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 Y
SIT
IN
 39015 043 088 742

MANAGUA , NICARAGUA EARTHQUAKE

of

December 23 , 1972

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING RESEARCH INSTITUTE

CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

VOLUME I

Supported in part by the National Science Foundation

Co -sponsored by :
Ministry of Public Works of Nicaragua
American Concrete Institute
American Iron and Steel Institute
American Society of Civil Engineers
Association of Engineering Geologists
Seismological Society of America
Structural Engineers Association of California

November 29 and 30 , 1973

San Francisco , California

 Source
QE
535, 2
•NG
M28
1973

BKS
Published By :

The Earthquake Engineering Research Institute , a

non -profit corporation for the development and
dissemination of knowledge on the problems of
destructive earthquakes.

Copies of this report may be obtained from :

Earthquake Engineering Research Institute
424 - 40th Street
Oakland, California 94609

Cost including mailing and handling:

In United States of America $ 20 .00
Outside of United States of America $ 21.00

Printed by

Techni-Graphics, Inc.
San Francisco, California
 ummuldas
yrg
Prof .Robert D.Hanson
2 -18- 99 CONFERENCE CHAIRMAN
CHRISTOPHER ROJAHN
(U .S .Geological Survey, San Francisco, California )

ARRANGEMENTS COMMITTEE
CHARLES KNUDSON
(U .S .Geological Survey , San Francisco, California )
JULIO VALERA
(Dames & Moore,San Francisco, California )
PETER YANEV
(Bechtel Corporation , San Francisco , California )

PROGRAM COMMITTEE
FILADELFO CHAMORRO
(Structural Engineer,Managua, Nicaragua)
LLOYD CLUFF
(Woodward -Lundgren Associates, Oakland, California )
HENRY DEGENKOLB
(H . J. Degenkolb & Associates, San Francisco , California )
LUIS ESTEVA
(University of Mexico,Mexico City,Mexico )
DONALD MORAN
(Structural Engineer, Ventura, California)
ROBERTOLSON
(Metropolitan Transportation Commission , Berkeley, California )
HUMBERTO PORTA
(Ministry of Public Works,Managua, Nicaragua)
MEHMET SHERIF
(University of Washington, Seattle,Washington )
CHARLES THIEL
(National Science Foundation ,Washington , D .C.)
DON TOCHER
(U .S.Geological Survey,Menlo Park , Calif.)

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING RESEARCH INSTITUTE

President Directors
C .MARTIN DUKE GLEN V . BERG
WALTER A . BRUGGER
Vice President C .MARTIN DUKE
GLEN V . BERG HARESH C . SHAH
Secretary ROLAND L . SHARPE
DON TOCHER
FRANK E .MCCLURE WILLIAM T . WHEELER
Treasurer Special Projects
R .GORDON DEAN DONALD F . MORAN
Newsletter Editor
DAVID J. LEEDS
 SESSIONS & SESSION CHAIRMEN
Seismicity, Geology & Geodesy
BRUCE BOLT
(University of California, Berkeley , California )
Strong Motion Data & Soils Investigations
MEHMET SHERIF
(University ofWashington , Seattle ,Washington )
Structural Aspects
RICHARD WRIGHT
(University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois)
GEORGE HOUSNER
(California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California)
THOMAS ATKINSON
(Whitman , Atkinson & Associates, La Jolla , California )
Utility and Transportation Systems
DON MORAN
(Structural Engineer, Ventura , California)
Socio -Economic Aspects
CHARLES THIEL
(National Science Foundation,Washington, D .C.)

PANEL MEMBERS
C .MARTIN DUKE
(University of California, Los Angeles, California - Chairman )
LLOYD CLUFF
(Woodward-Lundgren Associates, Oakland , California )
HENRY DEGENKOLB
(H . J. Degenkolb & Associates,San Francisco, California )
ROBERTOLSON
(Metropolitan Transportation Commission, Berkeley, California )
ROBERT PHILLIPS
(Los Angeles Dept.of Water & Power, Los Angeles, California)
DON TOCHER
(U .S .Geological Survey ,Menlo Park, California )
FILADELFO CHAMORRO
(Structural Engineer,Managua, Nicaragua)
 PREFACE

The Managua , Nicaragua earthquake of December 23, 1972 had a devastating effect on the capital
city and its inhabitants. A major portion of the city was destroyed , thousands died , thousandswere injured ,
and amultitude were left homeless . The destruction was unprecedented foran earthquake ofmoderate size.
Within a few weeks after the disaster, as part of its continuing effort in the investigation of
earthquakes, the Earthquake Engineering Research Institute (EERI) decided to hold a conference devoted
to the analysis of the effects and impact of theManagua earthquake. The purpose of the conference was
threefold : to coordinate and optimize the reportingof all known investigations; to present the results of all
studies as quickly as possible; and to publish a comprehensive reporton the earthquake. San Francisco was
selected as the conference site because of its potential for attracting a large number of North and Central
Americans and because it was expected thatManagua would not have sufficiently recovered in time to host
the event.

The reports presented in these two volumes are the result of the investigative efforts of a variety of
individuals and organizations including persons from professional practice and government service of
Nicaragua , the U .S . Government, the State of California , universities in Mexico and the U .S ., and U .S .
engineering firms and public utilities. Areas covered by the papers include: the main shock , aftershocks,
geology and seismicity of the area, structural and non -structural damage, effects on transportation and
utility systems, and the socio -economic impact.
The studies constitute a significant advancement in the state -of-the-art of earthquake engineering. In
total they also serve as a compilation of facts and findings to which those persons charged with the
responsibility ofmaking decisions regarding the reconstruction of Managua can refer.
Users of these proceedings may wish to consult a companion EERI publication entitled Managua,
Nicaragua Earthquake of December 23, 1972 Reconnaissance Report. Unlike these volumes which present
in -depth analyses, that report, primarily pictorial in content, gives a broad over-view of the earthquake and
its effects.

The publication of these proceedings was made possible through the financial support of the National
Science Foundation . Special thanks go to members of the program and arrangements committees, the EERI
office staff, and especially C .Martin Duke, President ofEERI, for their efforts in organizing the conference
and publishing the proceedings . The support and cooperation of General A . Somoza , President of the
National Emergency Committee of Nicaragua, and Cristobal Rugama N ., Minister of Public Works of
Nicaragua, are also greatly appreciated as are the coordination efforts of Humberto Porta , Director of the
Instituto Geografico Nacional of Nicaragua, and the aid of Leroy Anstead of the Inter American Geodetic
Survey .

Christopher Rojahn
Conference Chairman
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
VOLUME 1
PREFACE · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · V
IMPACT OF MANAGUA ON EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING
NO .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . I
C . Martin Duke
SEISMICITY ,GEOLOGY & GEODESY
THE SEISMICITY AND GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE
OF THE MANAGUA , NICARAGUA AREA
Pierre Saint-Amand
DESTRUCTIVE EARTHQUAKES UT
OF IVILN
NICARAGUA
UUA .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
26
David J . Leeds
HYDRO -GEOLOGICAL FACTORS IN THE OCCURRENCE OF
THE EARTHQUAKES OF MANAGUA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Carlos Santos
THE MANAGUA EARTHQUAKE OF 23 DECEMBER 1972: LOCATION , FOCAL MECHANISM ,
AFTERSHOCKS, & RELATIONSHIP TO RECENT SEISMICITY OF NICARAGUA . . . . . . 66
J. W . Dewey, S. T. Algermissen, C. Langer, W . Dillinger, and M . Hopper
LOCATION OF THE MAIN FAULT THAT SLIPPED DURING THE MANAGUA EARTHQUAKE
AS DETERMINED FROM LOCATIONS OF SOME AFTERSHOCKS . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Peter L. Ward, David Harlow and James Gibbs
AFTERSHOCK AND INTENSITY OF THE MANAGUA EARTHQUAKE OF 23 DECEMBER 1972 . 97
Tosimatu Matumoto and Gary Latham
ISOSEISMAL MAPS OF THE MANAGUA DECEMBER 23, 1972 EARTHQUAKE . . . . . . . 104
Francisco Hansen A . and Victor M . Chavez
SURFACE GEOLOGIC EFFECTS OF THE
MANAGUA EARTHQUAKE OF DECEMBER 23 , 1972 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
George Plafker and R . D . Brown, Jr.
GEODETIC AND GRAVITY SURVEY OF MANAGUA AND ITS SURROUNDINGS . . . . . . 143
Humberto Porta Caldera
PLAN FOR ZONING MANAGUA,NICARAGUA , TO REDUCE
HAZARDS OF SURFACE FAULTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Robert E . Wallace

STRONG -MOTION DATA & SOILS INVESTIGATIONS

ACCELEROGRAPH AND SEISMOSCOPE RECORDS FROM
MANAGUA , NICARAGUAA EARTHQUAKES
CANTIIQUANDO .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Charles F. Knudson and Francisco Hansen A .
TIME-DEPENDENT SPECTRAL ANALYSIS OF FOUR
MANAGUA EARTHQUAKE RECORDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Virgilio Perez
SOIL CONDITIONS AND LOCAL SOIL EFFECTS DURING THE
MANAGUA EARTHQUAKE OF DECEMBERIVIDLN 23, 1972 ... . .
2 , 1712 . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2

Julio E . Valera
A STUDY OF SEISMIC DAMAGE PATTERNS BY PHOTOINTERPRETATION . . . . . . . 265
Leroy E. Anstead
MICROZONATION CRITERIA AND SEISMIC RESPONSE STUDIES
FOR THE CITY OF MANAGUA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Ezio Faccioli, Enrique Santoyo V. and Jose L . Leon T.
USE OF MANAGUA EARTHQUAKE AFTERSHOCK DATA TO
ESTIMATE MAIN SHOCK RESPONSE SPECTRA
CIKA .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Walter W . Haysand Kenneth W . King
PRELIMINARY GROUND MOTION CALCULATION
AND SITE EFFECTS AT BANCO CENTRAL
NIKAL ,. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
J. A. Johnson , T. Yee and C . M . Duke
STRUCTURAL ASPECTS
LOCAL STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING PRACTICE
BEFORE AND AFTER THE 1972 MANAGUA EARTHQUAKE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Filadelfo Chamorro C .
HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF BUILDING FORMS IN MANAGUA . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Jose Francisco Teran
PERFORMANCE OF NATIVE CONSTRUCTION ,MASONRY STRUCTURES AND SPECIAL
STRUCTURES IN THE MANAGUA ,NICARAGUA EARTHQUAKE
OF DECEMBER 23 , 1972 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :. .. 342
34 .
J. E . Amrhein, G . A . Hegemier and G . Krishnamoorthy
RESPONSE OF SEVERAL SCHOOL BUILDINGS TO THE
MANAGUA ,NICARAGUA, DECEMBER 23, 1972 EARTHQUAKE . . . . . . . . . . . 404
John F .Meehan
SURVEY OF DAMAGES AND EARTHQUAKE PERFORMANCE OF MANAGUA BUILDINGS . . 420
EERI Investigative Team I
THREE REINFORCED CONCRETE FRAME BUILDINGS,
MANAGUA EARTHQUAKE, DECEMBER 1972 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Ralph S. McLean
VOLUME 11
STRUCTURAL ASPECTS (Continued)
AN EVALUATION OF THE PERFORMANCE OF THE
BANCO DE AMERICA BUILDING MANAGUA,NICARAGUA . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
M . A . Sozen and Akenori Shibata
BANCO DE AMERICA ,MANAGUA
A HIGH-RISE SHEAR WALL BUILDING WITHSTANDS A STRONG EARTHQUAKE . . . . . 551
L . G . Selna and M . D . Cho
PERFORMANCE OF THE BANCO CENTRAL BUILDING .. ... . . . . . . . . . . 571
Loring A . Wyllie, Jr.
DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF HOTEL MANAGUA INTERCONTINENTAL IN THE
MANAGUA EARTHQUAKE OF DECEMBER 23, 1972 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
Haluk M . Aktan and Robert D . Hanson
BEHAVIOR OF THE ENALUF OFFICE BUILDING IN THE
MANAGUA EARTHQUAKE OF DECEMBER 20 23 ,, 1912
1972 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
Robert D . Hanson and Subhash C . Goel
RESPONSE OF THE ENALUF BUILDING TO THE MANAGUA EARTHQUAKE . . .
Joseph P. Nicoletti and Felix Kulka
ANALYSIS OF BANCO DE AMERICA AND BANCO CENTRAL
POSTEARTHQUAKE AMBIENT VIBRATION OBSERVATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . .674
Christopher Rojahn
POST EARTHQUAKE DYNAMIC MEASUREMENTS OF
FOUR STRUCTURES IN MANAGUA · · · · · · · · . . . . . . . . . . 693
Haresh C . Shah , Joseph Nicoletti and Felix Kulka
INDUSTRIAL DAMAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . !
Peter I. Yanev
STATISTICAL DAMAGE REPORT – MANAGUA
RELATED TO SEISMIC EVENTS OF 12/23 /72 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733
Ing. Enrique Pereira h . and Ing. Patrick J. Creegan
ENGINEERING LESSONS FROM THE MANAGUA EARTHQUAKE . . . . . . . . . . . 746
Glen V. Berg and Henry J. Degenkolb
UTILITY AND TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS
THE MANAGUA EARTHQUAKE AND ITS EFFECTS ON THE WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM . . . 768
Eng. Adan Cajina
EFFECTS OF THE MANAGUA EARTHQUAKE ON THE ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM . . . 791
Arthur Klopfenstein and Bernard V . Palk
THE TRANSPORTATION SECTOR : EARTHQUAKE DAMAGES AND THEIR
IMPACTS ON SERVICES DURING THE NATIONAL EMERGENCY . . . . . . . . . . 822
Highway Department, Managua, Nicaragua
DAMAGES TO THE TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEMS CAUSED
BY THE 1972 MANAGUA EARTHQUAKE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834
National Telephone & Postal Services of Nicaragua ( TELCOR )
MANAGUA : EFFECTS ON SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855
Greer W . Ferver
SOCIO -ECONOMIC ASPECTS
ACTIVITIES OF THE NATIONAL EMERGENCY COMMITTEE . . . . . . . . . . . . 913
Cristobal Rugama Nunez
EARLY HUMAN RESPONSE TO THE 1972MANAGUA EARTHQUAKE . . . . . . . . 929
J. Eugene Haas, Daniel J. Amaral, Reyes Ramos , Robert W . Kates, Robert A . Olson and Richard Olson
THEMANAGUA ,NICARAGUA EARTHQUAKE OF DECEMBER 23, 1972
AN EMERGENCY RES
AN EMERGENCI KESKUNDE EVALUATION
PONSE EVALUATION .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. 955
.
 IMPACT OF MANAGUA ON EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

by

C . Martin Duke
Professor of Engineering, University of California , Los Angeles
President, Earthquake Engineering Research Institute

Abstract . The purposes of this paper are to describe the local setting , to
highlight the social and structural responses to the earthquake , and to
evaluate the earthquake ' s impact on the state -of-the - art of earthquake
engineering. This impact has been substantial, especially as to city lifelines,
socioeconomic findings , assessment of modern design technology , and the
methodology of earthquake investigations.
Earthquake Engineering . The function of earthquake engineering is the applica
tion of all relevant knowledge and skill to the providing of economical and
esthetic systems, structures and works which will protect human activity
against unacceptable risk due to earthquakes . The knowledge and skill come
from the scientific and professional areas of geology , seismology , civil,
structural , construction , mechanical , electrical, nuclear and systems engine
ering , architecture and planning , economics , and the social sciences . The
knowledge is advanced in many ways but most effectively by studies of destruc
tive earthquakes. The aspects of human activity to be protected include life ,
work , income, property , bodily and mental health , and political stability .
What risks are unacceptable can be determined only by an informed public
through the ballot and through government.

We have a profession in adolescence in the rapidly broadening problem

area of earthquake engineering . For this profession to mature, appropriate
roles must be developed and accepted whereby a matrix of organizations will
accomplish the required functions of design , planning, research , education ,
regulation and standardization . This includes earthquake investigations .
Society ' s needs in the earthquake engineering area have to be defined and
verbalized , as feasible , by the representatives of the people , which includes
keeping the hazards of earthquakes in proper perspective with all the other
needs of society . To carry out these many functions , it is clear that the
engineering profession has to interact with the related professions , with the
geophysical and social sciences, and with legislative and executive branches
of government .

There are four ways in which a destructive earthquake affects earthquake

engineering . One way is in adding to scientific knowledge . Another is in
testing out new principles of design . A third is in relearning. Fourth is in
gaining experience with the planning and conduct of earthquake investigations .
The Managua earthquake had all such effects . Of greatest significance and
impact are the new knowledge and the new insights discovered .
Managua . In 1854 the small village of Managua was made the capital of
Nicaragua , whose independence from Spain had been won in 1821 . The
architectural and engineering professions were almost non -existent in the
country until well after the reconstruction following the 1931 earthquake .
Thus the building forms that have emerged since the 1940 ' s are of foreign
origin , with evolution of the design professions taking place in the 1950 ' s
and high rise buildings appearing in the 1960 ' s . Earthquake resistive design
was introduced by a number of engineers and architects in these decades , but
without enforced local building code requirements .

The city ' s population in 1972 was about 450 ,000 .

The indigenous housing construction , called " taquezal , " consists of earth
infilled between closely spaced wood elements and is usually limited to one
or two stories. It was almost universal for Managua until after 1931 . Today
a large amount of more modern one - story housing exists , made of precast con
crete and cast in place concrete frames with block filler walls . There are a
great many older reinforced concrete frame buildings of 2 to 6 stories , with
wall panels infilled with clay tile or concrete block , exhibiting little
evidence of having been designed for earthquake resistance . There were also a
great many fairly modern buildings , many of them designed and built to possess
a degree of earthquake resistance . These were predominantly block infilled
reinforced concrete frame structures , with some shear wall structures . Build
ings of the earthquake resistive type range from one -story industrial and
commercial to multistory commercial and residential . Included are the 17 - story
shear wall type Banco de America and the 15 - story reinforced concrete infilled
frame type Banco Central. There are a very few steel structures .

The city lifelines (utilities and transportation systems ) evolved in

parallel with the building construction , with antiseismic design given
increasing attention for the major facilities in the latter two decades .
Water is supplied to the city by pumping from Laguna Asososca into several
concrete and steel tank reservoirs whence it is distributed through a variety
of ductile iron , cast iron , asbestos cement and plastic mains. The pumping
system is quite vulnerable to landslides. The main power plant in the City is
a thermal plant; there are also hydroelectric sources from outside. The auto
matic telephone switching station was located in the center of the downtown
area , with cable and microwave connections to the outside . The city has a
sewerage system discharging into Lake Managua . Liquid fuel lines serve the
refineries in the area . The transportation systems include the streets and
highways , a railroad and two airports . Many of the fire stations were in
structurally weak buidlings .
The geologic units that underlie Managua appear to constitute a relatively
homogeneous sequence of rocks, predominantly volcanic but with many interbeds
of water -worked volcanic debris . Angular basaltic cinder deposits appear to
be the dominant lithology at least to the depths known from drilling , about
200 m . These beds contain interbeds of volcanic mudflows and thin volcanic
ash . The rocks are little deformed and generally dip about 4° to the north .
Ground water is 10 to 30 m below the surface over most of the area . The near
surface materials exhibit low densities . Considerable pre - 1972 geologic
evidence and the 1931 fault break suggested that the city was crossed by a
family of northeast trending active faults .

Western Nicaragua , which includes Managua , is located within the Circum

pacific belt of seismic and volcanic activity . Since the year 1520 the
country has experienced approximately 100 quakes of magnitude six or greater .
The Earthquake. The 5th and 6th grade students of the American -Nicaraguan
School were asked to write their impressions of the earthquake . Linda Chow
presented this poem .

" In Managua I have seen tanks .

That are keeping people from robbing banks .
That elementary was small,
and it didn ' t fall .
The highschool was tall .
That ' s why it was easier to fall .
Walls of some old houses crashed .
And many people were smashed .
When they rebuild Managua
The people will come to visit Nicaragua ."
The earthquake was of surface wave magnitude 6 . 2 and body wave magnitude
5 .6 . Its epicenter was within or very near to the city . It occurred at 30
minutes after midnight, local time, on December 23 , 1972 , the duration of
strong motion being about 10 seconds. The main shock and some strong after
shocks were recorded by a strong motion accelerograph at the Esso Refinery
west of the City , and by four seismo scopes. The accelerogram exhibited a
maximum horizontal ground acceleration of 0 . 4 gravity and several peaks of
around 0 .2 g. Numerous smaller aftershocks continued , with an exceptionally
large one on March 31 , 1973. Most of the aftershocks occurred in or near to
a vertical plane segment 15 to 20 km long and 2 to 10 km . deep , suggesting an
energy release center about 2 km into Lake Managua northwest of the ENALUF
thermal plant, and 6 km deep .
A surface fault break 6 km . long exhibiting left lateral displacement up
to 38 centimeters extended in a northeasterly direction through the east side
of Laguna Tiscapa . Of 3 other breaks, parallel to the above , one was
identified going through the densest part of the downtown area .

An area of 36 square km incorporating most of the city experienced

shaking of degree VII or greater on the Modified Mercalli scale , 1956 version .
Within this area , three zones of one-half square km . each experienced VIII or
greater . These zones centered around the Escuela Republica de Venezuela (No .
225 on the city map) , near to the Tiscapa fault break .
The aforementioned center of energy release in Lake Managua , based on the
aftershocks , is compatible with the isoseismal map and the surface fault
breaks .
3
 There was no evidence of significant soil amplification or liquefaction .

Some 8000 people were killed , 20 , 000 were injured , and the property
damage exceeded a billion dollars (U . S . ) . Also lost was some 30 % of the gross
national product . The Taquezal construction was devastated . Approximately
half of the population was left homeless . Many public buildings , hospitals ,
schools , commercial buildings and residences collapsed or were seriously
damaged . Public utilities including water , power , telephone and sewer systems
were nonfunctional for various time periods . Transportation was hampered by
the debris in the streets . There was minor additional damage resulting from
several aftershocks . Fires raged uncontrolled through many blocks throughout
the downtown area for a week after the shock due in part to the loss of fire
suppression equipment . Some 570 complete city blocks were scheduled for
removal of all building debris , leaving most of the area cleaned to the ground
surface . Many studies are being pursued for the repair and rehabilitation of
the major buildings and utilities .
Disaster Response . Immediate and continuing steps were taken by the govern
ment to form a National Emergency Committee chaired by former President
Anastasio Somoza and through it to attack the problems created by the earth
quake . First steps were to provide medical aid and to rescue trapped persons ,
dispose of corpses , begin to demolish dangerous structures and clear the streets
of debris . Next was the evacuation , leaving only 50 , 000 persons in the city
on Christmas night . Looting became widespread but was brought under control
as a result of a stern declaration by General Somoza on Christmas night . The
most damaged sector was fenced off . Immediate measures were taken to restore
partially the water , power and communication services, to prevent an epidemic ,
and to distribute food .

