Alzheimer
Alzheimer
Alzheimer
Pág
1.- Presentación 3
4.- Metodología 7
5.- Contenidos: 12
Está claro que las demencias constituyen una de las grandes amenazas
sociosanitarias para el futuro; lo que obliga a la sociedad y a los responsables
gubernamentales a planificar adecuadamente las actuaciones de los servicios
sanitarios y sociales. Desde una perspectiva clínica, asistimos a un intenso
esfuerzo investigador orientado a satisfacer las necesidades diagnósticas y
terapéuticas de las diferentes clases de demencias, y en especial de la
Enfermedad de Alzheimer que es la de mayor frecuencia. Además en torno al
paciente afecto de demencia, al igual que ocurre con otros problemas que
actualmente quedan dentro del ámbito socio-sanitario, se crea un ambiente que
repercute y orada de forma marcada a la estructura familiar. Estas son las
razones que han impulsado al Servicio Canario de La Salud ha promover la
realización de la “Conferencia de Consenso” sobre demencias y enfermedad de
Alzheimer; la cual ha tenido como producto tangible la edición de esta Guía de
Práctica Clínica.
El promotor.
El Comité de Coordinación.
El Grupo de Revisión Bibliográfica.
Los expertos (profesionales multidisciplinares).
El público (Asociaciones de Familiares de Afectados).
Conferencia de Consenso
Dado que el nivel de acuerdo observado, tanto en cada uno de los grupos
como en el conjunto general, alcanzó un nivel de consenso satisfactorio
(evaluado subjetivamente como superior al 90%), esta Conferencia de Consenso
ha conseguido que la Dirección del Servicio Canario de Salud edite sus
resultados, tras una segunda y definitiva revisión y actualización por parte de
todos los participantes en la misma.
En relación al diagnóstico temprano del deterioro cognitivo hay que señalar que los
trastornos de la memoria y de la orientación temporo-espacial suelen ser los principales
motivos de consulta en las etapas iniciales del deterioro. Sin embargo, los trastornos
conductuales y afectivos, secundarios al deterioro cognitivo suelen ser motivo de
consulta en las fases leves o moderadas de la enfermedad, en las que el cuadro de
demencia puede ser ya objetivado. Estos trastornos del ánimo y la conducta pueden ir
asociados o no a otra sintomatología neurológica según el origen del proceso. Por todo
ello, es importante establecer una estrategia diagnóstica que utilice los instrumentos
adecuados para confirmar o descartar la presencia de deterioro cognitivo como primer
paso en el abordaje de las demencias.
5.3. El diagnóstico se establecerá cuando el paciente cumpla con los criterios del
DSM IV y/o CIE -10 y NINCDS-ADRDA, para un diagnóstico de EA posible,
Atención Primaria
Consulta por Síntomas Sospechosos
de deterioro cognitivo
Hª Clínica
Exploración Sistémica
+
Test del Informador
Test Pfeifer o de Hodkinson
¿ DETERIORO COGNITIVO ?
NO SI
Sospecha de E. Alzheimer
Sospechas de Demencia por otras enfermedades
Nivel Especializado
Diagnóstico Diferencial
Confirmación Diagnóstica
Tratamiento y Control
Atención Primaria
Seguimiento y Control
Cuidado del Cuidador
Fármacos:
C) Calcio-antagonistas - Nimodipino
D) Estrógenos: - Estradiol
E) Antiinflamatorios: - AINES
- Prednisona
F) Antioxidantes: - Vit. E
- Selegilina
Tacrina
Eficacia:
Donepezilo
Eficacia:
Rivastigmina
Metrifonato
FÁRMACOS NO-ANTICOLINESTERÁSICOS:
B) Nootropos y neuroprotectores:
C) Calcio-antagonistas:
D) Estrógenos:
E) Antiinflamatorios:
F) Antioxidantes:
Infecciones respiratorias
Infecciones urinarias
Estreñimiento e impactación fecal
Dolor (fracturas, abdomen agudo, glaucoma,...)
Deshidratación
Fármacos (incorporación de nuevos fármacos, interacciones, cambio
de dosis, privación,...)
Descompensación de una patología previa
Cambios de las rutina
Estado confusional agudo o delirium
1. Fase inicial.
2. Fase de deterioro moderado
3. Fase avanzada o de deterioro grave
Los trastornos afectivos predominan en la fase inicial, junto con los síntomas
cognitivos típicos de la demencia. En fases más evolucionadas son más frecuentes los
trastornos del pensamiento y de la conducta junto con los trastornos del ritmo del
sueño, aunque pueden aparecer en cualquier fase de la enfermedad. En la fase de
deterioro avanzado predominan los síntomas de deterioro físico, como la inmovilidad,
la incontinencia, los trastornos de la alimentación y la desintegración de la
personalidad.
Tratamiento
Los fármacos de elección para el control de los síntomas son los neurolépticos.
De entre los de eficacia probada destacan: el Haloperidol, la Tioridazina y la
Levomepromazina. No hay evidencias de diferencia de eficacia entre los anteriores. La
elección del antipsicótico se debe basar en el riesgo de aparición de efectos
secundarios y las características del paciente. No está justificado mantener el
tratamiento más allá de 4-8 semanas, ya que no está contrastado su uso por periodos
mayores.
DEPRESIÓN
ANSIEDAD
Clometiazol.
Zolpidem.
Zopiclona
Neurolépticos sedantes
Antidepresivos
Benzodiazepinas (de vida media corta)
Introducción
2.- Vagabundeo:
El baño suele ser traumático por varias razones. Una de ellas, que es a su
vez poco tenida en cuenta, es el pudor; por lo que deberemos recomendar
que se busque la manera de favorecer la intimidad. Otra, es que se trata
de una actividad muy compleja, por lo que es aconsejable realizarlo por
etapas: en primer lugar habrá que indicar que acompañe al
familiar/cuidador, una vez allí habrá que indicarle que se vaya quitando la
ropa pieza a pieza, y así hasta terminar el proceso.
Alucinar es ver, sentir, oler u oír algo que no existe, pero que el paciente
percibe como auténticamente real. Este trastorno aparece en las primeras
fases de la enfermedad. Este tipo de sensaciones puede aterrorizar al
enfermo.
10.- Incontinencia
12.- Comunicación
Lo primero que debemos hacer es conectar con él, por lo que se hace
necesario un acercamiento físico con contacto visual. La comunicación
puede establecerse de dos formas:
Hay que resaltar que no sólo comunicamos con nuestras palabras, sino
que también lo hacemos con nuestro cuerpo. Si nos sentimos nerviosos o
cansados, es mejor esperar otro momento para contactar ya que
transmitiremos nuestro malestar. Se hace necesario que coincidan
palabras y actitudes (gritarle "tranquilízate", resultará contradictorio para
él).
MODIFICACIONES AL DOMICILIO
La casa es, por regla general, el lugar donde el enfermo con demencia se
encuentra más confortable. De ahí, la importancia de cuidar con esmero el
hogar, procurando adaptarlo a las necesidades que crea la nueva
situación, intentando con ello:
TERAPIAS BLANDAS
Objetivos:
A quien y cuando:
Taller de Psicomotricidad:
Taller Ocupacional:
Mantener al enfermo ocupado y con una vida lo más ordenada posible ayudará
en gran medida a evitar los trastornos del comportamiento.
El cuidado del paciente supone una gran carga física y emocional para el
familiar. El cuidador está sometido a un desgaste afectivo prolongado en relación
a la evolución de la enfermedad de su ser querido, en el que influye el
desconocimiento de la enfermedad, la aceptación del deterioro que sufre el
paciente y la propia ayuda física prestada, de forma constante, al enfermo.
