaning of the world (p.26). mended for the educated reader rather
Later, the two authors that have worked than the average student.
with the group have reflected this new un- The central argument of the authors is

116 Tourism and the branded city: film and identity on the Pacific rim
that the city is more than its solid self. It tended to include more complex types of
has “an image, an idea, a vision, a musical branding such as corporate branding and
score or sound-scape” (p.9). They take place branding (p.51). Examples are pro-
Lynch’s idea of “people make meaning of vided as to how some films have shifted the
space by moving through it” (Lynch, 1960, movement of people into certain cities
cited in Donald & Gammack, 2007: 8) and (p.54) The authors assert that city brand-
add on to it Donald’s idea of “the city space ing is more complex than product and ser-
is also cinematic, literary and musical vices branding and note that it is less con-
space” (Donald, 1999, cited in Donald & trollable (p.58).
Gammack, 2007: 9). Thus, they challenge The studies in the three cities are pre-
the readers to extend their perception of sented in separate chapters. The third
the city from a geographical space to an chapter presents Hong Kong in the period
organic being. For the authors, the city, is of the SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory
more than the sum of its parts and besides Syndrome) epidemic. Firstly, the authors
geographical and environmental features, discuss the elements of their framework.
it includes a character at an imaginative They call it “structures of attention”, build-
level. To understand such a complex struc- ing on Williams’ idea of “structures of feel-
ture and to develop city branding over time ing” (Williams, 1977, cited in Donald &
they suggest the use of historical trajecto- Gammack, 2007: 64). The authors assert
ries, cinema and mapping projects. that visitors and residents experience a city
The book is presented in seven chapters. through “nostalgia, everyday life and aspi-
The introduction chapter explains the justi- ration”, and each needs to be studied to
fication for the theme of the book. The first understand the city branding (p.34).
chapter focuses on describing the metho- Throughout the chapter films are used to
dology of the study. The authors have uti- explore people’s responses to “structures of
lized multiple ways of collecting data in attention”. For instance they cite the series
three global cities of the West Pacific Rim, titled 1.99, nineteen short advertisements
that is Shanghai, Hong Kong and Sydney. promoting the city after the SARS epidem-
The choice of the cities is very good as they ic, that were developed through a collabora-
all have potential cinematic qualities, but tion of the local film makers and the tour-
one can’t stop wondering why the authors ism officials (p.64). The series demonstrate
did not consider Tokyo as part of the group. the local professionals’ attempt to shaping
In exploring the idea of the city in the the city image, hence the branding. In the
minds of the visitors and residents, the chapter’s conclusion, the authors draw our
authors have used “textual analysis, occu- attention to the conflict between what is
pation specific focus groups, extended ad- experienced as residents and visitors in the
ministered questionnaires and location city and what is projected by the media and
based surveys” (p.28). Through their “map- films.
ping conversations” with the occupational The fourth chapter explores Sydney
specialists they have gained insight into from the eyes of the users. The authors
ways of collecting further data (p.27). The suggest that cities have a human element
film professionals directed the authors to and how well this is represented in the
choose new films for analysis and tourism minds of the people will determine a com-
officials and urban planners showed new plete image of the city (p.87). For extracting
paths in the sample cities to explore. Con- the image of Sydney from people’s minds
cept mapping techniques among other the authors have utilized a creative ap-
analysis methods are clearly explained in proach. They have taken Lynch’s idea of
the chapter. Examples are given on how “paths” and “nodes” of a city and asked
the data started to appear on the model short visitors to Sydney to draw their own
through concept mapping (p.36), and how it maps (Lynch, 1960, cited in Donald &
started to make meaning. Gammack, 2007: 91). The authors have
The second chapter introduces the read- shared some of these drawings with the
ers to city branding. The chapter starts readers in the chapter. The practice has
with the history of ‘branding’ and continues shown that the maps had no human ele-
with discussing how the concept has ex- ment, and were more like the two dimen-