A few days after the quake, the government of Mexico was requested to
prepare a plan for Managua ' s reconstruction . An antiseismic building code
was adopted by the Nicaraguan Assembly on Jan . 15 , 1973 , with orders issued
for its implementation and enforcement for both repairs of old and design of
new structures . A Seismological Institute was created . Demolition of
dangerous structures proceeded , with appraisals of repair possibilities and
salvaging of valuables .

With help from foreign governments , emergency housing construction was

rushed ahead . Emergency classroom construction enabled official school ses
sions to resume on July 16 . Special agricultural and public works programs
were initiated to give employment to some of the 50 , 000 who lost jobs due to
lost industries . There was a 30 % drop in the gross national product , but , a
year after the earthquake, all sectors of the economy have achieved a high
degree of recovery .
Investigations . An EERI Reconnaissance Team spent about seven days in Managua ,
beginning three to four days after the earthquake. As a result of their
immediate reports of the engineering significance of the earthquake, the
Institute assembled four " second teams" aggregating 13 investigators that
undertook more detailed studies . Many other agencies sent teams into the
field , including the American Iron and Steel Institute, the National Academy
of Engineering , the University of California , the Portland Cement Association ,
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , the United States
Geological Survey , the University of Colorado , the National Bureau of Standards ,
Bechtel Corporation , the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power , the
Southern California Edison Company , the University of Mexico , the University of
Chile , the State of California , the Naval Ordinance Test Station , Woodward
Lundgren and Associates , Dames and Moore , and the University of Texas . All
Nicaraguan government agencies and a number of private engineers participated
extensively in the investigation . The idea of holding the present conference
was conceived by representatives of these groups .

Impact on Eearthquake Engineering . The state-of - the - art of earthquake engine

ering has been significantly advanced in a number of respects through the
studies that have been made of the Managua earthquake . Additionally , many old
truths have been taught anew , and to new people , which is a necessary educa
tional contribution . The other papers in these Proceedings will present these
new advances and retaught lessons . In the following paragrams there will be
listed some of the more significant new findings that are having on impact on
the state-of - the -art . These impacts fall into the categories of geoscience ,
social science , buildings , city lifelines , and the methodology of earthquake
investigation .

1. It was surprising to find such a large quake being almost duplicated

( 1931 , 1972 ) under this large city . This with the high seismicity
of the area calls for Managua to be well built , and well instrumented
for research .

2. It is remarkable that such close compatibility was found in energy

center location using three independent methods , one geological , one
seismological , one using isoseismal mapping .

3. The geoscience data needed for initial assessment of this earthquake

were chosen wisely and gathered quickly . This field was shown to have
become very professional .

The exceptional amount and duration of pillaging was halted rather

abruptly by military control .

5. Family ties proved more compelling than official duties in the immediate
post - quake interval .

6. Disaster response efforts were slow in starting but tended in the long
run by their vigor to counter - balance the effects of inadequate
emergency planning .

7. Aid from other countries was provided spontaneously even though no

mutual aid agreement existed .

8. The economic loss was the greatest in history to accompany such a small
magnitude earthquake .

5
 9. Buildings that had been designed and built according to modern earth
quake engineering state -of - the- art survived the quake , though some
sustained major structural damage . This was the first such test since
San Fernando 1971 . It showed the state -of - the- art to be " fair ."
10 . Numerous schools , hospitals , governmental and emergency buildings were
so heavily damaged that they became nonfunctional or collapsed . Under
post - San Fernando requirements of the State of California , such build
ings would have to remain functional Managua experience drives home
this stipulation .

11 . Shear wall systems for transmitting seismic force in concrete buildings

proved generally superior to moment resisting frame systems . This was
partly because the large deformations of frames caused unacceptable
amounts of both structural and non - structural damages . Design standards
in this regard require reevaluation .

12. Non -structural damage of the degree experienced in modern Managua

buildings can not be economically acceptable where the recurrence time
is short . This applies to elevators , infilled walls, ceilings , light
fixtures , etc . It has been a neglected criterion .

13 . An unusual feature in Managua was the large number of collapses of upper

floors . In most such cases the floor plans changed abruptly near the
collapsed floors . Such changes have a strong influence on the building
dynamics and need research .
14 . Many data were obtained on the response of city lifelines that will
significantly strengthen the limited base of documented experience with
utilities and transportation systems in earthquakes . This is to be
contrasted with the situation with buildings , where many of the findings
were reiterations of lessons learned in the past . The lifelines problems
are fully as important as those of buildings and must receive research .
Prompt efforts are needed to codify such state -of-the -art as exists
today .

15 . Needed new data were obtained on the effects of surface faulting . In

some cases this effect aggravated the damage to structures . In others
it was absorbed with little damage .

16 . Systems engineering is necessary for the rebuilding of the city . It is

being provided by the government , which is appropriate , as the new city
must be seen as a totality .
17 . This was the first time that a conference has been used so systematically
as an instrument for coordinating the reporting of an earthquake investi
gation , and for coordinating some aspects of the field investigations
and subsequent research .
18 . Precendent setting field coordination of the investigations was done ,
involving particularly the EERI first and second teams, the AISI team ,
and the aftershock and geological work of NOAA and USGS . This was made
possible as a result of the EERI message center established in Oakland
and the work of some dedicated people in Nicaragua . Even so it would
have been better if coordination had been planned in advance .

The EERI Reconnaissance Report , several preliminary reports of others ,

the San Francisco conference , and the proceedings of that conference
are making available at maximum speed the findings regarding the Managua
earthquake .
20 . The utilization of the findings is being expedited through their rapid
promulgation and through an adjourned conference to be held in Managua .
The first serves the world community ; the second serves Nicaragua in its
decision making about reconstruction .
21 .
In the interest of maximizing the learning from the earthquake, it would
have been helpful to have known better in advance just what to look for
in terms of performance information most urgently needed by the profes
sions . Such advance knowledge should have been both general and
particular , that is , stated both as design principles of international
relevance to be evaluated and as a list of specific Managua structures
and systems embodying specific features that have not previously been
adequately tested out in the field . EERI is pursuing a study in this
area with support from the National Science Foundation .
Acknowledgment . This paper incorporates information and ideas of the authors
of the other papers of the conference, which were made available by the
Committee to provide a foundation for this assessment of impact . This author
extends thanks to the other authors but absolves them of responsibility for
the content of this paper .
 THE SEISMICITY AND GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE
OF THE MANAGUA , NICARAGUA AREA

by

Pierre Saint- Amand

Naval Weapons Center
China Lake , California

Introduction . The work reported on herein was done at the request of the Orga
nization of American States for use in planning the reconstruction of Managua ,
following the earthquake of 1972 . The ideas expressed herein do not necessarily
coincide with the opinions of the 0 . A . S . , the United States , or the Government
of Nicaragua . The Naval Weapons Center helped in editorial and compositional
matters .

Two weeks of field work in February 1973 and another short visit in June
1973 constitutes the author ' s exposure to Nicaragua . Several flights were made
over the area through the courtesy of the Nicaraguan Air Force , one in the company
of Dr. Ernest Dobrovolny of the United States Geological Survey . I have drawn
heavily on his work and that of his colleagues . Information was generously fur
nished by Drs . George Plafker and Robert Brown of the U . S . G . S . Ing . Juan Kuang ,
Ing . Glenn Hodgson , Mr. Leroy Anstead and numerous others in and out of Nicaragua
made data freely available . Dr . Alexander McBirney was especially helpful . Pro
fessor Nicholas Ambrasseys was a member of our field party and accompanied me on
most of my peregrinations. Dr . Cesár Cisneros, resident director of the 0 . A . S .
office in Managua gave all possible support and encouragement . General Somoza
did everything in his power to facilitate our work .

Nicaragua lies on the "Ring of Fire " that dominates the tectonics of the
Circumpacific Region . While all parts of the country are affected to some extent
by the earthquakes and volcanic activity that gives the country its distinctive
scenery , and while these are some of the most fascinating in the world , the tec
tonics have not been studied in detail . It might be appropriate to quote here an
interesting observation by Pablo Levy made in 1873 (Pg . 155 ) ,
" . . . Earthquakes , in Nicaragua , are altogether too frequent
to maintain a fastidious history and too weak for their study
to offer any interest . "

Those who have lived through the earthquakes in that country in recent years may
not feel that Ing . Levy was right , but the record available for Central Ameri
can earthquakes in general certainly bespeaks such a feeling .

Most of the work has been done by foreigners some years back . For example ,
Richard Weyl published at least 15 papers on the tectonics , geology and volcanism
of Central America between 1940 and 1971 . Karl Sapper produced 17 papers between
1899 and 1937 on similar matters . Earlier papers by E . G . Squiers ranging from
1851 to 1858 describe the geography , geology , climate , resources , etc . Most
of his work was done in connection with planning a canal across Nicaragua . His
fascination with , and love for the country make his papers required reading for
anyone interested in Nicaragua . In later years Professors H . Williams and
Alexander McBirney have prepared several now classic works on the volcanism and
tectonics of the area .

In more recent times , the Tax Improvement and Natural Resources Inventory
project , under the joint sponsorship of the Nicaraguan government and U . S . Agency
for International Development has prepared a volumninous set of reports on the
geology of the country . This work is being continued under the organization
locally known as " Catastro " . A number of very competent local geologists are
now at work but the efforts deployed are less than the country needs and deserves.
This work is less involved with tectonic and structural problems than it is with
economic matters , but the material being worked up is of help in assembling data
directed towards the larger problems.

Geography . The eastern portion of the country is a coastal plain , bounded by the
Carribean Sea and covered with Quaternary alluvium and sediments . To the west of
this coastal plain an irregular upland composed of Tertiary volcanics and pyro
clastics extends to the border of the Nicaragua Depression . A few outcrops of
Pretertiary rocks are found in several places throughout the highlands .
The altitude of the highlands averages about 500 meters, with hills in the
north and western parts extending to 1 , 000 meters and a few peaks reaching 1 , 500
to 2 ,000 meters. While the lithology is reasonably well known , the structure of
the area is not known in any detail and information about the pretertiary struc
ture is scant indeed .

The most outstanding feature of the Pacific coastal region is the Nicaragua
Depression (Fig . 1 ) . This is a long " Central Valley " described as the Nicaragua
Graben . This valley is bounded on the northwestern side by a very long straight
fault that I will call the " Boundary Fault " . The Nicaragua Graben extends from
the Gulf of Fonseca , where it might well be said to have foundered beneath the
sea , to the vicinity of Limón in Costa Rica . In Costa Rica , geographically
speaking , it joins with the Costa Rican coastal plain .

The floor of the graben is relatively flat , except where faulting has pro
duced some local relief and the constructional hills built by the magnificent
chain of Quaternary volcanoes emboss the floor of the valley . The great lakes
of Nicaragua and Managua lie in the graben . The graben is still in the process
of formation .

The western boundary of the graben appears to lie beneath the Pacific Ocean ,
except near the frontier with Costa Rica where some prominent faults appear along
the coast . Geographically , the valley is bounded by some coastal hills of no
great height . McBirney chooses to place the boundary of the graben at the
Mateare Fault . The Mateare Fault is a long poorly exposed fault that will be
described in detail later , in connection with the Cordillera de Marabios .

Structural Geology . McBirney and Williams (1965 ) describe the graben and the
boundary faults in some detail . My own observations coincide closely to theirs.
The boundary fault of the graben is quite conspicuous and marked by an abrupt
 S
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frontal scarp of some complexity . The complexity arises from a number of cross
faults and constructional features as well as from a thick cover of somewhat
compliant volcanic material and pyroclastics that mantle it so that a clean cut
break is not everywhere evident . The fault is probably , at depth , a normal fault .
In places it is , at the surface , a homoclinal , axial hinge line with tensional
features developed along its length . McBirney and Williams ( 1965 Pg . 41 ) point
to an ignimbrite cap that is tilted downward toward the valley . The straightness
of the overall fracture system , and the numerous branches indicate to me that
some component of strikeslip movement may also exist . To my knowledge , however ,
no field evidence exists for this assumption .

In the view held by McBirney and Williams ( 1965 ) the Mateare Fault zone
extends for at least 70 kilometers along the northeastern face of the Sierra de
Carazo , reaching in places a relief of nearly 1,000 meters above the depression
that lies to the northeast side of the fault . In places where the fault is clear
ly expressed , for example to the west of Managua , the scarp is quite abrupt and
but little eroded . The sediments on the top appear to be tilted to the west .
Rather than a long curved line it appears to be cut off , and / or displaced , near
the town of Mateare by cross faults that show unmistakable strikeslip geomorphol
ogy . Because of the softness of the sediments and the ease of erosion in a cli
mate where cumulus rain showers occur a large part of the year , the paucity of
erosion bespeaks a high degree of recency for displacement on this fault . The
rapid erosion and poor consistency of the sediments also serve to obfuscate the
evidence for strikeslip movement . It is conjectured by McBirney and Williams that
the Mateare Fault , to the southward , may take the form of a flexure along the
northeastern limb of the Rivas anticline . Further to the south in Costa Rica a
high fault scarp again becomes apparent along the front of the Central Volcanic
Range . The trajectory of the Mateare Fault to the north of Managua is not as
clear as to the south because it is obscured by Recent lake sediments and the
topographic throw is much less obvious . It has been mapped by Catastro as a dis
continuous series of faults more or less aligned along the projection of that part
to be seen just west of Managua . McBirney and Williams state that no visible pro
jection of the fault can be seen to the northwestward until one reaches El Salva
dor where an irregular belt of faulting divides the central depression of that
country from the seaward tilted Balsam Range . Had they had good aerial photo
graphs available , they might well have found that the feature was a discontinuous
line of subparallel or en echelon fractures . A photo interpretation study done
now could easily clarify this point and should indeed be a high priority project .
The question as to whether the Mateare Fault is indeed the Pacific boundary fault
of the Nicaragua Depression cannot be resolved until its existence as a continu
ous feature can be established . This will not be an easy study because of the
confusion caused by all the constructional activity of the nearby volcanoes .

McBirney and Williams ( 1965 pg . 43 ) cite faults oblique to the axis of the
graben . Many volcanoes within the Quaternary chain of Nicaragua display a sec
ondary north south alignment of vents and tensional fractures that intersect the
major axis of the depression at angles of about 45 degrees . They report simi
lar relations in El Salvador and in Guatemala .

On page 45 of their treatise they conclude that the north - south tensional
fractures appear to be related to right lateral movement parallel to the volcanic

11
 v
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Figure 2. -Mechanism for Diastrophism in the Managua Area . (A ) Right lateral dis
placement of the Pacific coastal block tends to produce a gap if a fracture ,
kinked to the right is slipped in a right handed sense . After Brouwer .
(B) In the Managua area , a series of normal left - lateral oblique faults are mem
bers of the conjugate shear set produced by extension and by a shear resulting
from a northwesterly aligned dextral couple .

12
belt and to the Middle America Trench .

Cordillera de Marrabios . The longitudinal axis of the valley is cut by an

interrupted line of volcanoes , referred to as the Cordillera de Marrabios . Just
northwest of Managua the northwesterly most part of the line ends abruptly .
the southwest of Managua , the line , offset to the west , continues toward Costa
Rica and passes through the volcanoes , Granada , Zapatera , Concepcion and Maderas .
These lines appear to be a set of partially opened fractures along which volca
noes grow at points where the main longitudinal cracks are cut by shorter north
easterly or northerly trending faults .

Along the Pacific coast , from Chile to Alaska , a general tectonic trend is
that the oceanward side of the continent is drifting relatively northward and / or
northwestward subparallel to the coast . It is probable that in Nicaragua , also ,
the blocks of the crust on the Pacific side are inexorably drifting northwest
ward as McBirney and Williams have suggested . While no clear -cut evidence for
this is now available , the indirect evidence is quite strong in that the conse
quences of such a postulated motion offer a mechanically consistent explanation
of the local geology of the Managua region .

Figure 2 shows the consequences of this type of motion . While this may not
be the only explanation , it is , at my present state of knowledge , acceptable . As
the Pacific block drifts northwesterly , a zone of extension develops in the gaps
between the ends of the lines of volcanoes . A combination of extensional and
shearing forces breaks the crust , forming a series of subparallel north -northeast
erly trending normal faults . These are the left -handed , conjugate shears of a
right -handed couple oriented northwesterly . Let us see now how this concept fits
into the local picture as developed by observations following the earthquake .

Local Geology . To the west of Managua , the Mateare Fault ( Figure 3 ) is easily
recognized by a tall scarp reaching several hundred meters above the terrain to
the east , Photo 1 . The Mateare Fault is a Recent normal fault with some geo
morphic evidence of strike slip displacement near Mateare . Offset streams , back
facing scarps , cols , butts and shutter ridges may be seen , but the sense of move
ment has not been determined and may not be determinable there . Uplift of the
block to the west has been Recent because the scarp and the upper surface are but
little eroded . The Mateare Fault is probably the western extremity of the zone
of extension and shear between the ends of the volcanic lines . The eastern edge
of the affected area is probably in the region between the airport and the boca
toma of Rio Tipitapa .

Rio Tipitapa is only a few tens of feet wide where it drains Lake Nicaragua .
A ridge that appears to be a fault scarp , and that is shown on the geologic maps
as a probable fault cuts across the river near the Pan American Highway . A short
distance downstream , the river abruptly widens . It looks as if this fault has
in the past dammed the river and the river is slowly cutting down through the
scarp . The last time this happened in a notable way was probably in May of 1844
when the river was reported blocked following an earthquake .

In the past , Lago Managua probably covered a much greater area , as may be
judged by the lake bed sediments found to the east of Managua . The sediments

13
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15
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are intercalated with lava flows , lenses of tuff and no doubt cover a number of
old volcanic cones , stocks , explosion pits , etc. To the west of Managua on the
road to Leon an area of sediment on the upthrown side of the Mateare Fault forms
an extensive plain of low relief .

In the city of Managua the Recent volcanic cone of Tescapa is surrounded

by lapilli , ash , lahares , and pyroclastic debris . A solidified stock probably
underlies it . Chico Pelon , a small hill composed of pumice , is thought by
McBirney to be a small pumice cone fed by a narrow stock . It is associated with
a positive magnetic anomaly , indicating a fairly solid intrusive body beneath it .

A series of northeasterly - striking , left -oblique -normal , faults of small

displacement cut across the city and its environs . The deformation producing
these faults is pervasive over the plain of Managua from the Mateare Fault scarp
to the Boundary Fault . The extension and shearing has resulted in a large number
of normal faults with a left - lateral component of strike - slip movement that cut
the plain . The pattern of faulting is that of a rudely semicircular area of sub
sidence . The faults on the west side of the plain have , in general , the down
thrown side to the east . The faults on the east side of the plain have the down
thrown side on the west . The displacement on most of the faults , where they
moved during the earthquake , is largely consistent with the older scarps that are
preserved in the alluvium . This indicates a continuing process of subsidence in
the basin . Nowhere in this plain can an area free enough of faulting to offer
construction sites superior to that of Managua itself be found .

The Fractura de Nejapa , Mc Birney ( 1955 ) , lies between the Mateare Fault and
the city . This remarkable extensional fracture is aligned north - south and is
marked by a series of cones , explosion pits and collapse structures . It begins
under the lake and continues past Asososca and Nejapa , crosses the Panamerican
Highway at about kilometer 9 south and may be followed easily from the air as a
line of cuencas and deeply incised streams . During the recent earthquake , it ap
pears that this fracture may have opened a little . This is inferred from a nar
row zone of severe shaking along the whole of this distance . No through - going
surface fracture has been found , but the degree of failure around the edges of
the pits was excessive in terms of the shaking at the site to have been expected
from an epicenter in the city of Managua some 10 kilometers distant . A drop of
80 cms in the water level of Lake Nejapa indicates that water may be leaking out .

No evidence was found to indicate that the Mateare Fault moved during the
1972 earthquake . Thus , it is possible that the western edge of the mesoseismal
zone of this earthquake was the Fractura de Nejapa that perhaps served as a de
coupling plane , the activity being more pronounced to the east thereof .

Faulting in Managua . To the east of Fractura de Nejapa , the geologists who have
studied the city have found at least nine active faults within the urban area .
More will probably be found between the city proper and Rio Tipitapa . This zone
contains many superficial faults and alignments of cracks , the major part of
which have undergone movement during the earthquake and its aftershocks . In some
cases , these may not be faults , but perhaps are artificially - filled small stream
channels , or improperly back -filled excavations for sewer or water lines . With
out geophysical studies or borings , one cannot tell the difference in every

16
instance . Two of these faults are of considerable importance : The Tiscapa
Fault and the Ciudad Jardin Fault .

Tiscapa Fault . The Tiscapa Fault offsets Volcan Tiscapa a few tens of
meters . To the south of Tiscapa , it forms the eastern edge of an uplifted
surface and may be followed easily at least as far as the Country Club . Over
this distance a series of open cracks , with the west side uplifted as much
as ten inches , lies in a discontinuous zone at the foot of the larger scarp . It
occasionally has more than one branch and ascends part of the scarp . In places ,
the individual fractures are en echelon in a manner that indicates some left lat
eral component of movement as well . Moletracks and compressional features are
rare . The trace of the fault deviates with topography in such a way as to indi
cate a slight dip to the east . Between the Careterra de Enlace and the Country
Club , the eroded remains of an older displacement , now much modified by agricul
tural activities , may be seen from place to place. It is hard to follow , but it
could not be much more than a few tens of years in age . On the basis of this ,
it is quite possible that the Tescapa Fault also moved in the earthquake of 1931 .

Ciudad Jardín Fault . The Ciudad Jardín Fault runs with some branches from
the vicinity of Chico Pelon and the Aduana , and crosses the highway to Masaya
some tens of meters south of the triangular intersection of that road with the
road around the rim of Tiscapa . From there it may be followed with difficulty to
a field just north of Quinta Cecilia where it seems to die out . However , further
south , between Quinta Cecilia and Colonia Soigai , it , or another fault , appears
to have been very active . In this region a zone of strong shaking occurred and
fissures in the ground can once again be found . Although strongly suggestive,
they are not pathognomic of faulting there , however , because of a great deal of
landslipping and possible slumping . This zone should be investigated carefully
to clarify this point .

Fault cracks appear on the southeastern and eastern flanks of Chico Pelón .
In the southeastern corner of the property of the Aduana , a fault zone 3 meters
wide is exposed in an artificial cut in the pumice of Chico Pelón . The zone of
activity of Falla Ciudad Jardín is about 150 meters wide in the area of the
Aduana . Abundant evidence of soil failure obscures fault features in this area .
It appears that one of the Aduana buildings sank into filled ground about 1 / 2
meter . Cracks in the roadway near here are clearly associated with fill failure
around backfilled sewer excavation .

Signs of left lateral movement are abundant along Falla Ciudad Jardin .
Usually , the cracks are open fissures, but in some places moletracks and com
pression ridges may be seen , with right lateral displacement on ridges striking
northwesterly to westerly . The dip of Falla Ciudad Jardín is almost vertical .