Los profesionales sanitarios deben tener presente esta condición para realizar, en
el momento oportuno y de forma anticipada, aquellas intervenciones que
disminuyan la carga del familiar. Las actividades básicas recomendadas a los
profesionales para el cuidado de los familiares de demencias, comprenden
aspectos de formación, organización y de relación profesional - familiar.
- ¿ Qué es la enfermedad ?
Deberán despejarse las dudas sobre el carácter hereditario y contagioso de la
enfermedad y explicarse la evolución probable de la misma. Así mismo deberán
ser despejadas las dudas sobre posibles relaciones causales con hábitos
anteriores que puedan haber influido en el desarrollo de la enfermedad.
- ¿ Posibilidades terapéuticas ?
Deberá complementarse la información sobre las expectativas que puedan
suscitar las intervenciones terapéuticas recomendadas por los niveles sanitarios
especializados. Los mensajes de que hasta la actualidad la enfermedad no tiene
cura y de que su evolución es inexorable, habrán de ser transmitidos con
seguridad y sensibilidad, basados en información que pueda ser entendida por
los familiares. Este mensaje anterior debe complementarse con otro algo más
esperanzador relativo a la posibilidad de que pueda retardarse la evolución de la
enfermedad con determinados tratamientos, advirtiendo de que la respuesta a los
mismos no es homogénea. A este respecto es de ayuda facilitar a la familia
- ¿ Complicaciones ?
Las demencias en general y la EA en particular presentan diferentes
complicaciones y síntomas que pueden dificultar la convivencia en el núcleo
familiar. La presencia de los mismos deberán detectarse precozmente; existiendo
tratamientos que pueden corregir los mismos. Debe explicarse lo que significan
los síntomas. En la tabla 1 consta los mensajes claves de la información.
El examen genético es tan sólo una prueba analítica más del protocolo de
estudio del paciente con EA de la que puede prescindirse para el
diagnóstico de certeza.
B) Información
Herencias y legados,
Previsión de tutor o tutores (debido al largo proceso de la enfermedad
suele ser conveniente nombrar más de un tutor, sobre todo si el primero
es mayor, para cubrir el supuesto de la muerte del tutor antes de la
muerte del paciente).
Situación conyugal
Disposición patrimonial
Decisiones médicas sobre actitudes y manejo diagnóstico-terapéutico,
donaciones de órganos, etc..(testamento vital).
El médico debe dirigir al paciente que desea tomar este tipo de decisiones a
otros niveles asistenciales de carácter socio-sanitario en dónde pueda recibir
asesoramiento específico (trabajador social, asociaciones de enfermos, etc.). Es
muy recomendable que se cree un grupo multidisciplinario que desarrolle unas
guías de actuación concreta en estos casos.
Los ensayos clínicos sólo pueden hacerse de acuerdo con el Real Decreto
561/93 de 16 de Abril, por el que se establecen los requisitos para la realización
de ensayos clínicos con medicamentos, y tras la evaluación por los Comités
Eticos de Investigación Clínica acreditados. En estos casos, los Comités han
evaluado la pertinencia, el diseño del estudio, la información que se aporta a la
familia y la confidencialidad de los datos, el beneficio que puedan aportar, y otros
aspectos pertinentes. Siempre que el paciente se encuentre legalmente
incapacitado, será el tutor el que otorgue el consentimiento informado, y sólo tras
la comunicación al Ministerio Fiscal.
Información pertinente.
Los pacientes y sus familiares deben recibir información completa sobre las
prestaciones sociales disponibles. En todo caso, deberían facilitarse las ayudas
domiciliarias, el acceso a centros de apoyo (centros especializados, centros de
día, de hospitalización corta, hospitalización en unidades de cuidados paliativos,
etc.), y la colaboración con organizaciones no gubernamentales, especialmente
en relación con asesoría jurídica y apoyo psicológico y personal.
Ayudas sociales.
Enfermos solos
ANEXO I
Orientación Puntos
Fijación:
Concentración y cálculo:
Memoria de evocación:
Lenguaje y construcción:
35
Puntuación máxima 35
Puntuación < 24 deterioro
7) Déficit cognoscitivo demencia pérdida total de las capacidades verbales (el lenguaje
muy grave grave puede quedar reducido a gritos, gruñidos...)
incontinencia urinaria
necesidad de asistencia en el aseo personal
pérdida de las funciones psicomotoras
con frecuencia se observan signos neurológicos
Fundación ACE Marqués de Sentmenat 35-37, Tel. (93) 430 47 20. Fax (93) 49 35 42 - 08014 BCN
The following coding system is used to indicate the nature of thesupporting evidence in the
summary recommendations and references:
1. American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed
(DSM-IV). Washington, DC, APA, 1994
2. Alexopoulos G, Meyers BS, Young RC, Mattis S, Kakuma T: The course of geriatric depression
with “reversible dementia”: a controlled study. Am J Psychiatry 1993; 150:1693-1699
3. Shergill S, Mullan E, D'Ath P, Katona C: What is the clinical prevalence of Lewy body dementia?
Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1994; 9:907-912
4. Reisberg B, Ferris SH, de Leon MJ, Crook T: The Global Deterioration Scale for assessment of
primary degenerative dementia. Am J Psychiatry 1982; 139:1136-1139
5. Hughes CP, Berg L, Danziger WL, Coben LA, Martin RL: A new clinical scale for the staging of
dementia. Br J Psychiatry 1982; 140:566-572
6. Hebert LE, Scherr PA, Beckett LA, Albert MS, Pilgrim DM, Chown MJ, Funkenstein HH, Evans
DA: Age-specific incidence of Alzheimer's disease in a community population. JAMA 1995;
273:1354-1359
7. Snowdon DA, Greiner LH, Mortimer JA, Riley KP, Greiner PA, Markesbery WR: Brain infarction
and the clinical expression of Alzheimer disease. JAMA 1997; 277:813-817
8. Tatemichi TK, Paik M, Bagiella E, Desmond DW, Stern Y, Sano M, Hauser WA, Mayeux R: Risk
of dementia after stroke in a hospitalized cohort: results of a longitudinal study. Neurology 1994;