Burçin Hatipoğlu 117
sional “flatlands” of Tufte (Tufte, 1990, Shanghai is changing at a very fast pace
cited in Donald & Gammack 2007: 94). The and so is the branding, but the “organic
authors highlight that cities with a strong history” is yet to take place in the branding
cinema representation create stories in of the city.
people’s minds even before their visit, such Chapter seven presents conceptual con-
as New York. In that manner they note clusions based on the previous chapters, by
that even if Sydney is a global city it is evaluating the data introduced. The chap-
highly underrepresented in the film indus- ter summarizes the findings about the
try to tell the true story of the city. three case cities through the lens of the
Among all the other chapters, I found framework “structures of attention”. The
chapter five the most imaginative. Authors chapter concludes with the discussion of
assert that “distinctive colors” have “dis- city branding’s limits and how it might
tinctive branding effects” on city imagery contribute to tourism.
(p.134). Throughout the chapter many ex- In conclusion, Tourism and the Branded
amples are provided on how history, physi- City is a comprehensive study that shows
cal characteristics and culture of the city the potential of city branding. There are
affect the meaning associated with colors. prior studies that consider the projection of
Authors have used online questionnaires to cities on cinema, but this book differs by its
explore the effects of chromatic contours on interdisciplinary methodology and its dis-
the image of a city, besides interviews with cussion of tourism, city and cinema through
film professionals and tourism officials. branding. While the book recommends a
new framework for interpreting the com-
Their analysis showed that respondents
plex nature of the city and the city brand-
primarily associated Sydney with blue,
ing, it is also able to capture a city’s quali-
representing the color of its clear skies and
ties much beyond what other studies offer.
water as well as its young spirit (p.136). The book has displayed that everyday life
Hong Kong was mainly associated with red, and nostalgia are as important as aspira-
representing its vibrancy and energy tions in creating a complete picture of the
(p.137). The association of color with city. Besides actual experience, we have
Shanghai was rather vague varying from seen that films play a significant role in
red to blue to brown. With the focus on creating a city image for the residents and
making comparisons between the city im- visitors. The interdisciplinary methodology
age in the minds of people and how it is of the book is able to include various stake-
projected in the media and films, authors holder views, as it had promised. Overall,
concluded that “Sydney’s tourism market- the book promises to offer a good theoreti-
ing and logos” used rightly blue in their cal framework for further studies.
efforts while blue was not that clearly used
in films yet (p.138, p.139). References
Chapter six starts with comparisons of
Shanghai in the cinema through time. The Donald, James
authors cite Shanghai Express (Sternberg, 1999 Imagining the Modern City. London:
Athlone.
1932), with Marlene Dietrich as the leading
Donald, Stephanie H. & John G. Gammack
actress, to demonstrate how films in the 2007 Tourism and the Branded City: Film
1930s have declared Shanghai’s “superiori- and Identity on the Pacific Rim. Alder-
ty to other cities” and have also induced shot, England ; Burlington, VT: Ash-
long-remembered scenes in the minds of gate.
people (p.142). In comparison, they note Lynch, Kevin
that latest films (90s) do not reflect Shang- 1960 The Image of the City. Cambridge,
hai’s changing character, sort of trying to MA: MIT Press.
forget its recent past. The authors point to Sternberg, Josef von
1932 Shanghai Express. USA.
many inconsistencies about the city. For
Tufte, Edward R.
instance on the one hand “environmental 1990 Envisioning Information. Cheshire,
protection is an officially stated aspiration CT: Graphics Press.
in Shanghai” (p.161), while on the other Williams, Raymond
hand they let the “external city image” to 1977 Marxism and Literature. Oxford: Ox-
rule over these decisions. In conclusion, ford University Press.
Revista Gestión Turística
Publicación académica editada por el Instituto de Turismo de la
Universidad Austral de Chile cuyo objetivo principal es el de contribuir al
desarrollo científico y técnico del turismo, a través de la divulgación de
trabajos académicos y de investigación que se realizan particularmente
en centros de investigación y educación superior de Chile e
Hispanoamérica.
http://www.gestionturistica.cl
Unidad de Investigación y Desarrollo en Turismo, unidad investigativa