Kuang , in his report , gives detailed information about the faults and their
traces . Zones of deformation 100 to 150 meters wide accompany each fault . This
fact is important to the reconstruction , because even though some of these minor
cracks may have been caused by compaction , it is not possible to distinguish
them from faults , nor to entirely avoid them , or the faults, in the reconstruction .
Leveling . According to a releveling , not yet finished and hence still

17
unverified , the zone between Falla Tiscapa and Falla Ciudad Jardín seems to have
sunk , perhaps 10 cms, below the land on either side , forming a graben 400 to 500
meters wide .

Fault of 1931 . During the earthquake of 1931 , a fault that passes beneath
the firehouse by the northwest corner of the National Stadium and through Barrio
El Carmen , moved . In the 1972 earthquake, cracks that developed in the pavement ,
and evidence of very severe shaking along this line , were the only indications
that this fault had moved again . Although movement was slight this fault did
participate . The trace of the fault can be followed by geomorphic criteria along
Cauce Occidental and across fields to the southwest of town , as a scarp with the
west side up , until it appears to join the Nejapa fracture about 10 kilometers
southwest of the city . The newspaper " La Prensa " of 3 June 1973 shows photo
graphs of a fracture that developed along the trace of the 1931 fault , in the
western part of Barrio San Judas . The fracture is about a foot wide , hundreds
of feet long , and appears to have been bridged over and opened following a rain .
It is possible that another fault also moved in 1931 but was not mapped in
detail . Durham ( 1931 Pg . 697 ) shows a map with surface cracks called out to the
east of the location of the " 1931 fault " and to the west of the Tiscapa Fault ,
exactly where a fault that moved in 1972 was located . On the same figures he
calls out landslides on the rim of Tiscapa .
Landsliding around Tiscapa . The crater of Volcan Tiscapa was the site of
some substantial buildings, such as the Presidential Palace and the U . S . Em
bassy . All of the buildings and most of the roads around the rim were destroyed
by a combination of faulting and landsliding ; almost identical damage occurred
from landsliding around the rim of Tiscapa in the 1931 earthquake , Durham (1931
Pg . 698 ) . It is not advisable to rebuild on the crater rim unless steps are
taken to avoid future slides , indeed this locality should be made into a park .
Intensity of Shaking . Because of the debility of most of the buildings in
Managua and the progress of the cleanup work , it was difficult to make detailed
assessments of the intensity of the shaking or to distinguish effects of after
shocks from those of the main event .

In the Cementario San Pedro , the movement appeared to be almost vertical

and must have been close to lg in vertical acceleration . Heavy gravestones
and monuments bounced about on their pedestals and many fell , bouncing after
they had fallen . Another zone of high shaking was found 4 blocks south of the
Banco de America . In these two areas the shaking reached IX to X on the Modi
fied Mercalli Scale (MM ) . Elsewhere in the center of the city the intensity
reached MM VII to VIII .
The intensity diminished radially from the center of the city , with pseudo
pods of severe shaking along the traces of the several faults . The trace of the
Fractura de Nejapa for example has a narrow zone of extreme shaking about 100
meters wide along most of its length , reaching MM VIII in places as far removed
from the center as kilometer 9 on the Panamerican Highway south .

Along the projected trace of Falla Ciudad Jardin between Careterra de

18
Enlace and Colonia Soigai, a narrow zone of MM VIII to IX is clearly evident
in disruption to road cuts and ditches, tejas that bounced off roofs , damage
to conventional construction , etc . It is interesting that a group of modern ,
well -built structures in Colonia Soigai suffered only minimal damage .

The accelerometer in the Esso refinery about 7 kms , west of the center of
town , showed maximum accelerations of 0 . 39g EW , 0 . 348 NS and 0 . 33g vertical .

The zone of high intensity shaking extended under Lake Managua . It is

likely that the center of the generalized high intensity shaking was just on
the lake shore .

All persons in or near to Managua who were queried as to the type of mo

tion felt during the main shock reported feeling a series of short vertical
shakes , followed quickly by a horizontal motion of no distinct direction . After
a few seconds , and at the end of the severe shaking , a definite downward drop
ping motion that terminated abruptly was commented upon " as if the bottom had
dropped out and then stopped " . A more gentle undulation then persisted for a
time and gradually died out . This sensation of dropping is not usually reported
in meisoseismal areas and is curiously reminiscent of comments by Crawford
( 1891 Pg . 81) in describing an earthquake near Granda in August 1890 .

Damage Distribution and Nature . Damages in Managua were related to the

type and quality of construction , to the intensity of shaking , and to fault
lines. A detailed assessment of damage is being made by Mr . Leroy Anstead
and Catastro on the basis of airphotos and should prove valuable in estimating
the intensity distribution . Intensity appeared to be highest near faults and
to drop off rapidly with distance .
Damage to houses made of taquazales was extreme! This is a type of wood
frame construction in which the interstices between the studs and the horizontal
members are filled with rocks and mud and the whole thing plastered over . The
resultant structure does not have cross bracing and is unnecessarily heavy .
Most of these did not fall down but were damaged beyond salvation .
Small concrete structures faired but little better owing to lack of rein
forcement or badly connected reinforcement without adequate cross ties and stir
rups . The concrete was less strong than it should have been , owing to wide
spread use of pumice as sand and pumice or scoria and vesicular basalt as ag
gregate . The pumice is frequently powdery and , on occasion , does not wet well
so that the fragments of aggregate, none too strong to begin with , are often
not cemented to the concrete . Moreover , the aggregate reacted with the cement
and with reinforcing steel. In Durham ' s "Discussion " of Sultan ( 1931 Pg . 360 ) ,
he decries the use of such aggregate. It appears that material from the same
" Arenera " is still in use . This pumice dust can be seived to give sand - sized
particles , but it resembles good sand in no other way , being highly vesicular ,
fractured and soft . An abundant source of good aggregate must be developed and
a search for a good clean sharp sand should be made. It may be possible to
locate such material in the older volcanics or in the coastal sedimentary belt .

In the few better buildings , the construction withstood the earthquake

19
well . Engineering design in modern structures was generally sound but con

struction techniques lacked attention to detail . A new Codigo de Emergencia

covering earthquake considerations has been enacted but should be adapted to
Nicaragua . A code of building , construction and material specifications must
be enacted soon . It should be written with the help of local and foreign en
gineers and with lawyers who specialize in Codes .

Seismological History . Little is known of the earthquake history of the country .

It will be necessary to make a more refined study of the earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions of Nicaragua because the necessary data does not now exist in Managua .
At least 10 good - sized earthquakes and hundreds of after shocks are reported from
Managua since 1900 , of which 3 caused considerable damage . From 1525 to 1972 ,
more than 40 earthquakes have caused trouble in the country as a whole and in
Costa Rica . A good many more went unreported owing to the scarcity of popula
tion in the early days . It is not possible , from what records exist , to accu
rately estimate the size of these earthquakes , but from the scant data available
on the intensity and the area of shaking , it appears that at least 9 could have
reached magnitude 7 or 8 .

Thus , a background of seismic activity covers the whole of the western

part of the country , Figure 4 , and extends beneath the Pacific Ocean .
ern half is but infrequently affected . Only one earthquake appears north of the
Boundary Fault . That earthquake is deeper than 70 kilometers . In general , sys
tematic errors in location of the seisms from Nicaragua would tend to place them
too far north , thus the overall pattern should really be displaced southward ,
hence making the area northeast of the big fault even more earthquake free than
it appears to be on Figure 4 . Superimposed on this background , the area of
Managua itself is subject to more frequent , shallow , local earthquakes similar
in magnitude to the recent event .

From the seismic history , the state of tectonic activity , the recency and
size of the scarps and the length of the faults beneath the city , one can esti
mate that Managua itself will have local earthquakes of about magnitude 6.5
every 30 to 40 years or so . The Falla Mateare some 15 to 20 kilometers west of
town can yield earthquakes up to magnitude 7.5 . The fault that bounds the valley
on the east is capable , from its length , of producing earthquakes of magnitude 8 ,
as are the faults on the Pacific side . The earthquakes on these larger faults
are often deep and hence the shaking , though widespread , is less severe than on
the shallower faults .

Thus the design earthquakes are : magnitude 6.5 at 0 kilometers , magnitude

7.5 at 20 kilometers , and magnitude 8 at 35 to 100 kilometers . This is about
the same , but somewhat less severe than is accepted by the city of Los Angeles ,
California .

It is not possible to estimate the recurrence interval of any of these

shocks with certainty at the present time , but it seems likely that a local
quake of 6.0-6.5 can be expected 3 times a century . The larger earthquakes
may be expected once every one or two centuries . The larger shocks will cause
damage over the whole of the country . Their aftershocks , some as large as the
earthquake of 1972 , will be scattered over the whole country as well .

20
 OOCOTAL

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Volcanism . It has long been recognized by volcanologists that the tectonic sit
uation where a kink in a fracture zone is being displaced so as to be opened , is
one in which volcanoes can be developed . I do not propose that this will occur
within the lifetime of Managua but it is worth noting that we may be observing
the labor pains of a new volcano or of a collapse structure such as the Nejapa
pit . The Nej apa fracture is well developed with some small craters along and
near to it .

Robert D. Brown , USGS , in his report on the Managua earthquake of January 4 ,

1968 , page 9 , et seq . considers that the earthquake of 1968 may have been caused
by partial collapse of overlying materials into a void . The void having developed
at depth and the materials above forming an arch over this void . He cites a
gravity survey made along the highway to Masaya in which a 4 milligal negative
anomaly is found in the vicinity of Colonia Centramerica . This anomaly coincides
with the region of maximum subsidence observed at that time along a leveling
traverse made after the 1968 earthquake . This anomaly is explainable by 1 km
diameter hemispherical void , buried at a depth of 2.75 kms . While this point
seems to support his tentative hypothesis , it must be remembered that an infinite
number of mass distributions can be found that will exactly explain a gravity
anomaly and certainly there are other possibilities that are equally likely to
be valid .

Brown makes it clear that he is not proposing anything more than an almost
plausible explanation and certainly does not put this forward other than as an
hypothesis . Professor A. McBirney , probably the most knowledgeable volcanologist
in Nicaraguan affairs , and who originally described the Nejapa fracture and the
collapse and explosion pits along it , does not consider this hypothesis beyond
probability . He feels that without further study it should be neither embraced
nor abandoned but that it does warrant some serious work . I will outline the geo
physical work needed later .

Even though I regard this possibility as remote , volcanism has in general

been quite a nuisance to Nicaragua . Some 60 eruptions since 1520 have been large
enough to attract attention . This amounts to about one of some consequence every
seven or eight years somewhere in the country . Some of the eruptions have been
spectacular , such as the explosion of Coseguina in 1835 , but most have been rather
ordinary with crop damage from ash falls and similar effects . In road cuts around
Managua one finds evidence of a number of recent ash falls , some with baked soil
horizons beneath . There is little or nothing that can be done about volcanoes ,
but the choice of building sites less likely to be afflicted by falls of ash
might well be considered .

Conclusions . The city of Managua is situated in an extremely active seismic

area having frequent shallow shocks with associated fault movement in the area
of the city itself . The region around the city is subsiding and is being sheared
by left -lateral oblique -normal faults . The limits of the area of high activity
lie between the Mateare fault zone on the west and the Tipitapa River on the
east . The hazard from new or renewed volcanic activity is a matter to be
considered .

During the 1972 earthquake at least nine faults in the urban area moved .

22
The faults are adequately wide and so numerous that avoidance of the faults in
reconstruction is well nigh impossible and certainly impractical . The faults
will , one or all , move again next time . Microzonation to avoid earthquake ef
fects due to shaking in the city is not practical owing to the abundance of
faults .

Larger earthquakes from other fault zones are possible with earthquakes as
large as 8.0 to be expected every few centuries . These will not be on the
faults under the city but could take place on other major faults . Aftershocks
will occur near the city and could be destructive .

The area to the northeast of the Nicaragua Graben is not at all active
seismically and offers the best sites for construction of new cities from a
standpoint of seismic safety and freedom from volcanic problems . However slight ,
a possibility of renewed volcanic activity exists in the immediate area of
Managua . The areas of Leon and Grandada have a higher level of hazard from
volcanic activity and from large earthquakes than does Managua but damaging
earthquakes will be less frequent .

Soils in the metropolitan area held up well and soil failure was not a
general source of serious problems. However , soil failure on steep banks and
around the edges and rims of craters caused serious landsliding problems. Along
the lake shore on the eastern side of the city , water soaked , filled land did
fail , notably in the region of the Aduana . Small failures due to settlement
of poorly compacted fill and backfill were widespread .

At present , material from cleanup work is being dumped along the lake shore .
Unless this is properly compacted and adequately supported by a retaining wall ,
it will be a source of serious future troubles .

The city can be built on the same site again and survive another earth
quake well , provided that the additional care and cost necessary to make it safe
is dedicated to this cause . It is not clear that all the lessons learned in 1931
were remembered . Let us hope that all the Americas will heed the lessons of the
1972 Managua event .

It would be safer to move the governmental functions to another area . Any

where to the northeast of the boundary fault of the graben would be far freer of
earthquakes and volcanism . Perhaps a part of the present city could be moved as
well , but in view of the existing manufacturing capability , and of the good per
formance of the factories during the earthquake , it will probably be necessary
to keep these functioning where they are .

Technical Recommendations . Begin at once elaboration of an adequate construction

and earthquake code with help from engineers and lawyers both local and foreign .
Include provisions for standardization of materials . Adjust the code to the type
and use of the structure . Build to insure against collapse rather than no damage
at all . Apply the code to all of the country .

Find a good source of sand and aggregate for concrete . Cease the use of
piedra pomez as sand and aggregate . A dense , non - scoriaceous basalt , tonalites

23
and older sedimentary rocks could be useful sources .
Make a geophysical survey of the city consisting of a series of reflection
and refraction profiles across the urban area as far as Las Mercedes airport .
Run a series of Arcer or other sounding profiles in the lake . Determine the
number , extent and displacement on the faults. Make a detailed gravity and
magnetic study of the area within a 25 km radius of the city with a 1 km or
less spacing in the immediate area of the city . Make such borings , soundings
and trenchings as necessary to assure safe foundation conditions for the larger
buildings .
Spread construction out to some extent so that damage from fire is minimized .

Where water lines , gas lines , electric services and sewer lines cross the
faults , install shut -off valves and switches and provide means for jumping the
services. Redundant loops in the water and gas supplies with proper cut offs
can avoid suspension of services .
Placement of mats of rounded gravel beneath foundations and building inte
gral foundations will prevent a large part of the damage from small fault
displacement .

Build a sturdy retaining wall and malecone along the edge of the lake , with
a few marinas for small boats . Backfill between the wall and shore with debris
from the ruins and compact the debris . Then arrange parks , touristic attractions
and similar affairs on the filled ground .

Install a sewage treatment plant .

Install street signs .

Disperse the more important governmental functions to outlying , little

developed areas . Similarly , a dispersal of new industry , housing and public
services would lessen risk and improve the tone of the city .

24
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brown , Robert D . Managua, Nicaragua Earthquake of January 4 , 1968. Unpublished

Report to U . S . Geological Survey - Project Report Nicaragua Investigations
( IR ) NI- 1 , August 1968 . 16 pp .
" Catastro" . The Geology of Western Nicaragua , Vol. IV . Report of the " Tax
Improvement and Natural Resources Project , " Managua , Nicaragua , March 1972 .
P . 217 .

Crawford , J . Recent Earthquakes in Nicaragua . The American Geologist , February

1891 . P . 77 , et seq .
Durham , Henry Wells . Managua - Its Construction and Utilities. Engineering
News Record , April 23, 1931. Pp. 696 -700 .
Kuang Sanchez , Juan . Interpretación Geologica de la Ciudad de Managua . Unpub
lished Report . Division de Geologia , Informe No . 20 , Catastro E inventario
de Recursos Naturales , Managua , Nic . , Enero 6 , 1973. P . 30 .
Lévy , Pablo . Notas Geográficas y Económicas sobre la Republica de Nicaragua .
Libreria Española de E . Denné Schmitz , 2 , Calle Fauart 2 , Cercala Opera
Comica , Paris, 1873.

McBirney , A . R . Origin of the Nejapa Pits Near Managua , Nicaragua . Bulletin

Volcanologique. Serie II , Tome SVII, 1955 . P . 145 .
McBirney , Alexander R . and Howell Williams. Volcanic History of Nicaragua .
Univ . of Calif . Press , Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1965. P . 73 .
Sultan , Dan I . The Managua Earthquake. The Military Engineer , Vol . XXIII ,
No . 130 , 1931 . Pp . 354 – 361.

25
 DESTRUCTIVE EARTHQUAKES OF NICARAGUA
by

David J . Leeds
Dames & Moore
Los Angeles , California

Nicaragua ' s location along an active segment of the circum

Pacific tectonic belt is such that frequent large seismic events
are routine . A catalog of Nicaraguan earthquakes * covering the
period 1520 to date lists 452 events , 99 of which , on a magnitude
basis , may be considered destructive . The remainder include a
large number of damaging events of low magnitude ( M < 6.0).

The number of seismic events , both felt and instrumentally located ,

listed in the catalog is impressive considering the paucity of
cultural or scientific data and the absence of seismic stations
for most of the period . The first and only seismograph was in
stalled in 1961. No other instrument operated until after the
disastrous earthquake of December , 1972 .

Other nations in the seismically active Central American portion

of the circum - Pacific belt are no better instrumented . Honduras
to the northeast still lacks any instrumentation Salvador to the
northwest had but a single station until the mid -60 ' s when a net
work of three was installed . Guatemala to the north had about
the same installation schedule as Salvador . The Worldwide Stand
ard Seismograph network has indeed raised the level of percepti
bility and accuracy , but not until the 1960 ' s .

In spite of the lack of instrumental data and the repeated de

struction of local cultural records , a great many earthquakes are
mentioned in the worldwide literature . Exploration of the New
World provided numerous surprises to the Spanish explorers .
These expeditions were well documented , and reprints of most of
the significant works are available . Sixteenth Century reports
are most complete as this was the first European exposure to the
novel and interesting New World . Interest seemed to be lost for
the next two centruies , to be rekindled in the 1800 ' s . It was
not until 1888 when Ferdinand Montessus de Ballore ( 12 ) * * pub
lished an exhaustive catalog of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions
in Central America that any worthwhile work was available .

* Leeds , D . J . " Catalog of Nicaraguan Earthquakes , Bulletin of the

Seismological Society of America , in press 1973.
* *See References at end of paper.

26
However , in spite of help from Spanish explorers , it is as diffi
cult to reconstruct the past as it is to forecast the future and
equally as uncertain . Unfortunately , historical reports are a
function of 1 ) the level of perceptibility of the sensing system
and , 2 ) the interest of the observer .
Indian legends provide data in the neighboring areas of Central
America pushing the record back to pre - Columbian times . The
earliest Nicaraguan volcanic activity reported was in 1520 , the
earliest earthquake in 1528 . The Leeds 1973 catalog lists the
following events , arranged here by century :
DESTRUCTIVE TOTAL NUMBER
CENTURY EARTHQUAKES OF EARTHQUAKES
XVI 14
XVII una
XVIII 6
XIX 69
xx (to 1973) 255

All of the Nicaraguan earthquakes with magnitudes of 6 . 0 or higher

have been considered destructive , or potentially destructive if
their epicenter was near populated places . This is equivalent to
the Gutenberg and Richter ( 19) ratings :

A: M = 7 3 /4 - 8 1 / 2
B: M = 7. 0 - 7. 7
C : M = 6 .0 - 6.9

The older events , before the development of the magnitude scale

( 1943) or before Gutenberg and Richter ' s classification of earlier
earthquakes (back to approximately 1700 ) , have had magnitude as
signments based on felt areas and reported intensities . A few
smaller events , with epicenters unfortunately close to cities ,
but magnitudes less than 6 . 0 , have also been destructive .

Twenty - three Type " B " earthquakes and 76 Type " C " earthquakes have
been tabulated (see attached list ) . No great earthquakes
(M > 7 3 / 4 ) are known for the area .
Volcanic eruptions are listed in addition to the purely seismic
events . They , too , have been similarly although arbitrarily clas
sified , depending upon severity , duration , effects , and damage
caused by the eruption .
The major events are discussed in the following paragraphs with
details in the accompanying table .

27
 DESTRUCTIVE EARTHQUAKES

1528 May to October

Oviedo y Valdes ( 39 ) reported numerous shocks in the rainy season ,

and that " only the lightness of construction saved Leon from com
plete ruin . "

1609
The first reported destructive event was associated with an erup
tion of Momotombo . Crawford ( 8 ) and deBallore (12 ) mention it as
important ; Montandon ( 35 ) calls it a "magaseism , " and neither
Mallet ( 30 ) nor Milne ( 34) have any mention . By 1609 Leon was a
large city and the capital of Nicaragua . Momotombo ' s ejection of
ashes , cinders , and rock fragments deeply buried the city .
Momotombo was " in violent action accompanied by severe earthquakes
lasting for several days . " The capital was then moved about 40
miles southwest to the present site of Leon .

1648 , 1651, 1663

Strong earthquakes doing much damage to the new city of Leon are
mentioned by Ayon ( 1 ) , Crawford ( 7 , 8 , 9 ) , and Levy ( 29 ) , and
deBallore . Several persons were killed and many injured in 1648 .
DeBallore indicated that this is the beginning of the lowering of
the rapids of Rio San Juan , which he attributes to the report by
Levy . The earliest basic source for data on the several earth
quakes seems to be Ayon ; although writing in 1852 , he gives a full
discussion , but no documentation ( op . cit . pp . 63 - 65 , 75 - 78 ) . The
1651 earthquake was violent , continuing the work started in 1648 -
lowering the rapids of Rio San Juan . Ayon has been copies by
Crawford and deBallore . DeBallore improperly attributed the
source to Levy . Mallet and Milne do not mention any of these
events .

In 1663 the effects were more far -reaching than in 1648 and 1651 ,
completely destroying the new city of Leon . The effects were also
violent at Granada . The loss of Rio San Juan to navigation of
ships sailing to Cadiz and Nombre de Dios (New Granada - Panama)
greatly affected commerce at Granada . There is little doubt that
the river was finally closed to navigation on the occasion of the
1663 earthquake . Montandon classified 1663 as a megasism . The
difficulty now is in determining the cause of shutting down river
traffic - whether low water , landslides , shifting of sandbars , or
actual tectonic uplift . Inspection by Crawford in 1902 did not
reveal cracks , fissures , or faulting .
The 1663 earthquake was an extremely important historical event
for Central America . Communication through the San Juan River

28
permitted the development of Nicaragua ' s " inland" cities through
water access to Spain and the West Indies . The closure of this
water route by the 1663 earthquake stymied the colony growth for
almost 200 years .
1764

DeBallore reported that Momotombo was again active , accompanied

by very severe earthquakes (Crawford ) .
1772

On March 16 , 1772 , an earthquake was strongly felt at Granada .