44:1885-1891
9. McKeith IG, Fairbairn AF, Perry RH, Thompson P: The clinical diagnosis and misdiagnosis of
senile dementia of Lewy body type (SDLT). Br J Psychiatry 1994; 165:324-332
10. Rabins P, Nicholson M: Acute psychiatric hospitalization for patients with irreversible dementia.
Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1991; 6:209-211
11. Zubenko GS, Rosen J, Sweet RA, Mulsant BH, Rifai AH: Impact of psychiatric hospitalization
on behavioral complications of Alzheimer's disease. Am J Psychiatry 1992; 149:1484-1491
12. NIH Consensus Development Panel on the Differential Diagnosis of Dementing Diseases:
Differential diagnosis of dementing diseases. JAMA 1987; 258:3411-3416
13. Okagaki JF, Alter M, Byrne TN, Daube JR, Franklin G, Frishberg BM, Goldstein ML,
Greenberg MK, Lanska DJ, Mishra S, Odenheimer GL, Paulson G, Pearl RA, Rosenberg JH,
Sila C, Stevens JC: Practice parameter for diagnosis and evaluation of dementia. Neurology
1994; 44:2203-2206
14. Recognition and Initial Assessment of Alzheimer's Disease and Related Dementias: Clinical
Practice Guideline, vol 19. Washington, DC, US Department of Health and Human Services,
Agency for Health Care Policy and Research, 1996
15. American Psychiatric Association: Practice Guideline for Psychiatric Evaluation of Adults. Am J
Psychiatry 1995; 152(Nov suppl):63-80
17. American College of Medical Genetics/American Society of Human Genetics Working Group
on ApoE and Alzheimer's Disease: Statement on use of apolipoprotein E testing for
Alzheimer's disease. JAMA 1995; 274:1627-1629
19. Hussian RA, Brown DC: Use of two-dimensional grid patterns to limit hazardous ambulation in
demented patients. J Gerontol 1987; 42:558-560
20. Namazi KH, Rosner TT, Calkins MP: Visual barriers to prevent ambulatory Alzheimer's patients
from exiting through an emergency door. Gerontologist 1989; 29:699-702
21. Mayer R, Darby SJ: Does a mirror deter wandering in demented older people? Int J Geriatr
Psychiatry 1991; 6:607-609
22. Hunt L, Morris JC, Edwards D, Wilson BA: Driving performance in persons with mild senile
dementia of the Alzheimer type. J Am Geriatr Soc 1993; 41:747-753
23. Friedland RP, Koss E, Kumar A, Gaine S, Metzler D, Haxby J, Moore A: Motor vehicle crashes
in dementia of the Alzheimer type. Ann Neurol 1988; 24:782-786
24. Dubinsky RM, Williamson A, Gray CS, Glatt SL: Driving in Alzheimer's disease. J Am Geriatr
Soc 1992; 40:1112-1116
25. Orachman DA, Swearer JM: Driving and Alzheimer’s idsease; the risk of crashes. Neurology
1993; 43;2448-2456
26. Fitten LJ, Perryman KM, Wilkinson CJ, Little RJ, Burns MM, Pachana N, Mervis JR, Malmgren
R, Siembieda DW, Ganzell S: Alzheimer and vascular dementias and driving: a prospective
road and laboratory study. JAMA 1995; 273:1360-1365
27. Tuokko H, Tallman K, Beatti BL, Cooper P, Weir J: An examination of driving records in a
dementia clinic. J Gerontol 1995; 50:S173-S181
28. Trobe JD, Waller PF, Cook-Flannagan CA, Teshima SM, Bieliauskas LA: Crashes and
violations among drivers with Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 1996; 53:411-416
29. Lucas-Blaustein MJ, Filipp L, Dungan C, Tune L: Driving in patients with dementia. J Am
Geriatr Soc 1988; 36:1087-1091
30. Gilley DW, Wilson RS, Bennett DA, Stebbins GT, Bernard BA, Whalen ME, Fox JH: Cessation
of driving and unsafe motor vehicle operation by dementia patients. Arch Intern Med 1991;
151:941-946
32. O'Neill D, Neubauer K, Boyle M, Gerrard J, Surmon D, Wilcock GK: Dementia and driving. J R
Soc Med 1992; 85:199-202
33. Odenheimer GL, Beaudet M, Jette AM, Albert MS, Grande L, Minaker KL: Performance-based
driving evaluation of the elderly driver: safety, reliability, and validity. J Gerontol 1994;
49(4):M153-M159
34. Adler G, Rottunda SJ, Dysken MW: The driver with dementia: a review of the literature. Am J
Geriatr Psychiatry 1996; 4:110-120
36. Drickamer MA, Lachs MS: Should patients with Alzheimer's disease be told their diagnosis? N
Engl J Med 1992; 326:947-951
37. Stern Y, Tang M-X, Albert MS, Brandt J, Jacobs DM, Bell K, Marder K, Sano M, Devanand D,
Albert SM, Bylsma F, Tsai W-Y: Predicting time to nursing home care and death in individuals
with Alzheimer disease. JAMA 1997; 277:806-812
38. Mace NL, Rabins PV: The Thirty-Six Hour Day: A Family Guide to Caring for Persons With
Alzheimer's Disease, Related Dementing Illness, and Memory Loss in Later Life, 2nd revised
ed. New York, Warner Books, 1992
39. Goate A, Chartier-Harlin MC, Mullan M, Brown J, Crawford F, Fidani L, Giuffra L, Haynes A,
Irving N, James L, Mant R, Newton P, Rooke K, Roques P, Talbot C, Pericak-Vance M,
Roses A, Williamson R, Rossor M, Owen M, Hardy J: Segregation of a missense mutation in
the amyloid precursor protein gene with familial Alzheimer's disease. Nature 1991; 349:704-
706
40. Sherrington R, Rogaev EI, Liang Y, Rogaeva EA, Levesque G, Ikeda M, Chi H, Lin C, Li G,
Holman K, Tsuda T, Mar L, Foncin J-F, Bruni AC, Montesi MP, Sorbi S, Rainero I, Pinessi L,
Nee L, Chumakov I, Po D, Brookes A, Sanseau P, Polinsky RJ, Wasco W, Da Silva HAR, Hai
JL, Pericak-Vance MA, Tanzi RE, Roses AD, Fraser PE, Rommens JM, George-Hyslop PH:
Cloning of a gene bearing missense mutations in early-onset familial Alzheimer's disease.
Nature 1995; 375:754-760
41. Levy-Lahad E, Wasco W, Poorkaj P, Romano DM, Oshima J, Pettingell WH, Yu CE, Jondro
PD, Schmidt SD, Wang K, Crowley AC, Fu YH, Guenette SY, Galas D, Nemens E, Wijsman
EM, Bird TD, Schellenberg GD, Tanzi RE: Candidate gene for the chromosome 1 familial
Alzheimer's disease locus. Science 1995; 269:973-977
42. Strittmatter WJ, Saunders AM, Schmechel D, Pericak-Vance M, Enghild J, Salvesen GS,
Roses AD: Apolipoprotein E: high-avidity binding to ß amyloid and increased frequency of
type 4 allele in late-onset familial Alzheimer's disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1993;
90:1977-1981
43. Saunders AM, Strittmatter WJ, Schmechel D, George-Hyslop PH, Pericak-Vance MA, Joo SH,
Rosi BL, Gusella JF, Crapper-MacLachlan DR, Alberts MJ: Association of apolipoprotein E
allele e4 with late-onset familial and sporadic Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1993; 43:1467-
1472 44. Locke PA, Conneally PM, Tanzi RE, Gusella JF, Haines JL: Apolipoprotein E4 allele
and Alzheimer disease: examination of allelic association and effect on age at onset in both
early- and late-onset cases. Genet Epidemiol 1995; 12:83-92
44. Chiverton P, Caine ED: Education to assist spouses in coping with Alzheimer's disease. J Am
Geriatr Soc 1989; 37:593-598
45. Mittelman MS, Ferris SH, Steinberg G, Shulman E, Mackell JA, Ambinder A, Cohen J: An
intervention that delays institutionalization of Alzheimer's disease patients: treatment of
spouse-caregivers. Gerontologist 1993; 33:730-740
46. Brodaty H, Peters KE: Cost effectiveness of a training program for dementia carers. Int
Psychogeriatr 1991; 3:11-22
48. Gallagher-Thompson D: Direct services and interventions for caregivers: a review and critique
of extant programs and a look ahead to the future, in Family Caregiving: Agenda for the
Future. Edited by Cantor MM. San Francisco, American Society on Aging, 1994, pp 102-122
50. Burdz M, Eaton W, Bond J: Effect of respite care on dementia and nondementia patients and
their caregivers. Psychol Aging 1988; 3:38-42
51. Conlin MM, Caranasos GJ, Davidson RA: Reduction of caregiver stress by respite care: a pilot
study. South Med J 1992; 85:1096-1100
52. Wimo A, Mattsson B, Adolfsson R, Eriksson T, Nelvig A: Dementia day care and its effects on
symptoms and institutionalization-a controlled Swedish study. Scand J Prim Health Care
1993; 11:117-123
53. Overman W Jr, Stoudemire A: Guidelines for legal and financial counseling of Alzheimer's
disease patients and their families. Am J Psychiatry 1988; 145:1495-1500
54. Spar JE, Garb AS: Assessing competency to make a will. Am J Psychiatry 1992; 149:169-174
55. Robinson A, Spencer W, White L: Understanding Difficult Behaviors. Lansing, Mich, Geriatric
Education Center of Michigan, 1988
56. Mintzer JE, Lewis L, Pennypacker L, Simpson W, Bachman D, Wohlreich G, Meeks A, Hunt S,
Sampson R: Behavioral intensive care unit (BICU): a new concept in the management of
acute agitated behavior in elderly demented patients. Gerontologist 1993; 33:801-806
57. Burgio LD, Engel BT, Hawkins AM, McCormick KA, Scheve A, Jones LT: A staff management
system for maintaining improvements in continence with elderly nursing home residents. J
Appl Behav Anal 1990; 23:111-118
58. Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry Committee on Aging: The Psychiatric Treatment of