dependiente del Instituto de Turismo, cuya misión es contribuir mediante
la investigación aplicada al desarrollo turístico de la región.
La unidad de I+D cuenta con una biblioteca virtual, plataforma de
información para académicos, investigadores y estudiantes, cuenta con
la más completa base de datos de carreras de turismo de iberoamerica,
enlace a las principales revistas científicas de turismo de habla hispanas y
portuguesa, principales tesis doctorales, de maestrías y licenciaturas en
formato digital.
Mail gestionturistica@uach.cl
Casa 15 · Campus Isla Teja · Valdivia · Chile

· Fono: +56 (63) 211158 · turismo@uach.cl
www.pasosonline.org
Environment and tourism.

Andrew Holden. Routledge, Introductions to Environmental Series, Taylor and Francis Group, 2nd. Edi-
tion: 2009.
ISBN 10:0-415-39955-6
Dilek Ünalan
unalan@boun.edu.tr
This book forms part of a series pro- through the influence of industrialization
duced on the ‘environment and society’ and urbanization, and the trends towards a
which particularly emphasizes interactions mass participation in tourism, by using
between the environment and tourism. examples, given in boxes, from different
This second edition includes two new chap- countries.
ters: one on climate change and natural The book highlights tourism as a sys-
disasters; and the other on the relationship tem. Economic opportunities, and changes
between tourism and poverty. Also, it re- to the cultural and physical environments
flects the changes in the relationship be- of destinations are discussed as the outputs
tween tourism, society and poverty. The of the tourism system. The Chapter ends
complexity in the relationships between with a summary, a suggestion for further
environment and tourism is investigated reading and relevant websites.
through a holistic approach and multidis- Chapter 2 starts with the examination
ciplinary perspective. Cultural, political, of the meaning of the term ‘environment’. It
economic and social aspects are considered questions how humans view the environ-
as environmental components, as well as ment and their relationship to it, and how
pure physical environmental aspects, whe- perceptions of landscape changed. It is em-
reas sustainability is regarded as an phasized that the religious and cultural
integral component of tourism policy. The belief systems do play a significant role in
book consists of nine chapters explaining shaping humans’ view and relationships.
complex interactions between tourism and By discussing how tourists perceive and
the environment. A summary of each chap- interact with different environments, the
ter is presented below. Chapter views tourism as a form of ‘conspi-
Chapter 1 introduces definitions and cuous consumption’. It concludes by raising
types of tourism and provides a brief analy- ethical considerations on how the natural
sis of various definitions. Tourism is inter- environment is used for tourism, on who
preted as a high amalgam of different com- are the beneficiaries of tourism and on
ponents and the tourism system, including what are the rights of the environment.
a heightened environmental perspective, is This Chapter also provides a list of books
shown by a figure. The Chapter discusses for further reading.
the growth of contemporary tourism Chapter 3 reviews changing perspec-

120 Environment and tourism
tives on tourism’s relationship with the perspectives on sustainable development

environment. A table showing the relation- and provides a comparison of the dominant
ship between society, environment and world-view and deep ecology in Box 6.2.
tourism is provided by decades starting Then the concept of sustainability in action
from the 1950s. The impacts of tourism is discussed through the contribution of
upon the natural environment are sepa- Box 6.3: Guiding principles of sustainable
rated into two broad categories of negative tourism and Box 6.5: Indicators of sustain-
and positive changes. The Chapter dis- able tourism development. In the final part,
cusses the negative and positive impacts the Chapter introduces three main tradi-
with many examples from different coun- tions of sustainable tourism: ‘resource-
tries. In the conclusion part, it points out based’, ‘activity-based’ and ‘community-
that tourism can have a particularly bene- based’. The Chapter ends with suggestions
ficial role in regeneration of economically for further reading and websites.
depressed urban environments: the nega- Chapter 7 discusses the role of different
tive impacts may be of significant impor- stakeholders in the environmental plan-
tance in combating poverty and aiding hu- ning and management of tourism. It ques-
man development in developing countries. tions the role of government, the power of
This Chapter ends with a suggested read- legislation to establish protected areas and
ing list and websites. the responsibilities for establishing careful-
Chapter 4 focuses on the relationship ly regulated and managed tourism. Exam-
between economics and the natural envi- ples of world heritage sites and land-use
ronment. It touches on the issues such as planning methods -zoning, carrying capaci-
natural environment -with its services for ty analysis- are provided. The role of envi-
society-, economic growth, common pool ronmental impact analysis is highlighted
resources and externalities. It discusses together with its deficiencies. Finally, the
problems with tourism growth and exter- Chapter explains environmental codes of
nalities. The Hardin’s ‘Tragedy of Com- conduct for tourism industry, tourists and
mons’ (1968) is referred to underline the host communities with examples from dif-
conflicts between self interests of humans ferent countries. Further reading and web-
and the environment. The Chapter ques- sites are provided at the end of this Chap-
tions the measures of society’s progress and ter.
concludes that tourism can be used to con- Chapter 8 helps our understanding of
serve the environment using an economic the causes and significance of climate
rationale. At the end of the Chapter, fur- change and the influence of climate change
ther reading and websites are suggested. on tourism. As in the other chapters, vari-
Chapter 5 explains the meaning of po- ous examples are provided to emphasize
verty and its links with environmental de- implications of climate change. Then tour-
gradation. The specific ‘Millennium’ devel- ism’s contribution to climate change, natu-
opment goals and targets of UNDP are ral disasters and tourism and tourism’s
given in Box 5.1. Then the relevance and response to natural disasters are discussed.
limitations of tourism to alleviate poverty The Chapter ends with a summary and
in developing countries are discussed with further reading suggestions.
examples. The Chapter provides a model to The final chapter, Chapter 9, views the
assist our understanding of how tourism growth of green consumerism, and its effect
can aid the reduction of poverty (Figure upon tourism. It focuses on consumer
5.2). The Chapter introduces pro-poor tour- trends and green tourism and then identi-
ism as a significant strategic initiative in fies characteristics of alternative tourism.
using tourism to combat poverty and points Ecotourism is emphasized with its guiding
out problems with the utilization of tourism principles, dimensions and products. In the
to alleviate poverty. Consequently, a list for final part of this chapter, the significant
further reading and websites are sug- lessons of tourism development in the
gested. second half of the twentieth century are
Chapter 6 sheds light on the origins of pointed out and the increasing demand for
sustainable development and meanings of nature-based tourism is highlighted as a
growth/development. It reviews different source of concern and as one of the key
Dilek Ünalan 121
challenges for tourism planners to imple-