DeBallore mentions terror throughout all Nicaragua . Masaya was
also very active for about 10 days . Crawford ( 8 ) reports that
as Masaya subsided its crater appeared to be full of a yellow sub
stance that two Spanish priests decided was gold . Endeavoring to
dig up the gold , they lost their bucket chains , and two of their
Indian assistants . The first mention of Managua occurs at this
time .

1822

On May 7 , 1822 , a violent earthquake almost completely destroye

Cartago , Costa Rica . It was felt as far north as San Juan del
Norte , or Greytown , on the Mosquito Coast . W . Orlando Roberts ,
quoted by deBallore indicated that dunes and bogs were drained
and lagoons formed . The location is unknown but is on the
Mosquito Coast . Roberts visited the area shortly after the
earthquake and reported on it in 1829 in his " Narrative of
Voyages and Excursions on the Coast and Interior of Central
America " (44 ) .
1835

On January 20 and 21 , 1835 , Cosiquina had violent eruptions with

earthquakes felt at 20 or more leagues . A large part of the vol
canic cone was blown off . Ash fell at enormous distances and
noise was heard at long distances . Cinders covered houses and
streets in Mexico City , 1 , 200 miles distant and ash fell in
Jamaica ; pumice covered the ocean for about 100 miles west from
the volcano . Rio Negro was closed to navigation . DeBallore de
votes five pages to the event with many references . Crawford also
gives it good coverage . This was the first Nicaraguan event
mentioned in the Mallet catalog .
1841

On September 2 , 1841 , a widely damaging shock was centered at

Cartago , Costa Rica . " The shock was so sudden that the persons
who escaped from the houses had scarcely time to fly . The whole

29
district about Cartago was covered with ruins . At Turado ,
Tres Rios , Cartago , Parowso , Ujames , and even in the neighborhood
of Matina , Nicaragua , not a single hut was left standing . The
houses not completely thrown down had to be pulled down . From
San Jose to Heredia and Alajuela the whole county was covered
with ruins . " Mallet and
and deballor
deBalloree report
r on this earthquake .

1844

In May 1844 , widespread damage was reported from San Juan del Norte
to Greytown . The town of Rivas was destroyed . Rio Negro , closed
to navigation in 1835 by Cosiquina , was reopened . Rio Tipitapa
( Lake Managua to Lake Nicaragua ) was reopened , although no pre
vious report indicating it was closed has been found . Lake
Nicaragua cascaded through the rapids causing damage . Reported
by deBallore , Crawford , and Milne ; Montando considers this a
megaseism .
1844

Additional shocks were felt in August 1844 at San Juan del Norte
with Intensity estimated as VIII (MM ) . DeBallore and Milne are
probably correct , but Crawford seems to have confused the May and
August 1844 effects .

1849
sh
akes inin eastern
ng shakes Salv
ador , October 27 , 1849 , were also
ana El Nicaragua
Strong
felt in Honduras and El Salvador . This broad felt area justifies
assignment of a high magnitude . Squier denso repo, rand
squier,, deBallore ted
Jorgensen all reference this event . It is also reported in the
Perrey catalogs (40 ) .
1852
On June 8 , 1852 , the waters of the little crater lakes of d ' Apoyo ,
Tiscapa , Asososca , and others of the same group boiled , causing
laundresses to leave them . No other volcanic or seismic activity
was reported by deBallore .
1856
In December 1856 Masaya built a hill 250 to 300 meters high ,
deBallore reported .

1858

Masaya volcano damaged Granada , the capitol , on the night of

April 10 - 11 , 1858 . From April 25 to May 11, 1858 , Hindiri
erupted with a continuous series of earthquakes . A landslide
closed the road between Masaya and Granada . The shock on

30
April 25 was felt from Cojutepeque to Granada . Reports are from
deBallore and Jorgensen (25 ) . Masaya eruptions continued
through January 1859 .
1859

On December 8 , 1859 , Central America experienced one of its great

earthquakes . There were probably two events , one at 2 ,000 GMT ,
the second 15 minutes later . The shock was widely felt in
Guatemala , El Salvador , and Nicaragua . It was strongly felt in
Managua . Izalco volcano erupted . Fish were killed on the
El Salvador Coast , and a great seawave (tsunami) was observed at
Acaqutla , on the Pacific Coast . DeBallore and Jorgensen
reported .

1862
On December 19 , 1862 , another great Central American earthquake
was felt in Guatemala , Nicaragua , Honduras , and El Salvador .
Although widely felt , and covered by most of the references , no
damage is reported . There were two or more large aftershocks .

1865
Shocks were numerous and severe for many days from the end of
December 1865 through February 1866 . At Granada people slept out
of doors . DeBallore reports that topography was changed at
Rio Tipitapa . Crawford also mentions the shocks .
1867

Two new craters were formed November 14 to 30 , 1867 between Oroto

and Las Pilas , with flames from both volcanoes . Strong explo
sions were felt in Leon at 0100 GMT on November 14 ; the strongest
shock was on November 27 , 1867 . An 800 - to 900 -meter fissure
opened . The earthquakes were felt from Leon to Corinto , Costa
Rica . DeBallore quotes many sources of information , the best
being Dickinson in the Smithsonian Report for 1867 .

1870
Momotombo acted up on June 18 , 1870 , causing earthquakes of great
force injuring many persons and destroying many houses in the
city of Leon . Very loud harsh sound accompanied . DeBallore
quoted Rockstroh .

31
1881

A violent shock with vertical movement lasting more than 50 sec

onds did some damage at Managua on April 28 , 1881 . Three after
shocks followed . The first shock was also heavy at San Juan del
Sur and at Chinandega . It was felt at various places between
Corinto and Managua . Rockwood mentions the shock and deBallore
quotes Calderon y Arana and designates this as the strongest
since 1844 .

1882

The great Central America shock of September 7 , 1882, coinciding

with the eruption of Atrato did its greatest damage at Panama
City ( Inetnsity at least VIII ) . Rockwood has a full account .
The shock was felt at Rivas and Greytown , Nicaragua , and at
Panama, Aspinwall (Colon ) , Buena Ventura and Cartagena , Colombia ,
Guayaquil , and Maracaibo . The cable between Colon and Jamaica
was broken .
1885
On the evening of October 11 , 1885 , a destructive earthquake
( Intensity IX ) occurred throughout Nicaragua . " The greatest
force was at Leon , old Chinendega , and Managua . Leon Cathedral
was fractured in various places ; Laborios church tower was tele
scoped and other churches were injured . The government house ,
barracks , seminary , institute , and bishop ' s palace were also
damaged , and most of the adobe houses lost partition walls .
Managua and Chinandega suffered similar losses , though somewhat
less . . . its duration allowed most of the people to reach the
streets and yards , but those who had retired , being delayed in
opening doors , were bruised by the falling tiles and partition
walls . Five deaths occurred at Leon and one at Managua " (U . S .
Monthly Weather Review ) .
1898

Earthquakes for one day , April 29 , 1898 , caused much damage to

the cathedral of Leon . Intensity was VII to VIII . The shock was
felt from the east side of Lake Nicaragua to the Gulf of Fonseca
and El Salvador . Aftershocks continued twice a day until May 12 ,
1898 . The shock was very strong at Leon and Chinandega and
strong at Managua . The most authoritative contemporary source is
Crawford (7 ) . Jorgensen ( 25 ) (without documentation ) reported
" large trees uprooted at Simon , strong at Managua , very strong
at Leon and Chinandega . "

32
1916

An instrumentally reported event on April 24 , 1916 , at the south

end of Lake Nicaragua registered a magnitude of 7 . 3 . Gutenberg
and Richter reported the event , and it is the first Nicaraguan
entry in the Hypocenter Data File . It is surprising that this
potentially destructive event is not better documented .
1921

On March 28 , 1921 , another large magnitude ( 7 . 3 ) event was felt

in Nicaragua and El Salvador , and recorded all over the earth .
The lack of reported damage helps confirm its offshore location .
1926

The November 5 , 1926 , earthquake is reported ( 3 ) as destructive

in Managua with more than half the walls of houses cracked . It
caused two deaths and a $ 4 , 000 , 000 loss . The tower of the
cathedral collapsed . Damage was considerable at Granada , Masaya
Chinandega , and San Juan del Sur . Richter , in Elementary Seis
mology , reported that the shock was felt at sea on two ships ,
Eagle and Magician .

1931
The March 31 , 1931 , Managua earthquake is of great contemporary
interest because of its similarity to the December 23 , 1972
event . The instrumental record is weak , and the published epi
center location in error . Considering the local nature of the
damage , and surface faulting , the epicenter must have been close
to the city , rather than at the published location . Magnitude
( 5 . 6 Pasadena ) is low for the amount of damage set at $ 15 ,000 , 000 .
Loss of life , estimated at 1 , 100 was also great . Rather complete
discussion is available from several sources : Beaulac (2 ) ,
Durham ( 17 ) , Huber (23) , Freeman ( 18 ) , and Sultan (62) .
The population of the city was 60 ,000 and a number of new build
ings had been constructed , all of which suffered . Only the steel
frame of the new cathedral under construction was left standing .
The Presidential Palace , completed in December 1930 was wrecked ,
parts of which slid into the crater . Water mains were broken .
Fire broke out . The National Penitentiary collapsed killing all
personɛ except those in the yard . The roof and second floor of
the Palace of Communication , inaugurated September 15 , 1930 ,
cracked through and fire gutted the building . All the files of
the government were destroyed except those in safes (Huber) .

33
A zone of cracks , none more than two inches wide extended about
1 - 1 / 2 miles northeastward through the western part of the city .
Vertical displacement was not more than four inches . Damage was
greatest along the fault line and included an area about six
miles east and west , by three miles north and south . At Granada
26 miles southeast , and at Masaya 18 miles north , the shock was
noted but there was no damage (Freeman ) .
Tarquezal and stone buildings were generally damaged while wooden
and reinforced concrete fared well .
Aftershocks in April 7 , 1931 , damaged the few remaining buildings
that escaped the main event ( 3 ) .

1938
An earthquake , April 25 , 1938 , was violent on the Pacific Coast ,
cracking houses from Leon to Chinandega (Rothe) .
On May 6 , 1938 , Rothe reported that Telica was completely de
stroyed with many hurt , and Leon damaged .

1940
A violent earthquake on the Pacific Coast , February 20 , 1940 , did
serious damage at Corinto and Chinandega ( Rothé ) .

1951

On August 3 , 1961 , " strong earthquakes split open the sides of

the long dormant Coseguina volcano , inactive since 1835 , sending
tons of water crashing down from a crater in its center and in
undating the small Pacific Coast port of Potosi . The town of
about 1 , 000 population was reported virtually destroyed and casu
alties were believed to be heavy . . . this location is near the
head of the Gulf of Fonseca . " (Seismological Society of America )
(59 ) .

1955
On April 4 , 1955 , a major earthquake was felt throughout the
Central American republics. There was damage at Managua (Rothe) .
1956

A large magnitude ( 7 . 3 ) earthquake was felt on October 24 , 1956

as far away as the south of El Salvador , which did slight damag
at Managua (Rothé) . Hansen (22) believes this to be the highest
magnitude recorded for a Nicaraguan earthquake . He attributes
the lack of damage to a deep focus . On October 25 , 1956 , another

34
7 . 3 magnitude event was recorded (Hansen ) . This was also felt
in Nicaragua and El Salvador .
1961

Intensity VII was observed at Morazan Port on May 23 , 1961 ; In

tensity VI at Chinandega . At Managua , plaster fell ; at Leon and
Mosaya old houses were damaged ( Rothe) .

1965
A swarm of 54 shocks was recorded in 12 hours on October 20 , 1965 ,
near the Pacific Coast . They were felt from Managua to Masaya
with a maximum magnitude of 6 . 0 ; however , there were no victims ,
and no damage (Rothe ) .
1967

On October 15 , 1967 , an earthquake was felt along the coasts of

Nicaragua and Costa Rica . There was panic in Managua (Rothe ) .
1968

An earthquake was felt January 4 , 1968 , at Masaya , Granada , and

Carazo . " Managua damage was restricted to the areas of low - cost
housing situated in the southern Suburbs of the city (Colonia
Centro - Americana and Colonia 14 de Noviembre ) , where more than
500 houses had to be evacuated " (Rothe) . " The heavily damaged
areas are underlain to depths of more than a hundred meters by
water - borne and air - borne volcanic debris . A maximum intensity
of VII has been assigned to this earthquake . Magnitude 4 . 6 "
(Brown ( 4 ) , Lander (28 ) ) . Hansen (21) and Brown report changes
in level associated with the earthquake of - 37 mm and numerous
ground fractures .

1972
Another Swarm of 100 shocks in four days , a quarter of which were
felt , were recorded beginning January 5 , 1972 . Managua had In
tensity VI and strong motion accelerograph records were written .
The destructive earthquake of December 23 , 1972 is reported ex
tensively elsewhere . It is one of the most disasterous natural
events in North America and is exceeded only by the Peru earth
quake of 1971 in numbers killed . It is probably the most severe
economic loss that any Western Hemisphere nation has ever
undergone .

35
Magnitudes were not excessively high ( 6 . 5 ) nor did Intensity ex
ceed VIII . However , the generally low resistance to shaking of
most construction led to disaster .
Note that the December 1972 earthquake is a repeat of the 1931,
1968 , and January 1972 shocks , each of which had ground breakage
on associated faults through the City of Managua , and moderate
magnitudes . 4 , 000 to 6 ,000 dead ; $800 , 000 , 00 damage .
A catalog of large and destructive earthquakes and a map showing
their locations accompany this paper .

36
 +

1919

+
LEGEND
HONDURAS .7
MAGNITUDE -77.0
MAGNITUDE
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37
+ +
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NICARAGU AN 15
 CATALOG OF
NICARAGUAN EARTHQUAKES

1520 - 1973
DAVID JA LEEDS
DAMES AND MOORE
LOS ANGELES

LARGE AND DESTRUCTIVE EARTHQUAKES OF NICARAGUA

DATE TIME LAT LONG DEP MAG
DA MO YR GMT NORTH WEST KM

SIXTEENTH CENTURY
ZZZ
non
ZZ
no
1528 12 ,60 81 . 86 V TELICA REF -MDB - OVIEDO
MAY - OCT 1528 12 . 40 86 , 80 N C LEON REF -MDB - OVIEDO
25 07 29 11 . 95 86 , 15 V MASAYA REF - MDB
12 06 36 THRU
10 04 38 11 , 95 86 , 15 V MASAYA REF -MDB
1570 11 . 95 86 , 15 V MASAYA REF -MDB

SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
1609 12 ,42 86 , 55 N B MOMOTOMBO VIOLENT AT LEON
REF - CRAWFORD -MDB -SQUIER
ZZ

1648 12 ,50 86 , 80 N 8 LEON DAMAGED , MOMOTOMBO

Z

REF - MDB - CRAWFORD - AYON

1651 11 . 20 85 . 20 N B REF - AYON - CRAWFORD - MDB
1663 12 .42 86 , 55 N B VIOLENT EQES NEAR
MOMOTOMBO - GRANADA , SAN
JUAN RIV BED ELEVATED .
REF - AYON - CRAWFORD -MDB
1670 11. 95 86 ,15 N C V MASAYA REF -MONT SERRAT
MDB
1680 12 .70 87, 02 N C V VIEJO - CHINANDEGA EQES
REF - CRAWFORD
08 08 85 12 ,70 87 .02 N C V EL VIEJO REF - MDB
DAMPIER

EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
1764 12.42 86 .55 N C V MOMOTOMBO ACTIVE
VERY SEVERE EQES , REF - MDB
CRAWFORD - MONTSERRAT
16 03 72 1630 11 .95 86 , 15 N C. V MASAYA ACTIVE
TERROR THRUOUT NIC .
FELT STRONGLY IN GRANADA
FIRST MENTION OF MANAGUA
REF - MDB - CRAWFORD

38
 NINETEENTH CENTURY

20 10 09 12 . 97 87,57 I C EQS FELT GENERALLY IN

HONDURAS PROBABLY V .
COSEQUINA . REF - MDB
07 05 22 10 .00 84 .00 I c CARTAGO CR DESTROYED .
FELT TO SAN JUAN DEL NOR
BOGS DRAINED LAGOONS FOR
MED . REF - MDB -ROBERTS
20 01 35 THRU
21 01 35 12 , 97 87. 57 N C V COSIGUINA . MANY EQES .
VIOLENT ERUPTION . ASH
FALL MEXICO - JAMAICA ,
REF - MDR -ROULIN - CRAWFORD
MALLET
02 09 41 1215 10 .00 84 ,00 1 B CARTAGO CR DISTRICT RUIN
ED . DAMAGE IN NIC ,
REF -MDB -MALLET
05 44 11 .20 84 , 80 1 B RIOS NEGRO AND TIPITAPA
REOPENED , DAMAGE SAN JUAN
DEL NORTE TO GREYTOWN ,
AFTERSHOCKS , REF - MDB
MILNE - CRAWFORD .
08 44 12. 00 84 .00 SAN JUAN DE NIC . VIII
REF - MDB -MILNE
31 07 47 12 .00 84.00 C SAN JUAN REF - MDB
JORGENSEN
27 10 48 11,83 89. 98 I C V MOMOTOMBO ERUPTION
EAST NIC . ALSO FELT HOND
AND SALV . REF -MDB -MILNE
0700 13 ,00 86. 00 I B EASTERN NIC -HOND - SALV
REF - MDB - JORGENSEN
11 04 50 THRU
22 04 50 12.48 86 .68 N C CONE PILAS AT V MOMOTOMBO
REF - SQUIER - CRAWFORD - MDB
08 05 52 12. 16 86. 30 N C WATERS BOILED IN VOLCANIC
CRATERS NEAR MANAGUA
REF -MDB
12 56 11. 95 86 . 15 N C V MASAYA BUILT A HILL 250
TO 300 M HIGH . REF - MDB
1856 11.95 86 .15 N C V NINDIRI VIOLENT
STRONG EQE AT MASAYA
REF - MDB
1857 11. 95 86 ,15 N C V NINDIRI AND V MASAYA
V SAN MIGUEL IN SALV ALSO
z

ACTIVE . REF -MDB - CRAWFORD

11 04 58 11. 95 86 . 15 N C GRANADA DAMAGED FROM V
MASAYA . REF - MDB
25 04 58 TO
z

11 05 58 11. 95 86 , 15 N C V NINDIRI AND EQES

LANDSLIDE CLOSED MASAYA
z

39
 GRANADA ROAD ,
REF - MDB - JORGENSEN

10 11 58 11,95 86 , 15 N C V MASAYA STRONG ERUPTION

REF - MDB
27 01 59 1900 11, 95 86 .15 NC V MASAYA LAVA - RUMBLING ,
REF - MDB - CRAWFORD
09 12 59 0200 13 ,20 90.00 I B GREAT EQE GUAT - SALV -NIC
V IZALCO ERUPTION AND EQE
STRONGLY FELT IN MANAGUA
GIANT SEAWAVE AT ACAJUTLA
FISH KILLED ON SALV COAST
TWO EVENTS - 0200 AND 0215 .
REF -MDB - JORGENSEN
20 12 62 0115 12 .68 86 , 98 B CENT AMERICA , QUAT - HOND
SALV -NIC , CHINANDEGA , A
GREAT EARTHQUAKE
REF -MDB - CRAWFORD - MILNE
12 65 TO
02 66 12 . 00 86 . 00 WESTERN NIC -NUMEROUS AND
SEVERE EQES . GRANADA
TOPOGRAPHY CHANGED AT RIO
TIPITAPA . REF -MDB - CRAW
ü öz " 12 .48 86 .68 N B TWO NEW CRATERS BETWEEN
OROTO AND LAS PILAS
EXPLOSIONS FELT AT LEON ,
800 - 900M FISSURE
EQES FELT LEON - CORINTO CR
REF - MDB
24 07 68 2230 12.42 86 ,55 N C V MOMOTOMBO - SMOKE - EQES
onnon

REF - MDB
16 06 70 11. 95 86 ,15 N C V MASAYA SHOCKS NOISES ,
GENERAL EQES IN NIC .
n

REF -MDB - CRAWFORD

18 06 70 12 .42 86, 55 N C V MOMOTOMBO EQES , INJURIES
AND HOUSES DESTROYED AT
n

LEON , REF -MDB - CRAWFORD

09 06 78 2230 11. 95 85 . 95 N C GRANADA DURATION 17 SEC .
REF -ROCKWOOD
29 04 81 0300 11 .50 86 . 30 I
0400
0500
0530
FIRST SHOCK VIOLENT WITH
VERTICAL MOTION LASTING
50 SECONDS , SOME DAMAGE
AT MANAGUA , ALSO HEAVY AT
SAN JUAN DEL SUR AND CHIN
AND EQA . REF -MDB -ROCKWOOD
09 06 81 11, 00 84 ,00 1 C GREYTOWN 4 SHOCKS ONE
 QUITE SEVERE AND DAMAGE
AT SAN JOSE , C . R .
REF - MDB - ROCKWOOD
07 10 82 0920 9 ,00 82 . 00 I B GREAT PANAMA EQE FELT
ECUADOR TO NICARAGUA WITH
INT VIII PLUS AT PANAMA
AND ERUPTION OF ATRATO
DURATION 60 SEC . CABLE
BETWEEN ASPINWALL AND
JAMAICA BROKEN ABOUT 50
MILES FROM ISTHMUS , FELT
IN RIVAS AND GREYTOWN
REF - MDB - MILNE - ROCKWOOD
02 10 84 2032 11 , 36 85 . 81 N C LIGHT AT RIVAS 2 SEC .
FELT LAKE TO PACIFIC
REF - MDB - ROCKWOOD
12 10 85 0430 12 .25 86 .75 1 B DESTRUCTIVE -MM IX -LEON
CHINANDEGA AND MANAGUA ,
FELT THRUOUT NIC . REF - MDB
ROCKWOOD - CRAWFORD
22 05 86 THRU
23 05 86 12 ,42 86 ,55 N C V MOMOTOMBO ERUPTION
STRONG SHOCKS AT MANAGUA
REF -MDB - CRAWFORD
1891 11 .70 85 . 80 N C NUMEROUS SHOCKS STRONG AT
GRANADA FOR 40 DAYS
DISTURBANCE NORTH OF
OMETEPE IN LAKE NIC
REF -CRAWFORD
04 08 92 12 . 70 87 ,01 N C SAN CRISTOBAL REF - MILNE
29 04 98 1640 TO
12 05 98 12 . 40 86 . 90 I B EQES FOR ONE DAY CAUSING
MUCH DAMAGE AT LEON , INT
VII- VIII AT LEON AND CHIN
ANDEGA . VII AT MANAGUA
WIDELY FELT FROM LAKES TO
GULF OF FONSECA . LARGE
TREES UPROOTED AT SIMON .
REF -CRAWFORD 1898 - JORGEN
SEN

TWENTIETH CENTURY

27 02 16 11. 00 85 .50 N C VERY SEVERE SW NIC AND CR

VERY STRONG AT SAN JOSE
AND SAN JUAN DEL SUR
REF -REID
24 04 16 0802 11 . 00 85 . 00 N 7.3 IST ENTRY HOF - 1ST GR260
29 06 19 2314 13 .50 86 . 50 90 6 . 7 HDF - GR950 BCC
22 07 19 2201 12 . 00 85 . 00 150 6 . 5 HDF - GR450 ccc
28 03 21 0749 12 . 50 87 . 50 N 7,3 FELT NIC AND SALV . RECOR
 DED ALL EARTH , RUTTEN 152
LOCATION 14 . 5N 86W .
HDF - GR140
16 02 22 0314 13. 00 85 ,40 I C DESTRUCTIVE . RECORDED ALL
EARTH , RUTTEN 143
05 10 25 0109 12. 25 85,25 135 6 ,7 DESTRUCTIVE IN MANAGUA .
HDF - GR350 BBA -RUTTEN 139
05 11 26 0755 12 , 30 85 . 80 135 7 . 0 DESTRUCTIVE IN MANAGUA .
HALF HOUSES DAMAGED . ALSO
DAMAGE AT GRANADA - MASAYA
CHINANDEGA - SANJUAN DEL S .
TWO SHOCKS FELT ON SHIPS ,
EAGLE AND MAGICIAN AT 10N
88W . HOF - GR300 BBA -RUTT
EN 140 -BOIS .