Alzheimer's Disease: Report 125. New York, Brunner/Mazel, 1988
59. Burnside I, Haight B: Reminiscence and life review: therapeutic interventions for older people.
Nurse Pract 1994; 19(4):55-61
60. Jones GM: Validation therapy: a companion to reality orientation. Can Nurse 1985; 81(3):20-23
61. Feil N: The Feil Method-How to Help Disoriented Old-Old. Cleveland, Edward Feil Productions,
1992
63. Woods P, Ashley J: Simulated presence therapy: using selected memories to manage problem
behaviors in Alzheimer's disease patients. Geriatr Nurs 1995; 16(1):9-14
64. Baines S, Saxby P, Ehlert K: Reality orientation and reminiscence therapy: a controlled cross-
over study of elderly confused people. Br J Psychiatry 1987; 151:222-231
65. Kiernat JM: The use of life review activity with confused nursing home residents. Am J Occup
Ther 1979; 33:306-310
66. Cook J: Reminiscing: how can it help confused nursing home residents? Social Casework
1984; 65:90-93
67. Scanland SG, Emershaw LE: Reality orientation and validation therapy: dementia, depression,
and functional status. J Gerontol Nurs 1993; 19:7-11
69. Tappen RM: The effect of skill training on functional abilities of nursing home residents with
dementia. Res Nurs Health 1994; 17:159-165
70. Hanley IG, McGuire RJ, Boyd WD: Reality orientation and dementia: a controlled trial of two
approaches. Br J Psychiatry 1981; 138:10-14
71. Koh K, Ray R, Lee J, Nair A, Ho T, Ang P: Dementia in elderly patients: can the 3R mental
stimulation programme improve mental status? Age Aging 1994; 23:195-199
72. Johnson CH, McLaren SM, McPherson FM: The comparative effectiveness of three versions of
“classroom” reality orientation. Age Aging 1981; 10:33-35
73. Woods RT: Reality orientation and staff attention: a controlled study. Br J Psychiatry 1979;
134:502-507
74. Brook P, Degun G, Mather M: Reality orientation, a therapy for psychogeriatric patients: a
controlled study. Br J Psychiatry 1975; 127:42-45
75. Greene JG, Timbury GC, Smith R: Reality orientation with elderly patients in the community:
an empirical evaluation. Age Ageing 1983; 12:38-43
76. Reeve W, Ivison D: Use of environmental manipulation and classroom and modified informal
reality orientation with institutionalized, confused elderly patients. Age Ageing 1985; 14:119-
121
77. Williams R, Reeve W, Ivison D, Kavanagh D: Use of environmental manipulation and modified
informal reality orientation with institutionalized, confused, elderly subjects: a replication. Age
Ageing 1987; 16:315-318
78. Gerber GJ, Prince PN, Snider HG, Atchinson K, Dubois L, Kilgour JA: Group activity and
cognitive improvement among patients with Alzheimer's disease. Hosp Community Psychiatry
1991; 42:843-845
79. Baldelli MV, Pirani A, Motta M, Abati E, Mariani E, Manzi V: Effects of reality orientation
therapy on elderly patients in the community. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 1993; 7:211-218
80. Dietch JT, Hewett LJ, Jones S: Adverse effects of reality orientation. J Am Geriatr Soc 1989;
37:974-976
81. Beck C, Heacock P, Mercer S, Thatcher R, Sparkman C: The impact of cognitive skills
remediation training on persons with Alzheimer's disease or mixed dementia. J Geriatr
Psychiatry 1988; 21:73-88
82. Zarit SH, Zarit JM, Reever KE: Memory training for severe memory loss: effects on senile
dementia patients and their families. Gerontologist 1982; 22:373-377
83. Yesavage JA, Westphal J, Rush L: Senile dementia: combined pharmacologic and psychologic
treatment. J Am Geriatr Soc 1981; 29:164-171
84. McEvoy CL, Patterson RL: Behavioral treatment of deficit skills in dementia patients.
Gerontologist 1986; 26:475-478
85. Abraham IL, Reel SJ: Cognitive nursing interventions with long-term care residents: effects on
neurocognitive dimensions. Arch Psychiatr Nurs 1992; 6:356-365
86. Karlsson I, Brane G, Melin E, Nyth AI, Rybo E: Effects of environmental stimulation on
biochemical and psychological variables in dementia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1988; 77:207-213
88. Teri L: Behavioral treatment of depression in patients with dementia. Alzheimer Dis Assoc
Disord 1994; 8(3):66-74
89. Teri L, Logsdon RG: Identifying pleasant activities for Alzheimer's disease patients: the
Pleasant Events Schedule-AD. Gerontologist 1991; 31:124-127
90. Sunderland T, Weingartner H, Cohen RM, Tariot PN, Newhouse PA, Thompson KE, Lawlor
BA, Mueller EA: Low-dose oral lorazepam administration in Alzheimer subjects and age-
matched controls. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1989; 99:129-133
91. Davis KL, Thal LJ, Gamzu ER, Davis CS, Woolson RF, Gracon SI, Drachman DA, Schneider
LS, Whitehouse PJ, Hoover TM, Morris JC, Kawas CH, Knopman DS, Earl NL, Kumar V,
Doody RS, Tacrine Collaborative Study Group: A double-blind, placebo-controlled multicenter
study of tacrine for Alzheimer's disease. N Engl J Med 1992; 327:1253-1259
92. Farlow M, Gracon SI, Hershey LA, Lewis KW, Sadowsky CH, Dolan-Ureno J: A controlled trial
of tacrine in Alzheimer's disease. JAMA 1992; 268:2523-2529
93. Knapp MJ, Knopman DS, Solomon PR, Pendlebury WW, Davis CS, Gracon SI: A 30-week
randomized controlled trial of high-dose tacrine in patients with Alzheimer's disease. JAMA
1994; 271:985-991
95. Foster NL, Petersen RC, Gracon SI, Lewis K, Tacrine 970-6 Study Group: An enriched-
population, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study of tacrine and lecithin in
Alzheimer's disease. Dementia 1996; 7:260-266
97. Rogers SL, Doody R, Mohs R, Friedhoff LT: E2020 produces both clinical global and cognitive
test improvement in patients with mild to moderately severe Alzheimer's disease: results of a
30-week phase III trial (abstract). Neurology 1996; 46:A217
98. Rogers SL, Friedhoff LT, Apter JT, Richter RW, Hartford JT, Walshe TM, Baumel B, Linden
RD, Kinney FC, Doody RS, Borison RL, Ahem GL: The efficacy and safety of donepezil in
patients with Alzheimer's disease: results of a US multicentre, randomized, double-blind,
placebo-controlled trial. Dementia 1996; 7:293-303
99. Rogers SL, Friedhoff LT: Donepezil (E2020) produces long-term clinical improvement in
Alzheimer's disease. Presented at the 4th International Nice/Springfield Symposium on
Advances in Alzheimer Therapy, April 10-14, 1996
100. Watkins PB, Zimmerman HJ, Knapp MJ, Gracon SI, Lewis KW: Hepatotoxic effects of tacrine
administration in patients with Alzheimer's disease. JAMA 1994; 271:992-998
101. Lyketsos CG, Corazzini K, Steele CD, Kraus MF: Guidelines for the use of tacrine in
Alzheimer's disease: clinical application and effectiveness. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci
1996; 8:67-73