ment more sustainable tourism in the fu-
ture.
Environment and Tourism is interesting
to read and has considerable depth as well
as abundance of empirical examples. The
issues touched in this book are pertinent to
all countries. Empirical evidences referred
in the book are helpful to our better under-
standing of the need for a holistic philoso-
phy of society and environmental attitudes.
The addressed tourism development by the
concluding note of this book may provide
opportunities for the natural environments
and societies it interacts with. The book is
an important contribution to the literature
on the interactions between the environ-
ment and tourism and is of particular re-
levance to those interested in environmen-
tal planning, tourism management and
tourism destination development.
Los retos que representa la dinámica situación actual, caracterizada por la globalización de
la economía y del modelo desarrollo devastador de las sociedades occidentales, la democra-
tización de los procesos políticos y las tendencias hacia la participación ciudadana, obligan
a la participación responsable de las instituciones de educación superior para dar alternati-
vas de solución a los problemas así generados.
En este contexto, la Facultad de Turismo de la UAEM tiene el compromiso de formar recur-

sos humanos altamente calificados capaces de reconocer al turismo como fenómeno socioe-
conómico, además de explicar y resolver la problemática derivada de esta actividad, impul-
sando la vinculación docencia-investigación con énfasis en áreas como el ambiente, la ética,
la capacidad de carga de los destinos y la cultura en general, para fortalecer interacción
entre la educación turística y el sector productivo.
En congruencia con lo establecido en los Planes Institucionales, la investigación se consti-

tuye en el eje estructurador del postgrado, que permitirá acceder a la excelencia en el pro-
ceso productivo, a la vez que se apoya la resolución de problemas específicos de las comuni-
dades receptoras del turismo. En este sentido, la investigación tiene un carácter estratégico
por ser generadora y transformadora del conocimiento. Con base en ello, se abrió en 1997 el
programa de Maestría en la facultad, que incluye a la Línea de Investigación en Estudios
Ambientales del Turismo. Se pretende, a través de ella, desarrollar y consolidar una inves-
tigación de calidad, que permita a la Facultad colocarse a la vanguardia de los estudios
sobre el turismo y su vinculación con el ambiente y el desarrollo sustentable. La línea de
investigación pretende abarcar tanto aspectos teóricos como prácticos, y orientarse hacia las
necesidades del sector y de las comunidades de las áreas rurales, de manera que a partir de
se ella, se pudiesen implementar programas de desarrollo turístico con características de
viabilidad natural, económica y social.
En consecuencia, surge el interés por crear un medio de difusión que recopile los avances de
investigación de estudiantes y egresados tanto de la licenciatura como del postgrado en
Turismo, de los distintos organismos académicos de la UAEM e instituciones de nivel supe-
rior en los ámbitos nacional e internacional, además de otros sectores de la sociedad involu-
crados en la temática. La dinámica y el avance en el sector de las comunicaciones, hacen de
los medios virtuales la herramienta más apropiada en la actualidad para la consecución de
este propósito, pues nos permite, de una manera más inmediata, llegar a todos los sectores
interesados en la sustentabilidad con énfasis en el aspecto turístico, con la finalidad de que
realicen sus aportaciones relacionadas a esta nueva tendencia
De esta manera nació "El Periplo Sustentable" revista virtual que esperamos sea una rota-
ción de ideas entre nuestras opiniones y las de nuestros lectores, para tener una estrecha
relación con el significado de periplo que es "un viaje de ida y vuelta". Así, confiamos en que
este sea un espacio para la reflexión y el análisis, pero especialmente para la discusión y la
propuesta sobre el turismo sustentable, así como de temas relacionados con medio ambien-
te, desarrollo y otros que permitan enriquecer la Línea de Investigación en Estudios Am-
bientales del Turismo.
http://www.uaemex.mx/plin/psus/home.html
La revista se encuentra indexada en:
Journal index in:
ISSN 1695-7121
info@pasosonline.org www.pasosonline.org
Revista gratuita de distribución en web
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PASOS

Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural

Special Issue - Número Especial

Instituto Universitario de Ciencias Políticas y Sociales

DIRECTOR: Agustín Santana Talavera Editor adjunto: Eduardo Parra López

Coordinadores Book Review: Vocal: José Pascual Fernández

Luisa Andreu Simó Vocal: Alejandro Alvarado Herrera

CONSEJO CIENTÍFICO ASESOR

© PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural. D.L. TF-2059/2002 ISSN 1695-7121

© PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural. D.L. TF-2059/2002 ISSN 1695-7121

PASOS. Revista de Turismo e Patrimônio Cultural é uma Palavras‐chave: o texto deve conter entre 5 e 7

© PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural. D.L. TF-2059/2002 ISSN 1695-7121

© PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural. D.L. TF-2059/2002 ISSN 1695-7121

Volumen 8, Número 3 Abril 2010

Special Issue / Número Especial

Cities as Creative Spaces for Cultural Tourism

Duygu Salman Rethinking of Cities, Culture and Tourism within a 1

Evinc Dogan Reimaging the City: Istanbul towards Globalization 7

Marian Walker Cities as Creative Spaces for Cultural Tourism: A 17

Ebru Kuzgun Perceptions of Local People Regarding Istanbul as a 27

Paolo Rizzi From Strategic Planning to City Branding: Some 39

Şebnem Gökçen Dündar Rise of Culture and Fall of Planning in Izmir, 51

Elitza Iordanova-Krasteva The Ambiguous Image of Linz: Linz09 – European 67

Hulya Kurgun The Effect of Country Based Image in Accurance of 79

Patricia Oom do Valle Sustainable Cultural Events Based on Marketing 91

Dilek Ünalan Environment and tourism (Andrew Holden) 119

© PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural. D.L. TF-2059/2002 ISSN 1695-7121

Tenerife (Islas Canarias), 17, 18 y 19 noviembre 2010

Escuela Universitaria de Ciencias Empresariales (Univ. de La Laguna)

NORMAS PARA PRESENTACIÓN DE TRABAJOS:

ACEPTACIÓN: 15 de octubre 2010 ACEPTACIÓN: antes 30 de octubre 2010

Rethinking of Cities, Culture and Tourism

© PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural. ISSN 1695-7121

Richards, Greg and Wilson, Julie

El congreso "Confini mobili. Lengua y cultura en el discurso

Se partirá de una mirada local, dirigida a las nuevas políticas

Reimaging the City: Istanbul towards Globalization and

Keywords: Urban representations; Urban transformation; Identity; Mega-events; Heritage; Tourism.

Palabras clave: Representaciones urbanas; Transformación urbana; Identidad; Mega-eventos; Patrimo-

© PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural. ISSN 1695-7121

Figure 1. Conservation Areas: Fener, Balat, Süleymaniye, Tarlabaşı, and Sulukule

2009). Decentralized and Opportunistic Capital

Cities as Creative Spaces for Cultural Tourism: A Plea for the

Keywords: Cities; Cultural Tourism; History; Images; Identity; Authenticity.

Palabras clave: Ciudades; Turismo de cultura; Historia; Imágenes; Identidad; Autenticidad.

© PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural. ISSN 1695-7121

Introduction First, in imaging and branding cities — or

control that people in the destination area with the image.

motives were inextricably intertwined. inhabitants had to be ‘vindicated’ to a state

ways, for example, as to how tourism prac- Network of Canada. Available at

Hill. Walker, Marian

Perceptions of Local People Regarding Istanbul as a European

Keywords: European; Capital of Culture; Istanbul; City; Local Perceptions.

© PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural. ISSN 1695-7121

Introduction enough to cover all layers of society, or

Demographic Variables Frequency Percentage

Findings dimensions, Culture and European, were

Istanbul has rich exhibitions in the museums .76

Table 2. Factor Analysis of the European Capital of Culture, Cultural Dimension