25 10 28 1232 85 . 80 12 . 30 FELT NO DAMAGE RUTTEN 141

07 03 31 0041 11 .50 85 , 50 80 NOT FELT . HDF - GR400 ACB
RUTTEN 134
31 03 31 1602 13 . 25 85 , 75 N 5 ,6 DESTRUCTIVE IN MANAGUA .
VERY SIMILAR TO 23 12 72
WITH SURFACE FAULTING .
THIS LOCATION PROBABLY IN
ERROR . HOF -GR240 - BOIS
BEAULAC - FREEMAN - ENR
21 05 32 1010 12 . 00 87 .50 90 6 . 9 HDF - GR850 AAA
02 10 32 0259 11 . 50 86 . 50 I 6 .7 FELT IN MANAGUA . HOF
GR 220 - RUTTEN 135
i

21 05 33 1010 12 . 00 87 .50 90 6 . 9 DESTRUCTIVE IN SALVADOR

ZZHZ

GR850 AAA . RUTTEN 144

LOCATES 13 IN 87 , 3W
11 07 33 0700 12 . 20 86 . 30 N D MANAGUA , SOME DAMAGE . BOIS
24 08 33 12 . 20 86 . 30 N D MANAGUA LIGHT DAMAGE . BOIS
n

24 02 34 0533 12 . 75 86 , 75 HDF - GR250 ABB

22 12 34 1429 11 . 50 87 . 00 HOF -GR160
12 01 37 12 . 58 87, 16 ELEVEN SHOCKS ON SOUTH
COAST CHINANDEGA TO PORT
CORINTO , BLOGS DAMAGED
ROTHE 1938
25 04 38 1707 12 , 20 86 , 90 PACIFIC COAST VIOLENT
HOUSES CRACKED LEON TO
CHINANDEGA .HDF / CGS - ROTHE

06 05 38 1817 12 , 30 86 . 90 TELICA COMPLETELY DESTROY

ED , LEON DAMAGED ,
ROTHE 1939 LOCATES 12 .6N
86 , 9W - SOUTH OF COAST
HDF / CGS-ROTHE 1939
26 12 39 1155 12 , 50 87 ,50 FELT PACIFIC COAST -LEON
CHINANDEGA -CORINTO , ROTHE

42
 LOCATION AT SEA 13 . 5N
88 .4W . ROTHE 1941
20 02 40 12 , 50 87. 50 VIOLENT PACIFIC COAST.
SERIOUS DAMAGE AT CORINTO
AND CHINANDEGA - UNITED
PRESS . ROTHE 1942
06 01 41 0948 11. 75 86 , 50 60 6 HDF / CGS GR210
07 04 44 1332 12 , 00 85 , 50 200 HOF GR330 -8CC
11 02 46 11 .60 85 ,60 DAILY EQES FROM GRANADA
MASAYA -DIRIA -DIRIOMO
MASATEPE - JINOTEPE -RIVAS ,
V LA CONCEPCION ERUPTION ,
BSSA APRIL 1946

26 01 47 1006 12 ,50 86 , 25 170 7 . 2 VILLA DE LA UNION SALV

INT VII. FELT 20000 SQ KM
HDF - GR290 BBA - ROTHE 139 .
15 07 47 12, 50 86 . 80 N C STRONG SHOCKS LOCALLY AT
LEON , V CERRO NEGRO
ERUPTION , ROTHE 1951
05 10 50 1609 11 . 00 85 . 00 N 7. 7 HDF GR265
03 08 51 0024 13 , 00 87 . 50 100 6 STRONG EQE SPLIT OPEN V
COSEGUINA DORMANT SINCE
1835 . POTOSI INUNDATED
AND DESTROYED .
BSSA OCT 1951 . ROTHE 1954
06 08 51 0808 13 , 00 87 , 50 5 ,5 HEAVY DAMAGE JINOTEGA
BSSA OCT 1951 ROTHE 1954
26 02 52 1539 11. 50 86 . 30 100 6 , 0 FELT , HDF / ISS , BSSA AP 52
19 02 54 0040 11 . 50 87 , 50 N 6 ,6 HDF /CGS , ROTHE 6 - 012
FIRST ENTRY IN ROTHE CAT.
19 02 54 2134 12 . 50 87 , 50 N 6 . 6 HDF / CGS . ROTHE 6 - 015
03 05 54 1713 12 . 00 86 . 00 150 6 HOF /CGS ,ROTHE 6 -512
04 04 55 1924 13. 00 87 . 00 N 6,2 IMPORTANT MAJOR EQE FELT
WIDELY THRUOUT CENT AMER .
DAMAGE AT MANAGUA .HOF / CGS
ROTHE 6 - 013 AND 1957 - 280
30 04 55 0143 12 . 00 87 . 00 N 6 FELT HDF /CGS .ROTHE 6 - 016
24 01 56 12 , 20 86 , 70 I 7. 3 NEAR PTO SOMOZA MINOR
DAMAGE IN COASTAL REGION .
HANSEN
24 10 56 1442 11.79 86.46 N 7 , 3 SLIGHT DAMAGE AT MANAGUA .
FELT IN SOUTH OF EL SALV .
HDF / ISS . ROTHE LOCATION
6 - 010 11 . 5N 86 . 5W
ROTHE 1957 - 282 .
25 10 56 0521 12 .00 87 ,00 N 6 . 3 FELT IN NIC AND SALVADOR ,
HANSEN ASSIGNS MAG 7 . 3
HDF / CGS ROTHE 6 - 017
14 11 58 1522 12 . 36 86 . 37 72 C GREAT ALARM V . EPICENTER
SAN FRANCISCO DEL CARNI

43
 CERO , FELT IN WHOLE COUN
TRY AS FAR AS WASPAN
HDF / ISS , HANSEN
04 12 58 1919 11.50 86.50 100 6 INT IV SW OF MASAYA
ALARM ON WEST COAST ,
HDF / CGS , ROTHE6-511 .
HANSEN
24 04 59 0931 11.48 86.40 N 6.3 HDF / ISS ROTHE 6-019
10 07 60 1339 12.50 86,00 150 6 STRONGLY FELT IN MANAGUA .
INT . IV SALVADOR COAST
HOF / CGS . ROTHE 1962-263 ,
SALVADOR SEIS , BULL .
20 03 61 0616 11.30 85.60 60 6.0 FELT IN MANAGUA AND
SOME OTHER TOWNS
ROTHE 1969 6-018
HDF / CGS . HANSEN 1972
SALV SEIS BULL
23 05 61 1644 12.70 87,30 138 6.5 HDF / CGS PLASTER FELL IN
MANAGUA . OLD HOUSES DAMAG
ED IN LEON AND MASAYA .
CHINANDEGA IV .
MORAZAN PORT VII .
ROTHE 1969 6-509
24 11 62 1030 13.00 87,50 25 с HANSEN 71 GULF OF FONESCA
23 11 63 0259 12,00 87,20 N C
SALVADOR SEIS , OFF THE COF
15 10 67 0801 11.90 86.00 162 6.2 PANIC IN MANAGUA FELT ON
WEST COAST OF NICARAGUA
AND COSTA RICA
HOF / CGS PDE
UNESCO DISASTER 539 1967
24 10 68 12,52 86.73 NC V CERRO NEGRO ERUPTION TO
MID DECEMBER LAVA FLOWS
AND ASH FALL , SMITHSON
1969 - DISCALA . UNESCO 1968
23 12 72 0629 12.40 86,10 5 6.2 MANAGUA DESTROYED , SURFACE
FAULTING . CHANGE IN LEVEL
6000 DEAD , 800.000.000
DOLLAR DAMAGE , ALMOST
REPEAT OF 1931. FAULTING
PDE - EDR - USGS AND OTHERS .
EDR ARENAL AND RIO CHIQUIT
14 04 73 0834 10,68 84,76 NC
AREAS , COSTA RICA , 26 KILL
13 04 73 2235 10,50 85.50 N 6.7 PRESS REPORT - 15 KILLED
NW GUANACASTE PROV , C.R.
120 MI SE OF MANAGUA

44
 LEGEND
TIME GREENWICH
LOCAL TIME PLUS 6 HOURS ,

DEP DEPTH IN KILOMETERS

N O NORMAL SURFACE TO 60
I INTERMEDIATE - 70 TO 200
MAG CGS BODY WAVE MAGNITUDE
GUTENBERG AND RICHTER MAG
NITUDE SCALE
A - 7,75 TO 8,5
B - 7,0 TO 7,7
C - 6,0 TO 6,9
D - 5,3 TO 5.9
E - LESS THAN 5,3

SPELLING SOURCE SPELLING USED .

REF MDB IS MONTESSUS DE BALLORE
1888. OTHERS ARE IN LIST OF
REFERENCES ,
QUALITY O GUTENBERG AND RICHTER
PROBABLE LIMITS OF ERROR -
EPI ORI- DEP
CEN GIN KM
TER TIME
DEG , SEC
A - VERY ACCURATE 1 5 30
B - GOOD 2 8 50
C - FAIR 3 12 80
D - POOR
END OF LEGEND

FIN

45
 NICARAGUAN EARTHQUAKES – REFERENCES

1. Ayon , T . ( 1882) . Historia de Nicaragua , Reprinted 1956 , 3 vols. ,

1433 pp . Vol. 2 , Book V , pp . 64 -65 and Book VI, pp . 75 - 78 ,
1651- 1663 earthquakes .

2. Beaulac , W . ( 1931). Managua Earthquake. Official Report of the

Relief Work in Nicaragua after the Earthquake of March 31 , 1931 ,
The American National Red Cross , Washington. U . S . Red Cross
Circle , ARC 903. Illustrated , 43 pp . Review (French ) in Materiaux
Pour L ' Etude des Calamites ( 1932 ) , No. 27 , No. III, 1931.
3. Bois , C . ( 1924 - 1927 ) . Chronique Sismologique , Materiaux Pour
L ' Etude des Calamites , Geneva . No. 12 (Jan -Mar 1927 ) , p . 347
earthquake of Nov . 5 , 1926 ; No. 25 (1931) , p . 56 - earthquake of
Mar: 31, 1931; No. 26 (1931 ) , p . 145 - earthquake of April 7 , 1931.
No. 30 - 31 (1933) , p . 257 - earthquakes of July 11 and Aug 24 , 1933 .
4. Brown , R . D . (1968) . Managua , Nicaragua , Earthquake of January 4 ,
1968, Project Report, Nicaragua Investigations (IR ) NI- 1, U . S .
Geological Survey , 13 pp . For use of the Governments of Nicaragua
and U . S . only .

5. Brown , R . D . , Jr . , P . L . Ward , and G . Plafker (1973 ) . Geologic and

Seismologic Aspects of the Managua , Nicaragua , Earthquake of
December 23 , 1972 , Professional Paper 838 , U . S . Geological
Survey , Washington .

Calderon y Arana , Salvador (ca . 1882) . Consideraciones sobre los

terremotos de Nicaragua , La Juventud de San Salvador , Vol. 3 .
. Crawford , J . (July 1898 ). Recent Severe Seismic Disturbances in
Nicaragua , American Geologist 22 , 56 -58 . Earthquakes of April
29 - May 12 , 1898 .

8. Crawford , J . (August 1902). List of the Most Important Volcanic

Eruptions and Earthquakes in Western Nicaragua within Historic
Crameruptions andEarthquakesinWesterm
Time, American Geologist 30 , 111 - 113 .Nicaragua
Covers within
period 1609 - 1902 .

. Crawford , J . (December 1902 ). Additions to the List of Nicaraguan

Volcanic Eruptions in Historic Time, American Geologist 30 ,
395 - 396 .

10 . Dampier , Capt. W . ( 1697) . A New Voyage Around the World . English

translation (1906 ) in 2 volumes , E . Grant Richards , London .
Discussion of 1685 eruption .
11. de Ballore , F . de Montessus ( 1885 ) . Sur les tremblements de terre et
les eruptions volcaniques dans l'Amerique Centrale , Compt.
Rendus de l ' Acad . Sci. Paris , Tome 100 , 1312 - 1315 .

46
12 . de Ballore, F . de Montessus ( 1888 ). Tremblements de terre et
eruptions volcaniques au Centre - Amerique depuis la conquete
espagnole jusqu ' a nos jours. Dijon Soc. des Sc . Nat. de
Saone - et - Loire , 293 pp . , cartes , graphiques. The most important
catalog , well documented.
13. de Ballore , F . de Montessus (1906 ) . Les Tremblements de Terre,
Librairie Armand Colin , Paris , pp . 384 - 392, Central America .

14 . Dickinson (1868 ) . A new volcano in Nicaragua , Report of Smithsonian

Insitute for 1867, 467 - 470 .
15. DiScala , L . , and J . G . Viramonte (Jan . 20 , 1969) . Preliminary Report
on the 1968 Eruption of the Cerro Negro Volcano , Nicaragua ,
Smithsonian Center for Short - lived Phenomena .

16 . Dollfus , A . , and E . de Mont -Serrat ( 1868 ). Voyage geologique dans les

republiques de Guatemala et de Salvador , Imp. Imperiale , Paris ,
539 pp .

17. Durham , H . W . (April 23 , 1931). Managua Earthquake of 1931,

Engineering News Record.
18 . Freeman , J . R . (1932 ) . Earthquake Damage and Earthquake Insurance ,
McGraw -Hill Book Co. , New York . 1931 earthquake, pp . 589 -595 .
19. Gutenberg, B . , and C . F . Richter (1942) . Seismicity of Central and
South America , Proc. 8th Amer . Sci. Conf. 1940 , 4 ; 455 .

20 . Gutenberg , B . , and C . F . Richter (1954 ). Seismicity of the Earth ,

Princeton Press . Lists earthquakes 1904 - 1952 of magnitudes 5 . 3
and greater .

21. Hansen A . , F . ( 1971? ) . Consideraciones sobre el establecimiento de

un Servicio Sismologico Instrumental en la Republica de Nicaragua ,
Tesis de Graduacion , Universidad Nacional Autonomo de Nicaragua .

22 . Hansen A . , F . (March 1972) . Origen de los sismos - Historia sismica

de Nicaragua,manuscript 27 pp . , 8 plates , Managua .

23 . Huber, Harry E . (Sept. 3, 1932) . Nicaragua 1931- 32 , Weekly Philatelic

Gossip , Vol. 17 , No. 24 (565), 756 - 758 . Contemporary account of
1931 earthquake .

24. Incer , Jaime (1970). Nueva Geografia de Nicaragua , EditorialRecalde ,

Managua , 582 pp .
25 . Jorgensen , K . M . (Feb . 1966 ) . Seismological History of the Canal Zone
and Panama, Panama Canal Company , Canal Zone , IOCS Memorandum
PCC - 3 , 12 pp .
26 . Karim A . , R . T . and S . C . Padilla L . ( 1968 ) . Informe sobre el terremoto
del 4 de enero de 1968, Assoc . Nicaraguense de Ingenieros y
Arquitectos.
27. Konig , L . P . G . ( 1952). Earthquakes in relation to their geographical
distribution . Part 5 , Central America and the Caribbean area ,
K . Nederlandse Akad . Wetensh . , Proc. Ser. B , 55 , 272 -292 ,
Amsterdam .
28 . Lander , J . F . (Oct. 1968 ) . Seismological Notes, Bull. Seis. Soc.
Amer . 58 , 5 , 1705 . Note on Jan 4 , 1968 earthquake.
29 . Lévy , P . (1873) . Notas geograficas y economicas sobre la Republica
de Nicaragua , Lib . Esp . de E . D . Schmitz , Paris, 627 pp .
Volcanoes pp. 82 - 87 , 147 - 155; earthquakes p . 155 .
30 . Mallet , R . ( 1853 - 1855 ) . Catalogue of recorded earthquakes, 1606 B . C . -
1842 A . D . , Report 22nd through 24th Meetings , 1852 - 1854 , Brit.
Assoc . Adv . Sci. , London .
31. McBirney , A . R . ( 1957) . Active volcanoes of Nicaragua and Costa Rica ,
in Catalogue of Active Volcanoes of the World VI , Int. Vol. Assn .

32. McBirney , A . R . and H . Williams ( 1965 ). Volcanic History of Nicaragua ,

Univ . Calif . Press , Berkeley .
33. Mendiguren , J . A . ( 1966 ). Focal mechanism and pressure axis direction
in Central America and South America , Bull. Inter . Inst. Seis .
and Earthquake Engr . , 3 , 1 - 20 , Tokyo .
34. Milne, J . (1912).Catalogue of Destructive Earthquakes A . D . 7 - 1899,
Report 81st Meeting , Br . Assoc. Adv . Sci. Portsmouth 1911.

35. Montandon , F . (Dec 1962). Les mega seismes en Amerique, Revue pour
l' Etude des Calamites , No. 38 , 57 - 97 .

36 . National Earthquake Information Center ( 1970 ) . Seismicity of Middle

America , U . S . Dept. Commerce , ESSA , NEIC 3013,Washington .
Epicenter Map WSSN 1962 - 1969.

37 . National Earthquake Information Center ( 1973 ) . Hypocenter Data File ,

11° - 13 . 5° North , 83° - 87 . 5° West , thru 1972 , U . S . Dept. Commerce .
NOAA , NEIC , Boulder .
38 . National Earthquake Information Center ( Jan - Feb 1973 ), Christmas in
Managua , Earthquake Information Bulletin 5 , 1 , 4 - 11. Includes list
of significant earthquakes 1900 - 1972.
39 . Oviedo y Valdes , G . F . (1535 ) . Sumario de la Historia General y Natural
de las Indias Occidentales , Reprinted Asuncion 1945 . Vols . 117 - 121
cover Central America .

48
 40. Perrey , A . ( 1847 ) . Documents sur les tremblements de terre au Mexique
et dans l' Amerique centrale , Annales de l 'Soc . d ' Emulation de
Vosges , 6 , 2e cah . Also as a separate 1848 .
41. Pittier, H . ( 1896 ) . Notes on Volcanoes and Earthquakes in Costa Rica.
Report of the Board of Engineers . . . Nicaragua Canal, House of Repre
sentatives Document 279, 54th Congress , 1st session , 143 - 146 .

12 , Reid , H . F . ( 1910 - 1917 ) . Earthquakes and Volcanoes, The American

Yearbook , D . Appleton and Co . , New York and London .

43. Richter , Charles F . ( 1958). Elementary Seismology, W . H . Freeman

& Co . , San Francisco .
44. Roberts, W . Orlando (1829) . Narrative of Voyages and Excursions on
the Coast and the Interior of Central America . (Collection Monte
mont y Maussion de Conde . )

45 . Rockstroh , Edwin ( 1883) . Temblores y erupciones en Centro - America ,

Revista del Observatorio Nacional de Guatemala l, 21- 24 . Data
on 1870 earthquake.
46 . Rockwood , C . G . , Jr . (1872 - 1886 ). Notices of Recent American
Earthquakes , Amer . Jour . Sci. and Arts , 3 - 32 . Third series .

47. Rothé, J . P . ( 1938 - 1962). Chronique Seismologique, Revue pour l'Etude

des Calamites, Geneva .

Years studied : Citation :

1937 I, 2 , 94 - 102 ( 1938)
1938 - 1st 1 / 2 II, 7 , 230 - 241 ( 1939)
1938 - 2nd 1 / 2 III , 10 - 11, 166 - 176 ( 1940 )
1939 IV , 12 - 13 , 69 - 83 ( 1941)
1940 V , 16 - 17 , 53 -66 (1942)
1941 - 1942 VII, 21, 45 -60 ( 1944 )
1943 - 1944 VIII, 23 , 119 - 144 (1945 )
1945 - 1946 XI, 26 - 27 , 3 - 32 ( 1949)
1947 - 1948 XII , 28 -29 , 19 - 46 (1951)
1949 - 1950 XIII, 30 -31 , 20 -51 (1953)
1951 - 1952 XIV , 32 , 83 - 116 (1954)
1953 - 1954 XV , 33 , 8 -41 (1955 )
1955 - 1956 XVI, 34 - 35 , 3 - 35 (1957)
1957 - - - - 36 , 2 - 27 ( 1959)
1958 - 1959 37 , 31-69 ( 1961)
1960 - - - - 38 , 21- 56 ( 1962)
48. Rothé, J . P . (1964 - 1966 ) . Chronique Seismologique. Revue de l'Union
Internacionale de Secours , Geneva

Years studied : Citation :

1961 - 1962 1 , 11 -58 ( 1964 )

1963 - 1964 4 , 14 - 75 (1965 )
1965 5 , 3 -61 ( 1966 )

49. Rothé, J. P . (1966 - 1968). Earthquakes , Annual Summary of Information

on Natural Disasters , UNESCO , Paris .

50 , Rothé, J. P . (1969). Seismicity of the Earth 1953-1965, UNESCO , Paris.

51. Roulin , M . ( 1837 ). Cendres d'un volcan de l' Amerique Centrale , Comp.
rendus de l'Acad . Sci. Paris 4 , 801 - 802 .

52. Roulin , M . ( 1837) . Eruption du volcan de Cosiguina , Comp. rendus de

l'Acad . Sci. Paris 5 , 75 - 76 .
53. Rutten
en, eLearthquake
53 Ruttand
. and B . VanRaadshooven (1940). On earthquake epicenters
er hende shocks between 1913 and 1938 in the region 0° and
30° North and 56°s and 120° West, Verhandelingen der Nederlandsche
in
Akademie van Wetenschuppen , Afdeling Natuurkunde Tweede
Sectie , deal 39 , No. 4 , Amsterdam .

54. Sanchez , P . C . ( 1942 ) . Las regiones sismicas de Centro America .

Memorias Revista de la Academia Nacional de Ciencias 'Antonia
Alzate' , 55 , 233 - 236 .

55. Sanchez , P . C . ( 1942) . Sismos y volcanes . . . America Central 19°

Mexico hasta Darien , Proc . 8th Am . Sci. Cong. 1940 IV , 747 - 750 ,
Washington .