102. Halliwell B, Gutteridge JMC: Oxygen radicals in the nervous system. Trends Neurosci 1985;
8:22-26
104. Sano M, Ernesto C, Klauber MR, Schafer K, Woodbury P, Thomas R, Grundman F, Growdon
S, Thal LJ: Rationale and design of a multicenter study of selegiline and a-tocopherol in the
treatment of Alzheimer disease using novel clinical outcomes. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord
1996; 10:132-140
105. Sano M, Ernesto C, Thomas RG, Klauber MR, Schafer K, Grundman M, Woodbury P,
Growdon J, Cotman CW, Pfeiffer E, Schneider LS, Thal LJ: A two-year, double blind
randomized multicenter trial of selegeline and -tocopherol in the treatment of Alzheimer's
disease. N Engl J Med (in press)
106. Kappus H, Diplock AT: Tolerance and safety of vitamin E: a toxicological position report. Free
Radic Biol Med 1992; 13:55-74
107. Tatton WG, Greenwood CE: Rescue of dying neurons: a new action for deprenyl in MPTP
parkinsonism. J Neurosci Res 1991; 30:666-672
108. Mangoni A, Grassi MP, Frattola L, Piolti R, Bassi S, Motta A, Marcone A, Smirne S: Effects of
a MAO-B inhibitor in the treatment of Alzheimer disease. Eur Neurol 1991; 31:100-107;
correction 31:433
109. Burke WJ, Roccaforte WH, Wengel SP, Bayer BL, Ranno AE, Willcockson NK: L-deprenyl in
the treatment of mild dementia of the Alzheimer type: results of a 15-month trial. J Am
Geriatr Soc 1993; 41:1219-1225
110. Burke WJ, Ranno AE, Roccaforte WH, Wengel SP, Bayer BL, Willcockson NK: L-deprenyl in
the treatment of mild dementia of the Alzheimer type: preliminary results. J Am Geriatr Soc
1993; 41:367-370
111. Agnoli A, Martucci N, Fabbrini G, Buckley AE, Fioravanti M: Monoamine oxidase and
dementia: treatment with an inhibitor of MAO-B activity. Dementia 1990; 1:109-114
112. Filip V, Kolibas E, Ceskova E, Hronek J, Novotna D, Novotny V: Selegiline in mild SDAT:
results of a multi-center, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (abstract).
Neuropsychopharmacol 1991
113. Loeb C, Albano C: Selegiline: a new approach to DAT treatment (abstract). Presented at the
European Conference on Parkinson's Disease and Extrapyramidal Disorders, Rome, July
1990
115. Schneider LS, Olin JT: Overview of clinical trials of Hydergine in dementia. Arch Neurol 1994;
51:787-798
116. Tariot PN, Cohen RM, Sunderland T, Newhouse PA, Yount D, Mellow AM, Weingartner H,
Mueller EA, Murphy DL: L-deprenyl in Alzheimer's disease: preliminary evidence for
behavioral change with monoamine oxidase B inhibition. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1987; 44:427-
433
117. Piccinin GL, Finali G, Piccirilli M: Neuropsychological effects of L-deprenyl in Alzheimer's type
dementia. Clin Neuropharmacol 1990; 13:147-163
118. Finali G, Piccirilli M, Oliani C, Piccinin GL: L-deprenyl therapy improves verbal memory in
amnesic Alzheimer patients. Clin Neuropharmacol 1991; 14:523-536
120. Thompson TL II, Filley CM, Mitchell WD, Culig KM, LoVerde M, Byyny RL: Lack of efficacy of
hydergine in patients with Alzheimer's disease. N Engl J Med 1990; 323:445-448; correction
323:691
121. McDonald WM, Krishnan KR: Pharmacologic management of the symptoms of dementia. Am
Fam Physician 1990; 42:123-132
122. Irfan S, Linder L: The effect of dihydrogenated ergot alkaloids in the treatment of geriatric
patients suffering from senile mental deterioration, in XIth International Congress of
Gerontology. Tokyo, SCIMED, 1978, p 142
123. Puxty J: Community screening for dementia and evaluation of treatment, in Proceedings of
the Basel Symposium (CH). Edited by Carlsson A, Kanowski S, Allain H, Spiegel R. Pearl
River, NY, Parthenon Publishing Group, 1989, p 211-230
124. Soni SD, Soni SS: Dihydrogenated alkaloids of ergotoxine in nonhospitalised elderly patients.
Curr Med Res Opin 1975; 3:464-468
125. Thienhaus OJ, Wheeler BG, Simon S, Zemlan FP, Hartford JT: A controlled double-blind
study of high-dose dihydroergotoxine mesylate (Hydergine) in mild dementia. J Am Geriatr
Soc 1987; 35:219-223
131. Breitner JCS, Gau BA, Welsh KA, Plassman BL, McDonald WM, Helm MJ, Anthony JC:
Inverse association of anti-inflammatory treatments and Alzheimer's disease: initial results of
a co-twin control study. Neurology 1994; 44:227-232
133. Rogers J, Kirby LC, Hempelman SR, Berry DL, McGeer PL, Kaszniak AW, Zalinski J, Cofield
M, Mansukhani L, Willson P, Kogan F: Clinical trial of indomethacin in Alzheimer's disease.
Neurology 1993; 43:1609-1611
134. Stewart WF, Kawas C, Corrada M, Metter EJ: Risk of Alzheimer's disease and duration of
NSAID use. Neurology 1997; 48:626-632
135. Aisen PS, Davis KL: Inflammatory mechanisms in Alzheimer's disease: implications for
therapy. Am J Psychiatry 1994; 151:1105-1113
139. Henderson VW, Paganini-Hill A, Emanuel CK, Dunn ME, Buckwalter JG: Estrogen
replacement therapy in older women: comparisons between Alzheimer's disease cases and
nondemented control subjects. Arch Neurol 1994; 51:896-900
140. Tang MX, Jacobs D, Stern Y, Marder K, Schofield P, Gurland B, Andrews H, Mayeux R:
Effect of oestrogen during menopause on risk and age at onset of Alzheimer's disease.
Lancet 1996; 348:429-432
141. Burns A, Murphy D: Protection against Alzheimer's disease? Lancet 1996; 348:420-421
142. Crapper-McLachlan DR, Dalton AJ, Kruck TPA, Bell MY, Smith WL, Kalow W, Andrews DF:
Intramuscular desferrioxamine in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Lancet 1991; 337:1304-
1308; correction 337:1618
143. Cardelli MB, Russell M, Bagne CA, Pomara N: Chelation therapy: unproved modality in the
treatment of Alzheimer-type dementia. J Am Geriatr Soc 1985; 33:548-551
144. Leibovici A, Tariot PN: Agitation associated with dementia: a systematic approach to
treatment. Psychopharmacol Bull 1988; 24:49-53
145. Reisberg B, Borenstein J, Salob SP, Ferris SH, Franssen E, Georgotas A: Behavioral
symptoms in Alzheimer's disease: phenomenology and treatment. J Clin Psychiatry 1987;
48(May suppl):9-15
146. Devanand DP, Sackeim HA, Brown RP, Mayeux R: Psychosis, behavioral disturbance, and
the use of neuroleptics in dementia. Compr Psychiatry 1988; 29:387-401
147. Schneider LS, Pollack VE, Lyness SA: A metaanalysis of controlled trials of neuroleptic
treatment in dementia. J Am Geriatr Soc 1990; 38:553-563
148. Rada RT, Kellner R: Thiothixene in the treatment of geriatric patients with chronic organic
brain syndrome. J Am Geriatr Soc 1976; 24:105-107
150. Sugarman AA, Williams BH, Adlerstein AM: Haloperidol in the psychiatric disorders of old
age. Am J Psychiatry 1964; 120:1190-1192
151. Petrie WM, Ban TA, Berney S, Fujimori M, Guy W, Ragheb M, Wilson WH, Schaffer JD:
Loxapine in psychogeriatrics: a placebo- and standard-controlled clinical investigation. J Clin
Psychopharmacol 1982; 2:122-126
152. Hamilton LD, Bennett JL: The use of trifluoperazine in geriatric patients with chronic brain
syndrome. J Am Geriatr Soc 1962; 10:140-147
153. Hamilton LD, Bennett JL: Acetophenazine for hyperactive geriatric patients. Geriatrics 1962;
17:596-601
156. Friedman JH, Lannon MC: Clozapine in the treatment of psychosis in Parkinson's disease.
Neurology 1989; 39:1219-1221
157. Chacko R, Hurley R, Jankovic J: Clozapine use in diffuse Lewy body disease. J
Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1993; 5:206-208
158. Salzman C, Vaccaro B, Lieff J, Weiner A: Clozapine in older patients with psychosis and
behavioral disturbances. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 1995; 3:26-33
159. Devanand DP, Sackeim HA, Brown RP, Mayeux R: A pilot study of haloperidol treatment of
psychosis and behavioral disturbance in Alzheimer's disease. Arch Neurol 1989; 46:854-857
160. Woerner MG, Alvir JMJ, Kane JM, Saltz BL, Lieberman JA: Neuroleptic treatment of elderly
patients. Psychopharmacol Bull 1995; 31:333-337
161. Jeste DV, Caliguiri MP, Paulsen JS, Heaton RK, Lacro JP, Harris M, Bailey A, Fell RL,
McAdams LA: Risk of tardive dyskinesia in older patients: a prospective longitudinal study of
266 outpatients. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1995; 52:756-765
162. Salzman C: Treatment of the elderly agitated patient. J Clin Psychiatry 1987; 48(May
suppl):19-22
163. Allen RL, Walker Z, D'Ath PJ, Katona CLE: Risperidone for psychotic and behavioural
symptoms in Lewy body dementia (letter). Lancet 1995; 346:185
164. McKeith IG, Ballard CG, Harrison RW: Neuroleptic sensitivity to risperidone in Lewy body
dementia (letter). Lancet 1995; 346:699
165. Gottlieb G, McAllister T, Gur R: Depot neuroleptics in the treatment of behavioral disorders in
patients with Alzheimer's disease. J Am Geriatr Soc 1988; 36:619-621
166. Kirven LE, Montero EF: Comparison of thioridazine and diazepam in the control of
nonpsychotic symptoms associated with senility: double-blind study. J Am Geriatr Soc 1973;
21:546-551
167. Covington J: Alleviating agitation, apprehension and related symptoms in geriatric patients.
South Med J 1975; 68:719-724
168. Stotsky B: Multicenter study comparing thioridazine with diazepam and placebo in elderly
nonpsychotic patients with emotional and behavioral disorders. Clin Ther 1984; 6:546-559
169. Coccaro EF, Kramer E, Zemishlany Z, Thorne A, Rice CM III, Giordani B, Duvvi K, Patel BM,
Torres J, Nora R, Neufeld R, Mohs RC, Davis KL: Pharmacologic treatment of noncognitive
behavioral disturbances in elderly demented patients. Am J Psychiatry 1990; 147:1640-1645
170. Cevera AA: Psychoactive drug therapy in the senile patient: controlled comparison of
thioridazine and diazepam. Psychiatry Digest 1974: pp 15-21
171. Beber CR: Management of behavior in the institutionalized aged. Dis Nerv Syst 1965; 26:591-
595
172. Lemos GP, Clement MA, Nickels E: Effects of diazepam suspension in geriatric patients
hospitalized for psychiatric illnesses. J Am Geriatr Soc 1965; 13:355-359
174. Grad R: Benzodiazepines for insomnia in community-dwelling elderly: a review of benefit and
risk. J Fam Pract 1995; 41:473-481
175. Herings RM, Stricker BH, de Boer A, Bakker A, Sturmans F: Benzodiazepines and the risk of
falling leading to femur fractures: dosage more important than elimination half-life. Arch
Intern Med 1995; 155:1801-1807
176. Ashton H: Guidelines for the rational use of benzodiazepines: when and what to use. Drugs
1994; 48:25-40
177. Gleason RP, Schneider LS: Carbamazepine treatment of agitation in Alzheimer's outpatients
refractory to neuroleptics. J Clin Psychiatry 1990; 51:115-118
179. Tariot PN, Erb R, Leibovici A, Podgorski CA, Cox C, Asnis J, Kolassa J, Irvine C:
Carbamazepine treatment of agitation in nursing home patients with dementia: a preliminary
study. J Am Geriatr Soc 1994; 42:1160-1166
180. Chambers CA, Bain J, Rosbottom R, Ballinger BR, McLaren S: Carbamazepine in senile
dementia and overactivity: a placebo controlled double blind trial. IRCS Med Sci 1982;
10:505-506
181. Lott AD, McElroy SL, Keys MA: Valproate in the treatment of behavioral agitation in elderly
patients with dementia. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1995; 7:314-319
182. Mellow AM, Solano-Lopez C, Davis S: Sodium valproate in the treatment of behavioral
disturbance in dementia. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 1993; 6:205-209
183. American Psychiatric Association: Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients With
Bipolar Disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1994; 151 (Dec suppl)
184. Risse SC, Barnes R: Pharmacologic treatment of agitation associated with dementia. J Am
Geriatr Soc 1986; 34:368-376
185. Kunik ME, Yudofsky SC, Silver JM, Hales RE: Pharmacologic approach to management of
agitation associated with dementia. J Clin Psychiatry 1994; 55(Feb suppl):13-17
186. Simpson DM, Foster D: Improvement in organically disturbed behavior with trazodone
treatment. J Clin Psychiatry 1986; 47:191-193
187. Nair NP, Ban TA, Hontela S, Clarke R: Trazodone in the treatment of organic brain
syndromes, with special reference to psychogeriatrics. Curr Ther Res 1973; 15:769-775
188. Houlihan DJ, Mulsant BH, Sweet RA, Rifai AH, Pasternak R, Rosen J, Zubenko GS: A
naturalistic study of trazodone in the treatment of behavioral complications of dementia. Am
J Geriatr Psychiatry 1994; 2:78-85
189. Lebert F, Pasquier F, Petit H: Behavioral effects of trazodone in Alzheimer's disease. J Clin
Psychiatry 1994; 55:536-538
190. Sultzer D, Gray KF, Gunay I, Berisford MA, Mahler ME: A double-blind comparison of
trazodone and haloperidol for treatment of agitation in patients with dementia. Am J Geriatr
Psychiatry 1997; 5:60-69
193. Colenda CC III: Buspirone in treatment of agitated demented patient (letter). Lancet 1988;
1:1169; correction 1988; 2:754
194. Tiller JW, Dakis JA, Shaw JM: Short-term buspirone treatment in disinhibition with dementia
(letter). Lancet 1988; 2:510
195. Sakauye KM, Camp CJ, Ford PA: Effects of buspirone on agitation associated with dementia.
Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 1993; 1:82-84
197. Kyomen H, Nobel K, Wet J: The use of estrogen to decrease aggressive physical behavior in
elderly men with dementia. J Am Geriatr Soc 1991; 39:1110-1112
198. Rich SS, Ovsiew F: Leuprolide acetate for exhibitionism in Huntington's disease. Mov Disord
1994; 9:353-357
199. Weiler PG, Mungas D, Bernick C: Propranolol for the control of disruptive behavior in senile
dementia. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 1988; 1:226-230
200. Reifler BV, Teri L, Raskind M, Veith R, Barnes R, White E, McLean P: Double-blind trial of
imipramine in Alzheimer's disease patients with and without depression. Am J Psychiatry
1989; 146:45-49
201. Passeri M, Cucinotta D, DeMello M, Biziere K: Comparison of minaprine and placebo in the
treatment of Alzheimer's disease and multi-infarct dementia. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1987;
2:97-103
202. Fuchs A, Henke U, Erhart DH, Schell CH, Pramshohler B, Danninger B, Schautzer F: Video
rating analysis of effect of maprotiline in patients with dementia and depression.