56 . Sanchez , P . C . ( 1947) . Centro -America . . . sus volcanes y sismos ,

Publicaciones del Instituto Panamericano de Geografia e Historia ,
No. 25 , 30 pp .
57. Santos , C . (22 Dec 1972 ) . La hipotetica probabilidad de ocurrencia de
temblores en la ciudad de Managua durante el v .erano de 1973 ,
manuscript - mimeo , 25 pp. Managua .
58. Sapper , C . ( 1925 ) . El Infierno de Masaya . Estudios sobre America y
Espana , Inst. americanista de la Universidad de W yerzburgo , 62 pp .

59. Schulz, R . (1955 - 1960 ) . Boletin sismologico del Servicio Geologico

Nacional de El Salvador 1 - 6 , Servicio Geologico Nacional de El
Salvador, San Salvador .

60. Seismological Society of America (1951) . Seismological Notes – Nica

ragua Aug 3 - 6 , 1951, Bull. Seis. Soc . Amer . 41, 4 , 399.

50
61. Squier , E . G . ( 1851). On the Volcanoes of Central America . . . Nicaragua
. . . Interoceanic Canal, Proc . Amer . Assoc. Adv. Sci. 4th Meeting
Aug . 1850 , Washington , pp . 101 - 122 .

62 . Sultan , Lt. Col. D . I. ( 1931) . Managua Earthquake of 1931, Military

Engineer 23 , 130 , 354 .

63. Viramonte , J. G . , E . Ubeda , and M . Martinez , (April 15 , 1971).The

1971 Eruption of Cerro Negro , Nicaragua . Smithsonian Inst. ,
Center for Short - lived Phenomena .

64. Zies, E . G . (1942) . The Active Volcanoes of Central America , Proc .

8th Amer . Sci. Cong. 4 , Washington 1940 , pp . 757 - 758.
 HYDRO - GEOLOGICAL FACTORS IN THE OCURRENCE OF
THE EARTHQUAKES OF MANAGUA

Carlos SANTOS , M , S. , C.E.

Director , SANTOS & HEILEMANN
Eng . & Arch . Consultants , Managua

1. - THE GEOLOGICAL SCENERY

1.1 - Managua is located on the western edge of the Caribbean Plate , a

piece of the earth crust that seems to be a small continent although
must of its surface is covered by the Caribbean Sea ( see Figure
1.1 ) .

The western edge of the plate constitutes part of Southern México ,

the Southern half of Guatemala , and the totality of El Salvador , Hon
duras , Nicaragua and Costa Rica . The eastern edge is formed by
the Lesser Antilles. Along both edges , the oceanic plates apparen
tly maintain a steady compresive presure normal to the Pacific -
shore line , due to so called sea bed spreading , ocurring at oceanic
ridges that run almost North - South in the middle of both Oceans ,

MARCO DE
CAMPECHE CUENCA DE
YUCATIN
FOSA DE VENTO 20
ORUCA

JAMAICA
MEXICO

ANTIL
MENORAS
L
ES
MAR CARIBE
BANCO DE CANGUR
DUATEMALA NONDURAS 19 °

WOOL SALVADOR
ANER OUA
ICA TRENCH
QUENCA DE COLOMBIA

OSTA RICA

WANAM
OCEANO PACIFICO VENEZUELA
b

L
COSP RRA
915 ° sto o 815 ° 80°, they 715 7toº

Figure 1.1 - The Caribbean Plate ( approximate boundaries) .

52
 forcing the oceanic plates to slip under the Caribbean Plate .
1 . 2 - The movevement of the oceanic plates under the Caribbean Plate is
associated with the formation of volcanic arcs that through ejection
and deposition on earth surface of lightmaterials (sand, pumice , - -
etc. ) formed from solid rock of the inner layers of the earth, increa
se the continental mass. Figure 2 . 4 shows a very simplified ver - -
sion of probable a rc formation in Nicaragua and is based on recent
work of geologists (Ref. 1) . In this way Managua would be located
in land gained from the sea by action of a Quaternary Volcanic Arc,
the Marrabios -Nicaraos Range ; other ranges to the east of Managua
forming the rest ofNicaragua land, would be the end result of volca
nic activity associated with Terciary and older volcanic Arcs.

1 , 3 - The Quaternary Volcanic Arc of Central America runs almost para

llel to the Middle American Trench . In some places, like near Ma
nagua, it departs from a continous line and shows an abrupt change
in direction as well as displacements that evidence the existence of
faulting originated from compresional forces in the S . E . - N . W direc
tion , i , e . , parallel to the Pacific shore line.

1. 4 - Besides the change in direction and the notorious displacement of Ma

rrabios and Nicaraos ranges, the existence of numerous parallel - -
faults almost normal to the volcanic arcs is a striking feature at Ma
nagua. We may speak of a Managua Belt of faulting that extends - -
from Managua to the Atlantic Coast in a NE direction forming the
Isabelia Mountains in the NE border of Nicaragua in line with the
Mosquitos Banks at the Caribbean Sea .

This faulting explains why the Lake Managua is shaped like the num
ber eight. The faulting beeing appa . ently more recent than the Ma
rrabios -Nicaraos volcanic arc must have originated North - East o
riented ruptures of this arc that in turn led to volcanic activity, like
the Nejapa Fault and some other faults in the neighborhood of Mana
gua such as Tiscapa , Veracruz, etc . , that also developped volcanic
activity evidenced by the existence of crater and cone vestiges.
The so called Sierras de Managua must owemuch of its volume to
m

volcanic debris coming from volcanoes of the Managua NE faulting .

1 . 5 - In conclusion , as result of its geologic history, the Managua region

contains a large number of faults, mainly in the N -NE direction .
The resulting blocks of earth crust are very narrow in the E - W di
rection (1 Km . or narrower) and very long in the N -NE sense. The
preliminary mapping of ground fractures from December '72 earth
quake suggest the fault pattern of Figure 1 . 5 . Wemay consider - -

53
 MAR
RY BIOS

LAGO DE
MAWAGUS
un como AKCIETO

Toi
mit
+
CATEARE

urv
OCEANO

e
PACIFICO

LASVOUS CA LAGO DE
12 RA
BE

OS NICARAGUA
LL
GU

A
A

AMDEE

Maret
+

87 • 86

Figure 1.5 - Managua Belt .

( shaded areas southwest of Managua present NE faulting referred to in 1.5 )

this region as a hinge and dislocation zone between the straight -

line of the Marrabios and Nicaraos Ranges ; the region thus has
very poor stability as compared with the adjoining zones of the
earth crust that are formed by larger blocks .

54
2 . - THE EFECT OF MANAGUA LAKE ELEVATION CHANGES .

2 , 1 - The law of isostasy is accepted as one the basic principles of geo

physics . It can be stated as follows (Ref. 2 ) :

asses
" All large land masses on the earth ' s surface tend to sink or rise
so that, given time for adjustment to occur, their masses
OCC
are hy - -
Sses ana

drostatically supported from below , except where local stresses

are acting to upset equilibrium " .

This is pure flotation according to the Principle of Archimedes .

Asuming 3 . 30 as specific density of sub - crustal fluid and 6 Km .
as the thickness of salt water layer over oceanic floor without sedi
ments, we may deduce the elevation of the Line of Continental Flo - .|
tation to be at 4 . 1 under Mean Sea Level (See figure 2 . 1 ) in front
ofNicaragua . This allows us to make a rough estimate of thickness
of continental volcanic over burden made up of rockfoam , debris and
lava that floats because of its lower density . Assuming this layer
to have a specific gravity of 2 . 00 in saturated condition , we found
the thicknesses shown in figure 2 . 4
The underlying crust is of no concern in the computation if we accept
it is the same as the oceanic crust in origin , density and thickness.

2 . 2 - Beca use of the seasonal

changes in the elevation
ofthe Lake of Managua , -
the earth blocks of the Ma MSL
nagua region are subjected
to seasonal changes in 14 .1K
P =1025 LINE OF CONTINENTAL
weight and hence to sub FLOTATION
sequent isostatic forces
that tend to sink the blocks P : 3.30
during rainy seasons and
to push them up in dry sea
sons. The annual changes
registered vary from + 3. 30 (6 - h ) : 1.025 x 6
3060 mm . in wet rainy - i. h : ( 19.80 - 6. 15 ) / 3.30 : 4 .1K
seasons to - 710 mm . in
very dry seasons (Ref. 3 )
with a medianvalue of 1, 885
mm . Sometimes this for
ces may be resisted by
elastic deformation of the
crust, storing energy like Fig . 2 . 1 - Continental Flotation .
a spring, but if the elastic
 limit is reached, the crust might develop a fracture and adjust itself
to equilibrium by upward displacement at the weakest places.

2 . 3 - The work done by isostatic displacement is proporcional to the dis

tance traveled and force applied to block displaced . The first -
component, distance traveled , depends solely of the unbalanced - -
weight, in this case + 1. 88 Tons per square meter as median value.
In terms of subcrustal material the net movement involved to reach
inmediate equilibrium would be a 57 cm . sinking or rising over the
area of the Managua Lake watershed.

Because the earth crust is a dome, it is evident that sinking forces

can be resisted by compression on the contact faces of the blocks
between faults. Howewer, the rising forces may be more critical
as the blocks will offer no resistance except by friction among their
contact faces.

2 . 4 - From Figure 2 . 4 wemay see that the height of the Managua blocks
from earth surface to base of crust might be 16 . 7 K , assuming 6K
thickness of crust,

The energy stored as potencial energy by the subcrustal fluid when

m
the Managua Lake lowers 1, 885mm .. and which tends to push up the
part of Managua Belt over Lake watershed is as follows:

Overburden . . . . . . . . . 10 . 7x2 , 0 = 21 . 4
Crust. . . .. .. 6 . x3 . 3 = 19. 8.
41. 2

Totalmass in 60x10 Km2. . . . . M - 41, 2x600x1015 grams

= 2 . 47x1019 grams
Work of 57 cm . movement . 981 M (57 ) - 1. 38 x1024 ergs

If the shock of Dec . 23, 1972 was of 6 . 25 magnitude in the Richter

scale , it represents 1021 ergs. This only 0 . 72 % of total potencial
energy for the area thatmight affect the Managua hinge zone.

Another sustancial portion of this energy might have been spent as

mechanical work by displacing the blocks, as observed in the fault
lines, another portion must have been transformed into other forms
of energy such as heat, sound , magnetic changes, etc . and the rest
must have been kept as potencial energy .

56
 160 K 60K_
60K BOK

Matiguos
El Coyol Range Belt -
Pacific Morrabios -Nicargos
Ocean Middle American Range
Trench Seboco
Line of - Managua
Continental Pacific coast and
Flotation M .S.L . Continental Shelf 0 .5 K
O.IKE
6 K 4 IK 4 .2K 4 .6K

10.4K 10.7K
11. 7 KI
P : 2 .0
· Volcanic
Continental Earthquakes Chimney
Focus Moving 0 : 3.3
Oceanic
Crust Fixed
Former
Oceanic
Crust

Figure 2 . 4 - Suggested scheme of volcanic arcs. (Not to scale)

2 , 5 - The above considerations seem to explain the notorious correlation ob

served at Managua between years of drought and earthquakes (See Table
2 . 5 ). Of course, as it happens with all natural phenomena, it is impo
ssible to trace earthquakes to one single cause . It is evident that other
factors may also have a definite influence on the ocurrence ofManagua
shallow focus earthquakes, for example:
a - The upheaval of the earth domebecause of earth tides. All obser
ved local ea cthquakes of Managua have occurred 2 days before or
new moon, when earth tides, same as sea tides, may reach maxi
mum amplitudes. Dates of earthquakes are as follows: 31 March
1931, 4 January 1968, 23 December 1972.
b - The negative anomaly observed in the measurements of gravity
at Managua. Such anomaly might be the result of a permanent
force which tends to push up this region as is the case in Fenos
candia (Finland, Sweden and Norway) where the region is rising
at the rate of one meter per century and also presents a negative
anomaly of gravity .

57
 TABLE 2. 5 - Lake of Managua

Net
Mean Re - Apanas Re . Subsequent Year Ob
Year Rainfall Elevation (m ) charge Correc charge servations March
May -Nov. (m ) tion ( cm ) (cm ) Elev. Earthquakes
1928 1118 38 . 93 39 . 97 104 104 39 . 49
no

1929 1253 39, 05 40, 01 96 96 39 . 35

1930 631 39. 00 38 . 76 ( - - 24 ) (- 24) 38 . 06 March 31/ 31
1931 1385 38 . 10 39. 38 128 128 38 , 91
1932 1756 38 . 51 41.41 290 290 40 .68
1933 1783 40. 44 43 . 00 256 256 41. 38
1934 1120 41, 09 41. 52 43 43 40 , 88
1935 1262 40. 41 41 . 55 114 114 40 , 70
1936 1517 40. 51 41. 65 114 114 41. 13
1937 1231 41 . 00 41. 66 66 66 41. 27
1938 1121 40. 98 41, 59 61 61 41. 21
1939 672 40. 83 40 . 12 ( - -71) (- - 71) 39 .69
1940 1157 39. 42 39 . 85 43 43 39. 42
1941 830 39. 10 39. 14 4 38. 44
1942 1334 38 . 26 39. 88 162 162 39. 47
1943 808 39 . 18 39 . 39 21 21 39, 05
1944 879 38 .68 39 . 54 86 86 38 . 93
1945 1284 38 ,60 40 . 06 146 146 39 . 29
1946 406 37 . 84 --- ( - - 26) ( - - 26) 37 . 46
1947 1115 1
1948 1180
1

1949 1411
1

1950 1490
1

1951 1294
1

1952 1186
1

1953 38. 26 38 , 73 47 38 . 30
w

1954 1638 37. 91 40. 37 246 246 --

1955 39 . 30 42 . 36 306 306 41. 08
1956 929 40. 61 40.60 (- - - 1) ( - - - 1) 39 . 90
1957 928 39. 68 -- - -- 39. 23
1958 1349 39. 57 39 . 60 3 3 39. 00
1959 882 38 . 61 38 . 47 ( - - 14 ) ( -- 14 )
1960 1674 ---
1961 1063
1962 1156 - - - - - -

1963 725 - - - 38. 36

1964 1118

58
‫‪1965‬‬ ‫‪_ 880‬‬ ‫‪- - . 37. 53‬‬ ‫‪..‬‬ ‫‪27‬‬ ‫‪36. 85‬‬
‫‪1966‬‬ ‫‪1156‬‬ ‫‪_ 36 , 66‬‬ ‫‪--‬‬ ‫‪--‬‬ ‫‪37 , 42‬‬

‫ܩ‬
‫ܝܝܕ‬
‫‪1967‬‬ ‫)‪_594 _ 37 . 06 37. 06 ( - - 00‬‬ ‫)‪( - -29‬‬ ‫‪36 , 49 Jan . 4, 68‬‬
‫‪1968‬‬ ‫‪1400 _36 . 27 _3774 147‬‬ ‫‪103‬‬ ‫‪37, 23‬‬

‫ܠܛܢܼܲܬ‬
‫‪1969‬‬ ‫‪1728 _37 . 0339 , 28 _225‬‬ ‫‪183‬‬ ‫‪38, 82‬‬
‫‪197 0‬‬ ‫‪1311‬‬ ‫‪38. 58 39 . 67 109‬‬ ‫‪_ 64‬‬ ‫‪39, 14‬‬

‫ܩ‬
‫‪1971‬‬ ‫‪1158‬‬ ‫‪38. 86 39. 51 _65‬‬ ‫‪40‬‬ ‫‪38. 93‬‬

‫ܡ‬
‫‪1972‬‬ ‫)‪_ 452 _ 38. 62 38, 26 (- -36‬‬ ‫)‪( - -63‬‬

‫ܙܢ‬

‫‪59‬‬
3 . - ECOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
3 . 1 - The sensitiveness of the Managua Segment to changes of hidrostatic
level of Lake Managua draws our attention to the search for hydro
logical factors that might control the seasonal extreme lowering of
such level.

3 . 2 - Because the Lake acts as a big pan evaporator, one of such factors
is undoubtely the ground water conservation in the basin of Lake
Managua . This aquifer has suffered from the human " development'':

a ) Former settlers devastated the forest, with consequent lower

rainfall.

b) Cotton plantations and annual crops increased evaporation ,

Urban developers increased surface runoff by means of roofed

areas, paved streets and storm sewers.

d ) City water supply contributed directly to the water table lowering

since the installation of pumping facility at Asososca Lake in
the 20 ' s .

All the above actions have undoubtedly produced a very acute lower
ing of the water table, probably well below the normal or usual ele
vations in historic times, under which the equilibrium of the earth
crust was established in this region .

3 , 3 - From the above, one may deduce some of the conservation measu
res necessary for improving seismic stability of Managua . The
water supply for the entire city may be obtained from the abundant
source of surface water represented by Lake Nicaragua ; this may
be required by other considerations anyway, since the ground water
from the Managua region will be insufficient very soon due to rapid
increase in population . Some forecasts predict an increase from
the 400 , 000 pop . of 1972 to 2. 5 million in 2002 .

A ground water recharge system may be constructed either by - -

am CO

means of spreading basins to reduce surface water runoff and pro

tect it from evaporation , or by injection wells ,

A ground water level monitoring system 2 could

C
be instituted, switch
ing to alternative sources of supply and curtail withdrawal of ground
water when levels are deppressed.
 APPENDIX

ON MAGNITUDE AND INTENSITY OF EARTHQUAKES

A . 1 - From the first records of earthquakes, there has been a pronounced in

terested in assigning some relative importance to them , mainly ac
cording to their destructivity .

The intensity scales were so developped using as data the observed

effects of seismic motion upon objects, structures, the ground and the
psychological reactions of people.

Because such scales, of which the Mercalli' s is one of the most widely
used, are very subjective , some of the pioneers in seismology as Gu
tenberg and Richter developped instrumental scales of magnitude based
on the relative amplitudes of surface waves on recorded seismograms.
.

The original magnitude scales have undergone several revisions and

interpretations and now they may be based on body or surface waves
for which there is a conversion formula . The energy radiated in the
form of elastic wavesmay also be related to magnitude since this is
proporcional to ground strain and wave energy is proportional to the
square of strain :

E - k A

log E - log k + 2 log A - K + 2 m .

which according to latest (1966) determinations by Bath is as follows
(Ref. 4 ) :

log 10 E : 6 . 5 + 2 , 3 m .

in which E is given in ergs and m is the Richter magnitude as deter

mined from body waves. So, for the Managua earthquakes of Dec. 23 ,
1972 :

log E - 6 . 5 +2 , 3 (6 . 25) - 20. 9

E = 1021 ergs

A , 3 - The magnitude scales do not convey an appropiate idea of the destruc

tiveness of the earthquakes because they do not take into account the
depth of focus . Howewer since they provide the means for estimating
energy, we could use them very easily for determining intensity as
energy per unit volume of rock :

61
 From rock blasting data (Ref. 5 ) the shape of the crater after an ex
plosive is fired , shows an angle of breakage from 90
VS dr
to 115° in granite
rock . If the depth is changed, the charge must be changed in propor
tion to the volume of the new expected crater. In all cases, the charge
is proportional to the third power of depth . If we assume an inverted
cone crater, with 90° angle of breakage, the depth will be equal to the
radius of the mouth :

V = 1 ha (h / 3)
or V - h3 (aprox . )
So, if we compare the effects of the earthquake fracture to the experien
ce on rock blasting, we could evaluate intensity I from its logarithm
base 10 , as follows:

I - E /h3 or
log 101 - log E - 3 log h
A. 4 - In the case of Managua earthquake of Dec. 23 , 1972 using 6 Km , as
depth of focus:

log E . 20. 9
log h = log (6x105) = log 6 + 5 = 5.78
log, I = 20. 9 - 3 (5 . 78) = 3, 54
For the San Fernando , Calif. earthquake of Feb . 1971, magnitude 6 . 6
and focal depth 13 K we obtain :

log I = 3 , 34

Table A . 4 shows some values of intensity measure as log I for some

combinations ofmagnitude and focal depth ; as they could be indicative
of destructiveness they will, no doubt convey better info omation to -
those concerned with damage to structures.
 TABLE A.4

Magnitude Focal INTENSITY

''m " Depth (logio I) References
Km . ergs / cu , cm

6 . 25 6.0 3. 5 Managua, Dec. 23 /1972

6 .0 5. 0 3. 2 Skopje , Jul. 26 / 1963
6.6 13 . 0 3,3 San Fernando, Feb . 9/ 1971
8. 3 60. 0 5. 3 Anchorage, Mar. 27 / 1964

700 1. 4

300 2, 5

8. 0 100 3. 9 Comparative
60 4.6

10 6. 9

700 - 0. 9

300 0, 2

7. 0 100 1. 6 Comparative

60 2,3
10 4.6

700 - 3, 2
300 - 2. 1
6. 0 100 - 0.7 Comparative
- 0. 0
2, 3

63
A . 5 - The crater formed by rock blasting would of course be very rarely
found on tectonic earthquakes. The surface affected will take many
irregular shapes. Howewer , if we accept that the trasmission of
cracking from the focus to the surface adopts breakage angles depen
dent on the nature of each geological formation , we could draw the
valid conclusion that for different depths of focus in the same place
the surface area should be proporcional to depth . Hence, the propo
sed evaluation should give a reasonable, measurable and valid indi
cation of earthquakes intensity .

A .6 - From examination of Table A . 4 we might arbitrary add five units to

log I, in order to avoid negative figures . In this case, the extreme
values of the Table would be 11. 9 and 1. 8 which seems to be more
practical. The corresponding value of energy would be in ergs x
10 ^ ?

C . s.
Managua, Septiembre 15 , 1973.

64
REFERENCES

1 - WILSON , Basil W .
Earthquake occurrence and effects in ocean areas.
U . S . Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory . Port
Hueneme, California . Feb . 1969 .

2 - HOWELL , Jr ., Benjamín F .
Introduction to Geophysics
Mc. Graw -Hill Book Company. 1969.

3 - SANTOS, Carlos
La hipotética probabilidad de ocurrencia de temblores
en la ciudad de Managua durante el verano de 1973.
(Sent to publ. on Dec. 22 , 1972 )
Editorial Universitaria - León , Nicaragua

4 - STACEY, Frank D .
Physics of the Earth
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1959.

5 - LANGE FORS, U , and KIHLSTROM , B .

TheModern Technique of Rock Blasting
John Wiley & Sons Inc . 1967 .