Pharmacopsychiatry 1993; 26:37-41
203. Conti L, Fosca RE, Lazzerini F, Morey LC, Ban TA, Santini V, Modafferi A, Postiglione A:
Glycosaminoglycan polysulfate (Ateroid) in old-age dementias: effects upon depressive
symptomatology in geriatric patients. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 1989;
13:977-981
204. Passeri M, Cucinotta D, Abate G, Senin U, Ventura A, Badiale MS, Diana R, La Greca P, Le
Grazie C: Oral 5 methyltetrahydrofolic acid in senile organic mental disorders with
depression: results of a double-blind multicenter study. Aging 1993; 5:63-71
205. NIH Consensus Development Panel on Depression in Late Life: Diagnosis and treatment of
depression in late life. JAMA 1992; 268:1018-1024
206. American Psychiatric Association: Practice Guideline for Major Depressive Disorder in Adults.
Am J Psychiatry 1993; 150 (April suppl)
207. Marin RS, Fogel BS, Hawkins J, Duffy J, Krupp B: Apathy: a treatable syndrome. Clin
Neuroscience 1995; 7(1):23-30
210. Lazarus LW, Moberg PJ, Langsley PR, Lingam VR: Methylphenidate and nortriptyline in the
treatment of poststroke depression: a retrospective comparison. Arch Phys Med Rehabil
1994; 75:403-406
211. Price TR, McAllister TW: Safety and efficacy of ECT in depressed patients with dementia: a
review of clinical experience. Convulsive Ther 1989; 5:1-74
214. Hoch CC, Reynolds CF III, Houck PR: Sleep patterns in Alzheimer, depressed, and healthy
elderly. West J Nurs Res 1988; 10:239-256
215. Strollo P, Rogers R: Obstructive sleep apnea. N Engl J Med 1996; 334:99-104
216. Piccione P, Zorick F, Lutz T, Grissom T, Kramer M, Roth T: The efficacy of triazolam and
chloral hydrate in geriatric insomniacs. J Int Med Res 1980; 8:361-367
217. Linnoila M, Viukari M, Numminen A, Auvinen J: Efficacy and side effects of chloral hydrate
and tryptophan as sleeping aids in psychogeriatric patients. Int Pharmacopsychiatry 1980;
15:124-128
218. Shaw SH, Curson H, Coquelin JP: A double-blind, comparative study of zolpidem and placebo
in the treatment of insomnia in elderly psychiatric in-patients. J Int Med Res 1992; 20:150-
161; correction 20:494
219. Satlin A, Volicer L, Ross V, Herz L, Campbell S: Bright light treatment of behavioral and sleep
disturbances in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Am J Psychiatry 1992; 149:1028-1032
220. Okawa M, Mishima K, Nanami T, Shimizu T, Iijima S, Hishikawa Y, Takahashi K: Vitamin B12
treatment for sleep-wake rhythm disorders. Sleep 1990; 13(1):15-23
221. Mishima K, Okawa M, Hishikawa Y, Hozumi S, Hori H, Takahashi K: Morning bright light
therapy for sleep and behavior disorders in elderly patients with dementia. Acta Psychiatr
Scand 1994; 89:1-7
222. Maurizi CP: The therapeutic potential for tryptophan and melatonin: possible roles in
depression, sleep, Alzheimer's disease and abnormal aging. Med Hypotheses 1990; 31:233-
242
223. Singer C, McArthur A, Hughes R, Sack R, Kaye J, Lewy A: High dose melatonin
administration and sleep in the elderly. Sleep Res 1995; 24A:151
224. Volicer L, Volicer BJ, Hurley AC: Is hospice care appropriate for Alzheimer patients? Caring
1993; 12(11):50-55
225. Volicer L, Hurley AC, Lathi DC, Kowall NW: Measurement of severity in advanced Alzheimer's
disease. J Gerontol 1994; 49(5):M223-M226
226. Levkoff SE, Evans DA, Liptzin B, Wetle T, Reilly C, Pilgrim D, Schor J, Rowe J: Delirium: the
occurrence and persistence of symptoms among elderly hospitalized patients. Arch Intern
Med 1992; 152:334-340
228. Tune L, Carr S, Hoag E, Cooper T: Anticholinergic effects of drugs commonly prescribed for
the elderly: potential means for assessing risk of delirium. Am J Psychiatry 1992; 149:1393-
1394
231. Black RS, Barclay LL, Nolan KA, Thaler HT, Hardiman ST, Blass JP: Pentoxifylline in
cerebrovascular dementia. J Am Geriatr Soc 1992; 40:237-244
232. Rovner BW, Kafonek S, Filipp L, Lucas MJ, Folstein MF: Prevalence of mental illness in a
community nursing home. Am J Psychiatry 1986; 143:1446-1449
234. Dura JR, Stukenberg KW, Kiecolt-Glaser JK: Chronic stress and depressive disorders in older
adults. J Abnorm Psychol 1990; 99:284-290
235. Tariot PN, Podgorski CA, Blazina L, Leibovici A: Mental disorders in the nursing home:
another perspective. Am J Psychiatry 1993; 150:1063-1069
236. Sloane PD, Barrick AL: Improving long-term care for persons with Alzheimer's disease
(editorial). J Am Geriatr Soc 1996; 44:91-92
237. Lawton MP, Brody EM, Saperstein AR: A controlled study of respite service for caregivers of
Alzheimer's patients. Gerontologist 1989; 29:8-16
238. Pynoos J, Regnier V: Improving residential environments for frail elderly: bridging the gap
between theory and application, in The Concept and Measurement of Quality of Life in the
Frail Elderly. Edited by Birren JE, Lubben JE, Rowe JC, Deutchman DE. San Diego,
Academic Press, 1991, pp 91-119
239. Horwitz GJ, Tariot PN, Mead K, Cox C: Discontinuation of antipsychotics in nursing home
patients with dementia. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 1995; 3:290-299
240. Tinetti ME, Liu WL, Marottoli RA, Ginter SF: Mechanical restraint use among residents of
skilled nursing facilities. JAMA 1991; 265:468-471
241. Burton LC, German PS, Rovner BW, Brant LJ: Physical restraint use and cognitive decline
among nursing home residents. J Am Geriatr Soc 1992; 40:811-816
242. Capezuti E, Evans L, Strumpf N, Maislin G: Physical restraint use and falls in nursing home
residents. J Am Geriatr Soc 1996; 44:627-633
1. Bermejo P, Rivera J, Trincado R, et al. Aspectos sociales y familiares del paciente con
demencia. Ediciones Diaz de Santos, Madrid. 1998.
4. Post SG, Whitehouse PJ, Binstoick RH, et al. The clinical introduction of genetic testing for
Alzheimer disease. An ethical perspective. JAMA 277: 832-836. 1997
5. Mirra SS, Heyman MD, McKeel D, et al. The consortium to establish a registry for Alzheimer’s
disease (CERAD). Part II. Standarization of the neuropathologic assessment of Alzheimer’s
disease. Neurology 41: 479-486. 1991
6. American Psychiatric Association. Practice Guideline for the treatment of Patients with
Alzheimer’s Disease and other Dementias of Late Life. Am Psychiat Ass. Washington. 1997.