65
 The Managua Earthquake of 23 December 1972 :
Location , Focal Mechanism , Aftershocks , and Relationship to
Recent Seismicity of Nicaragua

by

J . W . Dewey , S . T . Algermissen , C . Langer ,

W . Dillinger , and M . Hopper
U . S . Geological Survey
Boulder , CO 80302
Abstract . The hypocenter of the Managua , Nicaragua earthquake of
0629 GMT , 23 December 1972 , lay beneath the center of Managua at
a depth of no more than 8 km . The surface wave magnitude (MS ,
NOAA ) of the earthquake was 6 . 2 ; body wave magnitude ( m , NOAA )
was 5 . 6 . Maximum intensity was IX .
P - wave first - motions recorded at teleseismic distances are
consistent with a fault plane parallel to geologically mapped
surface fault traces associated with the earthquake . A network
of five portable seismographs defined a principal zone of after
shock epicenters also parallel to the geologically mapped fault
traces . Probably a major portion of the seismic energy of the
Managua earthquake was generated by a 15 - km segment of the fault
defined by the principal aftershock zone , which extended southwest
and northeast of the main shock hypocenter . A secondary after
shock sequence , which probably does not mark the site of major
continuous fault rupture, developed in a north - trending zone

N
which passes through the Peninsula de Chiltepe .

Nicaraguan earthquakes that occurred during 1950 - 72 are

relocated by teleseismic location methods " calibrated" by the
accurate hypocenter of the Managua main shock .
Shallow - focus volcanic - terrane earthquakes of the type that
struck Managua occur in a belt distinctly separated from the
seismically more active Benioff zone associated with the Middle
America arc - trench system . The volcanic - terrane earthquakes are
probably caused by tectonic conditions associated with the for
mation of the Nicaraguan depression or with the principal chain
of Quaternary volcanoes . The Managua earthquakes may occur as
a consequence of slippage along a transform fault zone that
connects offset segments of the chain of Quaternary volcanoes .
Alternatively , the Managua earthquakes may have occurred as a
consequence of regional east - west tension in the volcanic region .

Introduction . The Managua earthquake of 23 December 1972 is a

member of a class of Central American earthquakes that occur in
or near regions of Quaternary volcanism at shallow depths of
focus . We shall henceforth refer to these earthquakes as
" shallow - focus volcanic - terrane " earthquakes to distinguish them

66
from the more numerous shallow - focus Benioff zone earthquakes that
occur west of the volcanic arc and from the intermediate - depth
earthquakes that occur beneath the volcanic arc at great depths .
The shallow - focus volcanic - terrane earthquakes of Central America
tend to be small or moderate in size and to produce intense ground
shaking in small areas (Meyer -Abich , 1952 ; Lomnitz and Schulz ,
1965 ) . Because the volcanic regions in which they occur are often
densely populated , these earthquakes represent the principal
seismic hazard in some Central American republics , even though
they account for only a small fraction of the total seismic energy
released in the Middle America arc - trench system (Schultz , 1963) .
From a seismological standpoint , the recent Managua earth
quake is to date the most intensively studied of the shallow - focus
volcanic - terrane earthquakes of Central America . The hypocenter
is known to within several kilometers , unprecedented accuracy for
a magnitude 6 or greater earthquake in Central America . The length
and orientation of the fault plane, the sense of motion across the
fault , and the characteristics of the aftershock sequence follow
ing the earthquake have been deduced from seismological data .
The results presented here are summarized from forthcoming
papers by Algermissen and others (1974 ) , Dewey and Algermissen
( 1974 ) , and Langer and others (1974 ) .
Main Shock Hypocenter . The hypocenter (geographical coordinates
and depth of focus ) of the main earthquake of 23 December 1972 is
most accurately determined from analysis of the accelerogram ob
tained at the ESSO refinery in the west sector of Managua . An
2

isoseismal map of the earthquake (Figure 1 ) indicates that the

hypocenter of the main shock lay east of the accelerograph site .
A bearing on the epicenter is given by the direction of vibration
in the horizontal plane of the compressional or P -wave particle
motion . For strike - slip faulting such as observed in Managua (see
section on focal mechanism ) the bearing may also be obtained as a
perpendicular to the direction of shear or S -wave particle motion .
The bearing estimated from the P - and S - wave particle motion is
due east (Figure 2 ) .
The epicenter (point on the earth ' s surface above the focus )
of the Managua earthquake may be assumed to lie where the line
bearing east from the accelerograph site intersects the surface
fault zone or , equivalently , the principal zone of aftershocks .
The depth of focus of the earthquake may be determined from the
time interval on the accelerogram between the arrival of the
initial P - wave , which we assume triggered the accelerograph , and
the arrival of the S - wave . The time interval is taken to be 1 . 24
seconds (Figure 2 ) . By applying the P -wave velocity model used
in aftershock location by Brown and others (1973) , and by assuming
a Poisson ' s ratio equal to 0 . 25 , one may estimate the hypocentral
depth of the earthquake to vary from 8 km , for an epicenter 4 1 / 2
km east of the accelerograph site , to 2 km , for an epicenter 6 km

67
 °W
20
86 15 10 05'W
86

Jiloa
de
Laguna

LAGO
DE
MANAGU A
Chiltepe
de
Peninsula
x
TIPITAPA

V
Central
Banco
-Embajada
)
10'N
12 ‫ا‬ Catedral Aduana 10'N
12
.
‫ا‬

Managua
Aereopuerto
Laguna
de
Asososca

68
VIII
Colonia
Colegio VII
Centroamerica
Teresiano
12

VI 1931
1972
05'N
12 05'N
12
ACCELEROGRAPH
SEISMOSCOPE
OF
OBSERVATION
INTENSITY
SHOCK
MAIN

2 3
05
Kilometers
20'W
86 15 '
10 W
05
86

Isoseismal
map
M
,Figure
1. anagua
earthquakes
December
23
1972
.of Dashed
lines
are
fault
traces
from
Brown
and
others
).(1973
 0 - 0.5 sec. 1

ó í Ź seconds
- E
North

S S - P = 1. 24 Seconds

1.0 - 1. 5 sec.
1 East

( 1 . 24 sec )

Figure 2 . Left : horizontal components of first two seconds of ESSO

refinery accelerogram . Right : particle motion from 0 . to 0 . 5
seconds and 1. 0 to 1.5 seconds after record beginning .

69
east of the accelerograph . With the velocity model we have chosen ,
the epicenter is determined to be no further than 6 km from the
accelerograph . The epicenter plotted in Figures 1 and 4 corre
sponds to a depth of 5 km .
The hypocenter of the Managua earthquake calculated from the
ESSO refinery accelerogram differs significantly from the hypo
center published by NOAA ( 1973) . The NOAA hypocenter , which was
calculated from P - wave arrival times recorded at teleseismic dis
tances , is 27 km northeast of Managua . Probably two sources of
error affect the NOAA calculation of the hypocenter . First , the
global distribution of seismographic stations is ill - suited to
accurate location of Nicaraguan earthquakes . Second , anomalous
P -wave velocities beneath the Middle America arc - trench system
O

probably cause bias in location of earthquake hypocenters by means

of standard P -wave travel - time tables (Utsu , 1967 ) . In most
circumstances , location bias caused by anomalous P - wave velocities
is difficult to detect and eliminate . For Nicaragua , however , the
Managua earthquake provides us with a " calibration event , " whose
hypocenter is known with high accuracy , which can be used to
minimize location bias in the hypocenters of other Nicaraguan
earthquakes .
Intensity . Figure 1 shows the distribution of intensity (Modified
Mercalli Intensity Scale of 1931 , Wood and Neumann , 1931) in the
Managua earthquakes of 23 December 1972 . Data for the construction
of isoseismals were obtained from on - site inspection and from
analysis of low - altitude aerial photographs . The seismic effects
of the main Managua earthquake of 0629 GMT, 23 December 1972
(m , = 5 . 6 , M . = 6 . 2 NOAA ) cannot be separated from those of the
aftershocks of 0718 GMT (m = 5 . 0 , NOAA ) and 0720 GMT (m = 5 .2 ,
NOAA ) . In addition , many areas of Managua had been burned prior
to our study of them ; we have tried to exclude damage by fire in
our appraisal of the seismic intensity .
The intensity map should be interpreted by considering the
source of seismic energy to be a buried fault zone which is beneath
the zone of surface fault traces (Brown and others, 1973 ; Cluff and
Carver , 1973 ) and which is further defined by the distribution of
the aftershocks to the Managua earthquake ( see section below on
foreshocks and aftershocks ) . The region of intensity IX in the
center of Managua lies immediately northwest of this fault zone ;
possibly the high intensities in this region are a consequence
of a northwest dip on the causative fault or of ground motion
amplification by local geologic conditions . Additional zones
of abnormally high intensity were observed adjoining portions
of the surface fault traces (Brown and others , 1973 ; Cluff and
Carver , 1973 ) . Southwest of the main shock epicenter , isoseismal
lines cross the inferred fault zone rather than paralleling it .
This observation suggests that more seismic energy was released
near the center of the fault zone than at the southwest end of
the fault zone , a conclusion which might also be drawn from the
fault displacements being larger near the center of the fault
zone ( Brown and others , 1973 ) .

Focal Mechanism of the Managua Earthquake . The P - wave focal mech

anism solution for the Managua earthquake 3, is shown in Figure
in which first - motions of P - waves as recorded
long - period by
seismographs are plotted on an equal - area projection of the lower
hemisphere of the focal sphere . Dashed lines are projections of
the P - wave nodal planes , one of which corresponds to the fault
plane of the earthquake . Hachured regions indicate variations
of position of the poles of the nodal planes which are permissible
under the constraint that the number of inconsistent P - wave
readings be a minimum ; open areas within contours correspond to
95 per cent fiducial regions ( Dillinger and others , 1972 ) . P and
T correspond approximately to the axes of pressure and tension of
the regional tectonic stress field which caused the earthquake .

The focal mechanism solution is consistent with either right

lateral faulting on a plane striking N45 ° W or left - lateral faulting
on a plane striking N45 ° E . The northeast striking plane is
parallel to the principal aftershock zone and to the zone of left
lateral surface faults observed and mapped following the earth
quake ( Brown and others , 1973 ; Cluff and Carver , 1973 ) . All three
observations therefore point to a left - lateral strike - slip fault
that strikes northeast as the source of the earthquake . The dip
of the fault , to be consistent with the teleseismic P - wave
radiation pattern , may vary from 74 ° NW to 82 ° SE .

Foreshocks and Aftershocks . Many people with whom we talked in

Managua shortly after the earthquake reported the occurrence of
alarming fore shocks several hours before the main shock . Matumoto
and Latham ( 1973 ) mention foreshocks at 0330 GMT and 0415 GMT ,
23 December 1972 . Seismograms recorded at La Palma , El Salvador ,
however , do not show these foreshocks . Inasmuch as the La Palma
seismograph clearly recorded aftershocks from Managua with magni
tudes (m LASA ) of 3.5 , we conclude that the magnitude ( mp ) of
the foreshocks was below 3.5 .

Within an hour of the Managua main shock , two large after

shocks occurred that reportedly contributed to damage in Managua
( Brown and others , 1973 ) . The aftershocks of 0718 GMT and 0720
GMT had magnitudes ( mp . NOAA ) respectively of 5.0 and 5.2 . Both
aftershocks were partially recorded by the strong - motion acceler
ograph west of Managua . Maximum horizontal ( N - S ) accelerations
recorded by the ESSO accelerograph for the aftershocks of 0718 GMT
and 0720 GMT were .18g and .33g respectively , compared with .34 g
for the main Managua earthquake . For both large aftershocks , the
S - wave particle motions were north - south , indicating that the
aftershocks lay east of the accelerograph site . Therefore ,, both
large aftershocks probably lay within the intensity VIII iso
71
 N

COMPRESSION U

P.
DILATATION

X ОХ

T
5
C
oyo
x

Figure 3. P - wave focal mechanism solution for the main shock of

23 December 1972 .

72
seismal . The shape of the isoseismals may be influenced by
additional damage caused by the two large aftershocks .

From 2300 GMT , 28 December 1972 through 2100 GMT , 04 January

1973 , we operated portable seismographs in the outskirts of

Managua around the region of greatest damage . A maximum of five

seismographs were in operation at any one time ; 220 aftershocks

were identified on seismograms from at least four of the seismo
graphs and stable solutions obtained for 164 of the
hypocentral
identified aftershocks , whose epicenters are plotted in Figure 4 .
The located aftershocks occurred from 1746 GMT , 28 December 1972
through 1222 GMT , 04 January 1973. The character of recorded
traces for aftershocks whose hypocentral solutions did not con
verge indicates that most of these shocks occurred in source
regions defined by the hypocenters which could be located . The
aftershocks were located by use of model A of Brown and others
( 1973 ) for the variation of P - wave velocity with depth beneath
Managua .

zone is beneath the surface fault

The principal aftershock zone
traces on land and trends into the Lago de Managua on a projection
of the surface fault traces ( Figure 4 ) . The zone of epicenters is
about 20 km long . The length of this zone may be in error by
several kilometers inasmuch as epicenter locations in the north
east of the zone are less accurate than elsewhere because the
earthquakes occurred outside our array of seismographic stations .
Ninety percent of the epicenters of the principal aftershock
zone occur in a 15 - km segment of the zone that extends from 5 km
southwest of the main shock epicenter to 10 km northeast of it .
This segment of the aftershock zone may probably be considered
to be the source of the major portion of the seismic energy
released in the Managua earthquake . As to depth , 90 % of the after
shocks have foci within the upper 7 km of the earth's crust ,
implying that most of the energy in the Managua earthquake was
released at a very shallow depth .

A secondary aftershock zone lies northwest of the city of

Managua , heading north through the Peninsula de Chiltepe beneath
the station PEN ( Figure 4 ) . The Peninsula de Chiltepe was not
severely affected by the Managua earthquakes of December 1972
( Figure 1 ) so the northward trend cannot mark the site of a major
aftershock . Instead , stress changes associated with the occurrence
of the Managua earthquake seem to have induced numerous small
slippages on the north - trending feature defined by the secondary
aftershock zone . The north - trending feature may be the continu
ation beneath the Lago de Managua of a fault zone mapped by Kuang
and Williams ( 1971 ) .

Seismicity of Western Nicaragua , 1950- 72 . In order to understand

the tectonic significance of the Managua earthquake and to assess
the likelihood of future destructive Nicaraguan earthquakes , we

73
 86
°2 0'W '
15 '
10 °05'W
86

CHILTEPE
DE
PENINSULA

de
Laguna MANAGUA
DE
LAGO
Apoveque 1112
° 5'N

0
°15'N
12

de
Laguna
Jiloa

'
110
'
10
1931

74
Asososca
de < Aereopuerto
Laguna
Managua

Tiscapa
de
Laguna
de
© Laguna Shock
Main
Nerapa North
Aftershock
PAortable
Seismograph

Faults
0
° 5'N
12
°05'N
12
5000
meters
m4iles
2

°20'W
86 '
15 10 °05
86
W

the
to
Aftershocks
4.
Figure
,2
earthquake
-Managua
1972
December
.8
1973
January
04
h
1
others
and
Brown
from
traces
)(Fault
973
eavy
and
lines
dashed
Williams
Kuang
1971
).(l
line
dashed
ight
relocated hypocenters of earthquakes occurring in 1950 - 72 in the
Middle America arc - trench system near Managua which had magnitude
(m ) greater than or equal to 4 . 0 and which were recorded by at
least 10 seismographic stations distributed through at least 90°
of azimuth with respect to the epicenter . Table 1 lists recom
puted hypocenters and origin times for earthquakes with magnitude
greater than 5 . 0 ; estimates of precision of epicentral determina
tion are based on the size of 90 % joint marginal confidence
ellipses (Flinn , 1965 ) . The relocated hypocenters are shown in
Figures 5 and 6 , where they are classified according to earth
quake magnitude and estimated precision of location . Earthquakes
are not plotted if epicentral precision is D or if focal depth
precision is D and the earthquake has computed depth greater than
50 km .

In order to improve the absolute accuracy of hypocenter

determination and the accuracy of the positions of hypocenters
relative to each other , we used relative location techniques
with the Managua earthquake as calibration event . Hypocenters
in the Benioff zone were recomputed by the method of joint
hypocenter determination ( JHD ) (Douglas , 1967 ) by means of a
program written by Dewey ( 1971) , or by a standard teleseism
location program (Bolt , 1960 ) with P - wave travel - times adjusted
by JHD - calculated source - station adjustments . Hypocenters in the
shallow - focus volcanic - terrane earthquake zone were located by
the master - event method ( Evernden , 1969 ) . The effect of recom
puting the hypocenters and omitting low -precision hypocenters is
seen by comparing a cross - section containing previously published
hypocenters of Nicaraguan earthquakes (Figure 7 ) with a cross
section containing the redetermined hypocenters (Figure 6 ) . There
is a considerable reduction in the width of the Benioff zone ,
which dips inland from the Middle America trench to a depth of
about 200 kilometers beneath the Nicaraguan depression . The new
hypocenters show a clear separation between the Benioff zone and
the zone of shallow - focus volcanic - terrane earthquakes .
The largest shallow - focus Benioff - zone earthquake in the
period 1950 -72 was the magnitude 7 1 / 4 (PAS ) shock of 24 October
1956 . This shock caused "minor damage " in Managua (Seism . Soc .
Am . , 1957 ) . Kelleher and others ( 1973) have suggested that a
truly great earthquake involving fault rupture extending many
hundreds of kilometers is unlikely in the Middle America arc
trench system . Their seismicity data show , however , that a magni
tude 8 . 3 earthquake occurred in this belt on 6 August 1942 near
the west coast of Guatamala . A shallow - focus magntiude 8 . 3 earth -
quake off the western coast of Nicaragua might cause damage to
structures 100 km distant in Managua which are susceptible to
relatively long period ground motions .

Intermediate - depth Benioff zone earthquakes in Nicaragua also

represent a seismic hazard . The magnitude 7 . 2 (PAS ) intermediate
 0
13
wutdown
faults
foute
SION
Boundary d i SEPRES
GUAN
NICARA V Yolcanic centers

faults
ooo Bohdongan m

.
0 0 0

ec Eca
O
B

A c
a i
P ci F

Middle America trench axis - -

1950 - 1972
Depth N Depth 0 - 70 Depth 71- 300
26 • 0 O 100 DO
5 -5.9 · 00 00 Do
4 - 4 .9
А В С А В С А в с
et Quality

Figure 5 . Epicenters , 1950 -72 . Quality is " Ep " quality of Table 1 .

Boundary faults of Nicaraguan depression from McBirney and Williams
( 1965 ) . Volcanic centers from McBirney and Williams ( 1965 ) and Ui
( 1973) .

76
 1000

Altitude
Middle
Managua
)(m

America
trench

-5000

SW NE
0

OO 0000044)
do ocor
23 Dec 72
OOO

8 .
og
0
50

100
)( m h
Dept
k

1950-1972

150 M Depth N Depth 0-70 Depth 71-300

26 o VVV

5-5.9 O V V

4.4.9

200 A B C А в с A B C

Quality

250
—
0

50 100 150 200

Distance from trench axis ( km )

Figure 6. Relationship of recomputed hypocenters to topography of

Middle America arc - trench system . Same earthquakes as in
Figure 5. Cross section of Middle America trench based on Fisher
( 1961 ) .

77
 1000

Altitude
(m) Middle Managua
America
trench

-5000

SW NE

23 Dec 72
odbo zoo charme origen .

. :
IO

01O
0
0

0 :
)Depth
(km

:
.

1950 - 1972
M Depth restrained Depth calculated

26 • O TO
200 5 -59
4-4.9 · 0 0 0

250 50
50 in 150
150 mm
200
Distance from trench axis (km )

Figure 7 . Previously published hypocenters of earthquakes occurring

in Managua region . Solid symbols are earthquakes plotted in Figures
5 and 6 . Open symbols are earthquakes whose redetermined hypocenters
have large confidence ellipses and are not plotted in Figures 5 and 6 .
Previously determined hypocenters from the International Seismological
Summary , Molnar and Sykes (1969) , and the CGS or NOAA .