7. Samall GW, Rabins PV, Barry PP, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of Alzheimer Disease and
related disorders. Consensus statement of the American Association of Geriatric Psychiatry,
the Alzheimer’s Association and the American Geriatrics Society. JAMA 278: 1363-1371.
1997.
8. Pennionx BWJH, Guralnik JM, Ferrucci L, etal. Depressive symptoms and physical decline
in community-dwelling older persons. JAMA 279: 1720-1726. 1998.
10. McConnell LM, Koening BA, Greely HT, Raffin TA, and the Working Group of the
Stanford Programm in Genomics Ethics and Society. Genetic testing and Alzheimer
disease: Has the time come?. Nature Mediucine 4: 757-759. 1998.
11. Jorm AF. Methods of screening for dementia: A meta-analysis of studies comparing an
informant questionary with a brief cognitive test. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 11: 158-162.
1997.
12. McGeer PL, Schulzer M, McGeer EG. Arthritis and anti-inflammatory agents as possible
protective factors for Alzheimer’s disease: a review of 17 epidemiologic studies. Neurology
47: 425-432. 1996.
13. Farrer LA, Cupples LA, Haines JL, et al. Effects of age, sex, and ethnicity on the
association between apolopprotein E genotype and Alzheimerdisease. A meta-analysis.
JAMA 278: 1349-1356. 1997.
14. Martinez M, Campion D, Brice A, et al. Apolipoprotein E 4 allele and familial aggregation of
Alzheimer’s disease. Arch Neurol 55: 810-816. 1998.
15. Cummings JL, Vinters HV, Cole GM, Khachaturian ZS. Alzheimer’s disease. Etiologies,
pathophysiology, cognitive reserve , and treatment opportunities. Neurology 51 (suppl 1) S2-
S17. 1998.
17. Knopman DS, Morris JC. An update on primary drug therapies for Alzheimer disease. Arch
Neurol 54: 1406-1409. 1997.
19. Chui H, Zhang Q. Evaluation of dementia: A systematic study of usefulness of the American
Academy of Neurology’s practice parameters. Neurology 49: 925-935. 1997.
1. Antihypertensive drug therapy in the elderly. Mulrow C, Lau J, Cornell J, Brand M. Date of most
recent substantive amendment : 01 December 1997
2. CDP-choline in the treatment of cognitive and behavioural disturbances associated with chronic
cerebral disorders of the aged. Fioravanti M, Yanagi M. Date of most recent
substantive amendment : 09 January 1998
3. The effect of DHEA supplementation in well-being and cognition. Huppert FA, Van Niekerk JK,
and Herbert J. Date of most recent substantive amendment : 27 May 1998
4. Efficacy of Hydergine for Dementia. Olin J, Schneider L, Novit A, Luczak S. Date of most recent
substantive amendment : 27 May 1998
5. The efficacy of lecithin in the treatment of dementia and cognitive impairment. Higgins JPT,
Flicker L. Date of most recent substantive amendment : 25 May 1998
6. Nimodipine in the treatment of primary degenerative, mixed and vascular dementia. Qizilbash
N, Lopez Arrieta J and Birks J. Date of most recent substantive amendment : 26 May 1997
7. The efficacy of piracetam in patients with dementia or cognitive impairment. Flicker L, Grimley
Evans J. Date of most recent substantive amendment : 25 February 1998
8. Reality Orientation for dementia: a review of the evidence of effectiveness Spector A, Orrell M
Date of most recent substantive amendment : 23 April 1998
10.The efficacy and safety of selegiline for the symptomatic treatment of Alzheimer's disease: a
systematic review of the evidence. Birks J, Flicker L. Date of most recent substantive
amendment : 25 February 1998
11.Support for carers of people with Alzheimer's type dementia. Thompson C, Thompson G. Date
of most recent substantive amendment : 26 May 1998
12.The efficacy of tacrine in Alzheimer's disease. Qizilbash N, Birks J, Lopez Arrieta J, Lewington
S, Szeto S. Date of most recent substantive amendment : 01 March 1997
13.Life skills programmes for chronic mental illnesses. Nicol MM, Robertson L, Connaughton JA
Date of most recent substantive amendment : 27 May 1998
15.Pentoxifylline, propentofylline and pentifylline in acute ischaemic stroke. Bath PMW, Bath FJ,
Asplund K. Date of most recent substantive amendment : 11 June 1996
17.Cholinergic medication for neuroleptic-induced tardive dyskinesia. McGrath JJ, Soares KVS
Date of most recent substantive amendment : 18 February 1997
18.Vinpocetine in acute ischaemic stroke. Bereczki D, Fekete I. Date of most recent substantive
amendment : 01 July 1997
D. Pedro Gil Gregorio Dª. Isabel Erdozain Ruiz Medicina Interna - Hospital
Servicio de Geriatría del Hospital Clínico de San Ntra. Sra. de la Candelaria (Tenerife)
Carlos
(Madrid) D. José Angel Fernández Hernández Médico de
Familia del Centro de Familia. (Tenerife)
D. José Miguel Juan-Togores Veguero
Servicio de Neurología - Complejo Hospitalario Ntra. D. Eugenio Gómez Ontañón Hospital General de
de La Candelaria Asturias Servicio de Neurología II (Santander)
(Tenerife)
D. Pedro Hernández Estévez Centro de Salud
D. José Luis Rodríguez Cubas Laguna - Geneto (Tenerife)
Centro de Especialidades Médicas
(Fuerteventura) D. Jesús Hernández Gallego Serv. Neurología del
Hospital Ntra. Sra. del Pino (Gran Canaria)
D. Angel Julio Santana Santana
Centro de Salud Sta. Mª de Guía D. Domingo de Guzmán Pérez-Hernández Unidad
(Gran Canaria) de Geriatría del Hospital Insular de Lanzarote
(Lanzarote)
TRATAMIENTO FARMACOLÓGICO DE LOS
TRASTORNOS COGNITIVOS D. Sinforiano Rodríguez Moreno Director del
Hospital de San Martín (Gran Canaria)
Dª. Carmen Dolores Acosta Residencia Médica
Dª. Elsa Segura Hernández Médico de Familia del
Asistida - La Garita - Telde (Gran Canaria)
Centro de Salud Escaleritas (Gran Canaria)
D. Román Alberca Serrano Servicio de Neurología -
Hospital Virgen del Rocío (Sevilla) TRATAMIENTO SITOMÁTICO NO FARMACOLÓGICOS
D. Félix Bermejo Pareja Servicio de Neurología del Dª. Carmen Alastuey Jiménez Unidad de Geriatría
Hospital XII de Octubre (Madrid) del Hospital Insular de Lanzarote (Lanzarote)
Dª. Mercé Boada Rovira Servicio de Neurología del D. José Alemán Gómez Hospital de San Martín
Hospital del Valle Hebrón - Fundación ACE (Gran Canaria)
(Barcelona)
D. José Luis Cano Muñoz Hospital Psiquiatrico de Dª. Cristina Rodríguez Reyes Unidad de Medicina
Tenerife (Tenerife) Paliativa del Hospital del Sabinal (Gran Canaria)
D. Lluís Tárraga Mestre Fundación ACE (Barcelona) Dª. Amelia Ruiz Figueroa Presidenta de la
Asociación de Enfermos de Alzheimer (Gran Canaria)
D. Luis Javier Torrecillas Ruiz Enfermero de la
Residencia Mixta de Pensionistas de Taliarte (Gran Dª. Lucía Sánchez Moro Trabajadora Social del
Canaria) Excmo. Ayuntamiento de Santa Cruz de Tenerife
Área de Asuntos Sociales, Unidad de Tercera Edad
Dª. Marta Sánchez Fernández Centro de Atención (Tenerife)
de Minusválidos Psíquicos - La Cuesta (Tenerife)
ASPECTOS ÉTICOS Y LEGALES DE LAS DEMENCIAS