78
 1
Table
N950
MANAGUA
NEAR
ARC
AMERICA
MIDDLE
THE
OF
SEISMICITY
,1
-72ICARAGUA

.Oearthquakes
study
the
in
relocated
were
hypocenters
These
at
magnitude
of
nly
50asterisk
.Aleast
listed
relocated
was
earthquake
that
indicates
time
origin
by
re
-event
master
the
.Aby
event
calibrati
as
earthquak
Managua
the
with
method
other
11
cepth
JHD
by
located
were
earthquakes
-s
source
.D
adjustments
"Nstation
alculated
ig
5kin
to
restrained
was
depth
the
nifies
be
not
depth
calculated
that
order
m
.Quality
negative
As
-m
%j
90
of
axes
ellipses
confidence
marginal
oint
emi
ajor
Quality
than
shorter
Bs
;-m
length
in
20
and
km
10
between
axes
ajor
emi
C uality
Quality
m
;Q
length
in
30
and
km
20
between
axes
D-s emi
ajor
emi
.Ep
km
30
than
longer
axes
major
coordi
epicentral
for
ellipse
confidence
to
refers
;Frefers
nates
or
longitude
and
depth
focal
of
ellipses
confidence
to
D
MAS
Platitude
Pasadena
of
those
are
(1R
U.SC),t
and
969
oast
he
agnitudes
othé
Cnd
Survey
(N,aGeodetic
Administrati
Atmospheric
and
Oceanic
National
).the
OAA
GS
,CGS
noted
otherwise
where
Except
for
list
in
Earthquake
mm
are
magnitudes
NOAA
and
such
distances
at
Stations
by
recorded
were
calculated
been
not
have
magnitudes
which
a1mmrave
that
50oP-w
of
me
to
correspond
would
amplitude
.trace
greater
(GMT
)Time Qaulity
Depth
Lat
Long

79
Date Sec
Min
Hr FD
)E(k°pmWN Mag
06
May
1951 .3
19
2142 55
D 54 653C
._810
30
Jul 16 .1
22 .510
85
2222
C8
28
Sep 12 .7
15 11
.586
C 54
454 )6(PAS
+

28
Sep 14 .017 11
.186
.794

л ол
17
Dec 17 51 .0
43 12
.086
.49
0
1952
26
Feb 39
.5
26
15 11
.586
.41
0 6 AS
)(P
O

02
Mar 53
18
.4
00 86
.311
261
03
Mar 17 .7
04 11
.28667
20
Nov 15 .3
19
37 .612
87
26 9 )61/4(PAS
wazoooOZM

1954
19
Feb 00 .2
39 11
.886 982 )6.8(Rothé

no
19
Feb 21 .4
43 11
.687
041 )6.5(Rothé
Oto

20
Feb 02 00 .455 32
.886
11967 )6(Rothé
21
Feb 01.7
14
29 56
86
.5
11
691
21
Feb 23
39
.3
39 153
23
12
.4
867

ON
03
May 17 .2
36
13 11
.886
.29
5 149 6 AS
)(P
to tontonton boto nnnn

NO
27
Nov .5
30
02
16 .811
.846
86 54
ooooooooooooooo
 1(continued
)Table
1955
10
Mar 03 .2*
42 11
.95 7.866

O
04
Apr 19 .0*07 12
.68 87
.05 N )61/4(PAS
30
Apr 01 .0*
27 12
.22 .6
864 N )6(PAS

O
ON
30
Apr 01 .0*
57 12
.18 86
.55 N

O
30
Apr 09 .7*
07 .2123 86
.63 43
16
Aug 19 .0
10 11
.32 .6
867 8
13
Oct 21 11
.83 .7865 35

NWN
51 .4
05
1956
09
Aug 17 .2
04 .5104 86
.10 124
24
Oct 14 .116 11
.54 86
.55 26 )71/4(PAS
25
Oct 05 .1
47 11
.53 .4
864 )61/4-2(PAS
27
Oct 15 .1
00 11
.72 .4
864 )53/4-6(PAS
10
Nov 00 .025 10
.66 86
.00 )6.0(PAS

NA
1957
19
May 21 .3
29 11
.96 87
.32

O OWN
1958
14
Nov 15 22 .8*
12 12
.37 86
5
.8
04
Dec 19 19 .2
26 11
.49 .5
868 R(6) othé
1959
22
Apr 19 .8
44 11
.37 .5865
24
Apr 09 .0
37 11
.38 86
.49 19 6 1/4-6 )1/2(PAS
03
May 04 .817 12
.30 87
.4 9 4
oooooooooooooo

05
Jun 20 .7
14 11
.99 86
.73

80
Aug
15 22 .9
42 12
.73 .7867 190
oo

1960
15
Feb 07 .0
15 11
.89 86
.97 N

u
10
Jul 13 .557 12
.27 86
.73 112
1961
20
Mar 06 16 .9
22 11
.39 86 48

wwur WoWor
.42

M
22
Mar 14 19 .2
41 11
.78 86
.44
23
May 16 44 .5
59 12
.58 .387
7 )6.3(Rothé
1962
08
Jan 22 .455 11
.83 85
.73
30
Jan 08 .8
24 12
.50 .6
875

NO
27
Oct 13 52 .0
55 11
.46 86
.51
03 12
.49 )5.(CGS
owo to to co oo

1963
09
May 15 .8*43 86
.85
Jun
21 03 32 .3
38 10
.73 86
.01 ) GS
5.0(C

O
1964
30
Jul 05 .6
05 11
.11 86
.34 )5.7(CGS
08
Dec 04 11 .0
56 11
.50 87
.0 9 )5.0(CGS
1965
21
Mar 09 42 .1
43 11
.49 .5
862 40 )5.2(CGS
20
Oct 23 54 .0
31 12
.38 .4
877 54 )5.4(CGS
1966
12
Oct 20 20 .4
09 11
.14 86
.32 44 )5.1(CGS
1967
27
Aug 13 08 .9
56 12
.08 .4
863 171 )5.2(CGS
03
Oct 18 16 .3
06 10
.81 .1860 26 )5.8(CGS
DDDDDooDoo oo to toto to totoooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo
DDD DDOD to
 1(continued
)Table
04
Oct
1967 06 02 .5
16 .57
10 .19
86 14 A )5.3(CGS
15
Oct 08 00 .651 .77
11 .1863 151 )6.2(CGS
06
Dec 02 53 .8
06 .34
12 87
.4 3 58 ) GS
5.3(C
1968
24
Mar 17 13 .3*
12 12
.0 2 .89
86 N )5.1(CGS
10
Mar
1969 08 15 .408 .28
12 .53
87 31 )5.3(CGS
Mar
14 08 47 .6
17 .65
12 .97
86 169 )5.6(CGS
13
May 14 16 .2
50 .29
11 .55
86 -34 )5.6(CGS
24
Jun 00 .5
08 .45
11 .98
85 104 C
)5.3( GS

u
15
Jan
1970 16 .4
44 .79
11 .70
86 31 ) GS
5.1(C

un
20
Jan 08 .3
49 .36
11 .60
86 33 ) GS
5.4(C
un
27
Mar 39
18 .620 12
.6 3 862
.9 166 )5.1(CGS

minum
un
12
Aug 0924 14.8 .79
11 .93
86 37 in
)5.9(m,CGS
6.3(M) ocas
Aug 10 24 .027 9
7.11 .91
86 38 )5.6(m,CGS
5.Mocos
29
Sep 04
04 42 .3
48 11
.4 0 .64
85 180 5.4
1971
25
Feb 04 15 .441 .11
12 .587
8 25 )5.3(NOAA
24
Aug 08 09 .3
12 .44
11 .56
86 50 ) OAA
5.1(N
28
Sep 05 47 .4
17 9.80 .30
86 )5.0(NOAA
.26
86

AWA
23
Dec
1972 06 29 .8
44 .15
12 )5.6(m,NOAA
6.2(MNOAA
23
Dec 07 17 .7*
37 .13
12 .3860 )5.0(NOAA
23
Dec 07 19 .8*
50 .16
12 .30
86 N
)5.2( OAA
Zz
depth earthquake of 05 November 1926 killed " a number of persons"
Seism . Soc . Am . , 1926 ) and caused property loss estimated at
$ 4 million in Managua ; Leon , Nicaragua , was damaged even more
severely ( Seism . Soc . Am . , 1926 ) . Assuming a depth of 135 km ,
believed to be accurate to within 30 km , ( Gutenberg and Richter ,
1954 ) , we have relocated this earthquake at 12.7 ° N , 86.7 ° W
( quality C ) . The 1926 shock was a unit of magnitude larger than
any intermediate - depth earthquake occurring in the period 1950-72 .

The shallow - focus volcanic - terrane earthquakes , among which

we count the recent Managua earthquakes , occur in a zone that is
approximately parallel to the trends of the Nicaraguan depression
the line of volcanic centers ( Figure 5 ) . Because of the
manner in which seismographic stations are distributed with
respect to Nicaragua , the epicenters in Figure 5 are likely to be
more seriously in error in directions perpendicular to the chain
of Volcanoes than parallel to it . Among epicenters located in
land from the Pacific coast , therefore , the only reliable trend
is the northwest trend which is parallel to the volcanic chain .

No shallow - focus earthquakes for 1950 - 72 were located near

the eastern margin of the Nicaraguan depression . However ,
historical records ( Montessus de Ballore , 1888 ) may be interpreted
to suggest that large earthquakes occurred near the eastern margin
of the depression in the mid - seventeenth century .

The Cause of the Managua Earthquakes and Implications on Seismic

Hazard Within the Volcanic Terrane of Nicaragua . On the basis of

our present knowledge we must regard the entire western portions

of the Nicaraguan depression and associated volcanic terrane as
being equally likely to experience a shock similar to that which
struck Managua . Furthermore , some seismic hazard must prudently
be assigned to the eastern region of the depression , notwith
standing the lack of epicenters located there during the interval
1950-72 . Once the fundamental causes of shallow - focus volcanic
terrane earthquakes are understood , it may be possible to divide
the volcanic terrane of Nicaragua into areas of higher and lower
seismic hazard ; hopefully we may then also have the means to
interpret early historical reports and to determine the nature of
seismic hazard on the eastern margin of the Nicaragua depression .
To this end , we present two mechanisms which might be responsible
for the occurrence of the recent Managua earthquakes . These earth

quakes are considered to be in part consequences of conditions

associated with the formation of the Nicaraguan depression or of
the volcanic centers which lie in the depression . Mechanisms

directly involving volcanic activity are not considered , however ,

inasmuch as many of the shallow - focus volcanic terrane earthquakes ,
such as the Managua earthquakes of December 1972 , seem to be
tectonic earthquakes ( Brown and others , 1973 ) .

First , consider the possibility that the fault zone passing

through Managua , on which the December 1972 earthquakes occurred ,

82
 N

50 kilometers

♡
De

LAKE
MANAGUA

Р
al
ut

А
ul
mu
es

C
te
s

1
F.
С

83
LAKE
NICARAGUA
Zapatera
I.

O
Aftershock
,XII
zone
2
7
/482-1
773

DIN
பா
ரா
ரம
Ometepe
1.

ும
்
and
volcanos
Major
calderas O
с
c

Minor
cinder
cones
and
maars
t
Α

Secondary
spreading
zone
Ν

as
viewed
system
fault
earthquake
Managua
The
8.
Figure
ta ransform
between
fault
.Broad
chain
volcanic
relative
indicate
arrows
principal
the
of
segments
offset
western
of
motion
eastern
and
away
Nicaragua
spreading
secondary
from
Small
of
fault
causative
on
slip
indicate
arrows
chain
beneath
.volcanic
zone
features
V
a
(1 olcanic
McBirney
from
Williams
and nd
965
).Ui
973
earthquake
Managua
is a transform fault (Wilson , 1965 ) between two segments of the
main chain of Quaternary volcanoes . This mechanism assumes that
the Nicaraguan depression is a zone of crustal extension (Karig ,
1971 ) , and that Quaternary volcanic centers line up above narrow
rifts across which the western coastal regions of Nicaragua are
pulling away from eastern Nicaragua . The rifts are , in effect ,
secondary spreading zones sustained by the upwelling of magma
from the region of intermediate - depth earthquakes beneath
Nicaragua . Managua lies near an apparent right - lateral offset of
the line of volcanic centers (McBirney and Williams , 1965 ) which ,
we postulate , may correspond to a change in position of the under
lying rift zone . Managua therefore lies on a left - lateral strike
slip fault zone analagous to a ridge - ridge transform fault (Wilson ,
1965 ) . The situation is illustrated in Figure 8 . Note that the
aftershock zone of the Managua earthquake filled the entire gap
between the postulated secondary spreading zones .

From a practical standpoint , the transform fault model of the

Managua region predicts repetition of large earthquakes in the
Managua region . The model also predicts the occurrence of earth
quakes in other parts of Nicaragua where the chain of active
volcanoes is offset . Two such offsets occur at the north and
south extensions of that portion of the volcanic chain shown in
Figure 8 . At the north , there is an offset of the chain to the
west toward the volcano Cosegüina . Under the transform fault
hypothesis one would expect a zone of right - lateral faulting be
tween the offset volcanic chains . This region was the site of
the magnitude 6 1 / 4 (PAS ) earthquake of 04 April 1955 ; the focal
mechanism of that earthquake has not been determined . In south
western Nicaragua , the line of volcanoes is offset between
Ometepe Island, in Lake Nicaragua , and the volcanic chain in
Costa Rica . A transform fault in this location would be a left
lateral fault . We do not know of a shallow earthquake which could
definitely be assigned to this location ; none occurred in 1950 - 72 .
The transform fault model of the Managua earthquake does not ex
plain the occurrence of shallow volcanic - terrane earthquakes away
from offsets in the line of volcanoes . By analogy with mid - ocean
ridges (Sykes , 1967 ) , one might expect such earthquakes to be due
to normal faulting . In principle , the transform fault model may
be tested by geologic mapping and micro - earthquake recording in
the two previously mentioned large offsets of the Nicaraguan
volcanic chain .
As a second hypothesis for the origin of shallow - focus
volcanic - terrane earthquakes , we propose that seismic activity is
concentrated near the Nicaraguan volcanoes by an unusually thin
O

rigid lithosphere beneath the volcanoes . The thinness of the

lithosphere is due to high mantle heat flow which is responsible
for the volcanic activity . As a result of the thin lithosphere ,
O

the earth ' s crust beneath the Nicaraguan volcanic terrane is in

a state of high tectonic stress which manifests itself in a high

84
level of seismic activity . Ambient stresses may ultimately result
from interaction of the Caribbean , North America and Cocos litho
spheric plates , as proposed by Matumoto and Latham (1973) , or from
tensional forces applied beneath the Nicaraguan depression (Karig ,
1971 ) . Under this model , the focal mechanism of the Managua earth
quake (Figure 3 ) is consistent with regional stress in the Managua
region being either a compressional stress directed approximately
north - south or a tensional stress directed approximately east -west .
Geologic evidence (McBirney and Williams , 1965 ) favors the exist
ence of east -west tensional stresses in Nicaragua .

At the present time , the easiest way to test the significance

of tectonic - stress concentration in thin portions of the litho
sphere might be to model by finite elements a realistic cross
section of western Nicaragua to determine the extent to which
such stress concentration would occur . Should the model of stress
concentration in thin lithosphere appear valid , geophysical tech
niques may be used to map the variation of lithospheric thickness
in Nicaragua for subsequent seismic zoning .

Conclusions . 1 . The hypocenter of the Managua earthquake of

23 December 1972 lay beneath the center of Managua at a depth
of approximately 5 km . This hypocenter is the most accurately
known of any Nicaraguan earthquake that has been well recorded by
seismographic stations at teleseismic distances . Therefore , the
Managua earthquake is an important calibration event for the
location of hypocenters of other Nicaraguan earthquakes .
2. The maximum intensity (MM ) of the Managua earthquake
was IX .

3. The teleseismic P -wave radiation pattern and distribution

of small aftershocks indicate that fault rupture which caused the
Managua earthquake was left - lateral strike - slip on a northeast
striking fault . The fault surface upon which the significant
portion of seismic energy was released was probably about 15 km
long and extended from near the surface to 7 km in depth . Seis
mological observations strongly support the nature of faulting
P.

as inferred from geologic observations of surface fault traces .

4 . Foreshocks from Managua in the 6 hours prior to the main

shock were not identified on seismograms from La Palma , El
Salvador where aftershocks of magnitude (m2 , LASA ) 3 . 5 were clearly
recorded . The magnitude (m2 ) of these foreshocks must therefore
have been less than 3 . 5 .
5. The two largest aftershocks , of magnitude (m ) 5 . 0 and
5 . 2 , occurred within an hour of the main shock ; their hypocenters
lay near that of the main shock . Isoseismals near the center of
Managua may be influenced by damage from these two aftershocks .

85
 6 . Teleseismic relocation of earthquakes in the Middle
America arc -trench system near Managua is significantly improved
by using relative location methods with the Managua earthquake as
calibration event . Relocated hypocenters show a clear separation
of the zone of shallow - focus volcanic - terrane earthquakes such as
struck Managua from the zone of principal seismic activity in
Nicaragua , the Benioff zone .

7. The shallow - focus volcanic - terrane earthquake zone

associated with regions of Quaternary volcanism is the most
significant in Nicaragua from the standpoint of seismic hazard .
However , large shallow - focus offshore earthquakes of the Benioff
zone may cause damage to long - period structures in the volcanic
terrane . Large intermediate - depth earthquakes beneath the
Nicaraguan mainland , such as the magnitude 7 . 2 ( PAS ) shock of
05 November 1926 , have caused significant damage .
8. We propose two mechanisms by which stress , and there
fore earthquakes , may be generated or concentrated in the
shallow - focus volcanic - terrane earthquake zone . One mechanism
considers the fault zone upon which the recent Managua earthquake
occurred to be a transform fault between offset segments of the
main volcanic chain . The other mechanism considers the Managua
earthquake, and other volcanic - terrane earthquakes , to be conse
quences of concentration of tensional stress in the relatively
thin lithosphere beneath the Quaternary volcanoes . Although both
mechanisms must be considered speculative at present , they are
both capable of being tested , and either one, if found to be
valid , could be used to locate areas of high seismic risk in
Nicaragua .

Acknowledgements . This study was begun under the auspices of the

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . We thank Dr .
Wilmot Hess , Director of the Environmental Research Laboratories ,
NOAA , for devoting a sizeable portion of the Christmas holiday
weekend to helping three authors of this report , plus Mr . Karl
Steinbrugge of the Insurance Services Office , San Francisco , to
travel to Managua soon after the earthquake . We gratefully
acknowledge the assistance of members of the U . S . Department of
State in Managua . In particular , we thank Mr . Turner Shelton ,
the U . S . Ambassador to Nicaragua , Mr . Ernest Barber , formerly
Assistant Director of U . S . A . I . D . in Managua , and Mr . Carl Forsberg ,
Chief Engineer , U . S . A . I . D . , Managua . Mr . Alexander K . Gregg ,
U . S . A . I . D . , Tegucigalpa , Honduras , gave us invaluable assistance
in locating sites for installation of portable seismographs and
in gaining access to restricted areas .

We benefitted from the observations of Mr . Steinbrugge , with

whom we visited damaged regions of Managua , and from discussions
with Mr . Lloyd Cluff , Mr . Gary Carver , Mr . Charles Knudson , and
Dr . R . B . Matthiesen . We thank Mr. R . D . Brown , Dr . P . L . Ward ,

86
Dr . G . Plafker , Dr . T . Matumoto , and Dr . G . Latham for preprints
of papers on the Managua earthquake . Our requests for seismograms
of the Managua earthquake were rapidly answered by many directors
of seismographic stations , too numerous to cite individually .
Ing . Mauricio Cepeda , Centro de Estudios e Investigaciones
Geotecnicas , San Salvador , El Salvador , loaned us two months of
seismograms obtained at La Palma for study of foreshocks and
aftershocks of the Managua earthquake.

Publication authorized by the Director , U . S . Geological

Survey .
References .
Algermissen , S . T . , J . W . Dewey , C . Langer , and W . Dillinger (1974 ) .
The Managua earthquake of December 23 , 1972 ; location , focal
mechanism , and intensity distribution , Bull . Seism . Soc . Am .
64 , (in press ) .
Bolt , B . A . ( 1960 ) . The revision of earthquake epicenters , focal
depths , and origin times using a high - speed computer, Geophys .
J . , 3 , 433 -440 .
Brown , R . D . , P . L . Ward , and G . Plafker ( 1973) . Geologic and
seismologic aspects of the Managua , Nicaragua , earthquakes
of December 23 , 1972 , U . S . Geol . Survey Prof . Paper 838 , 34 p .
Cluff, L . S . and G . A . Carver (1973 ) . Geological observations ,
Managua , Nicaragua , Earthquake of December 23 , 1972 , Earth
quake Engineering Research Institute Reconnaissance Report ,
P.2

5 - 20 .
Dewey , J . W . (1971) . Seismicity studies with the method of joint
hypocenter determination , Ph . D . dissertation , Univ . of Calif . ,
Berkeley .
DeweyMi, daJ . W . and S . T . Algermissen (1974 ) . Seismicity of the
Middle America are near Managua , Nicaragua , Bull . Seism . Soc .
Am . , 64 (in press ) .
Dillinger , W . H . , S . T . Harding , and A . J . Pope (1972) . Determin
ing maximum likelihood body wave focal plane solutions , Geophys .
J . , 30 , 315 - 329 .
Douglas , Ā . ( 1967 ) . Joint epicenter determination , Nature , 215 ,
47 -48 .
Evernden , J . F . ( 1969) . Identification of earthquakes and explo
sions by use of teleseismic data , J . Geophys . Res . , 74 , 3828 -
3856 .
Fisher , R . L . (1961) . Middle America trench , topography and
structure , Geol . Soc . Am . Bull . , 72 , 703 -720 .
Flinn , E . A . ( 1965 ) . Confidence regions and error determinations
for seismic event location , Rev . Geophys . 3 , 157 - 185 .
Karig , D . E . ( 1971 ) . Origin and development of marginal basins in
the western Pacific , J . Geophys . Res . , 76 , 2542 -2561.
Kelleher , J . , L . Sykes , and J . Oliver (1973 ) . Possible criteria
for predicting earthquake locations and their application to
major plate boundaries of the Pacific and Carribbean , J .
Geophys . Res . , 78 , 254 7 - 2585 .

87
Kuang , J . and R . L . Williams (1971 ) . Mapa Geologica de Managua ,
Nicaragua , sheet 2952 III , 1 : 50 , 000 , CATASTRO .
Langer , C . , M . Hopper , S . T . Algermissen , and J . W . Dewey (1974 ) .
Local recording of aftershocks of the Managua , Nicaragua
earthquakes of December 23 , 1972 , Bull . Seism . Soc . Am . , 64 ,
(in press ) .
Lomnitz , C . and R . Schulz (1966 ) . The San Salvador earthquake of
May 03, 1965, Bull . Seism . Soc . Am . , 56 , 561 -575 .
Matumoto , T . and G . Latham ( 1973) . Aftershocks and intensity of
the Managua earthquake of 23 December 1972 , Science , 181 , 545
547 .
McBirney , A . R . and H . Williams ( 1965 ) . Volcanic history of
Nicaragua , Calif . Univ . Pubs . Geol . Sci . , 55 , 73 p .
Meyer - Abich , H . , ( 1952 ) . Das Erdbeben von Jucuapa in El Salvador
vom 6 . and 7 . Mai 1951, Neues Jb . Geol. u . Paleont . , Abh . ,
95 , 311 - 336 .
Montessus de Ballore , F . , ( 1888 ) . Tremblements de terre et
eruptions volcaniques au Centre Amerique , Dijon , 281 p .
Molnar , P . and L . R . Sykes ( 1969) . Tectonics of the Carribbean
and Middle America regions from focal mechanisms and seis
micity , Geol . Soc . Am . Bull . , 80 , 1639 - 1684 .
NOAA (1973) . Preliminary Determination of Epicenters , No . 76 - 72 ,
Environmental Research Laboratories , National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration .
Rothé , J . P . ( 1969 ) . The Seismicity of the Earth , 1953 - 1965 ,
UNESCO , 336 p ..
P
Schultz , R . ( 1963 ) . Estudio sobre la sismicidad en la region
Centro - Americana ; Bol . Bibliog , Geofisica , 1960 - 1962 , Mexico ,
135 - 144 .
Sykes , L . R . (1967 ) . Mechanism of earthquakes and nature of
faulting on the mid -oceanic ridges , J . Geophys . Res . 72 ,
2131 - 2153 .
Seismological Society of America ( 1926 ) . Seismological notes ,
Bull . Seism . Soc . Am . , 16 , 275 .
Seismological Society of America (1957 ) . Seismological notes ,
Bull . Seism . Soc . Am . , 47 , 80 - 81 .
Ui , T . ( 1973 ) . Recent volcanism in the Masaya -Grandad area ,
Nicaragua , Bull . Volcanologique , 36 , 174 - 190 .
Utsu , T . (1967 ) . Anomalies in seismic wave velocity and attenu
ation associated with a deep deathquake zone , Hokkaido Univ .
Fac . Sci . Jour . , Ser VII , 3 , 1 - 24 .
Wilson , J . T . ( 1965 ) . A new class of faults and their bearing
on continental drift , Nature , 207 , 343 - 347 .
Wood , H . 0 . and F . Neumann ( 1931) . Modified Mercalli Intensity
Scale of 1931 , Bull . Seism . Soc . Am . , 21 , 277 - 283 .

88
 LOCATION OF THE MAIN FAULT THAT SLIPPED DURING THE MANAGUA EARTHQUAKE
AS DETERMINED FROM LOCATIONS OF SOME AFTERSHOCKS

by

Peter L . Ward , David Harlow and James Gibbs

U . S . Geological Survey
Menlo Park , California

and

Arturo Aburto Q .
Servicio Geologico , Nicaragua

Nine portable smoked paper seismographs were operated in the Managua area
from January 3 until February 7 , 1973, at gains of about 90 , 000 at 30 hertz .
The instruments and methods were described by Ward and others ( 1974) and Brown
and others (1973) . This paper provides a tabulation of the locations and a
brief summary of the important conclusions described in more detail elsewhere .

The locations of 171 aftershocks recorded clearly at six or more stations

during the recording period are shown in Figure 1 and listed in Table 1 . The
locations were calculated by the standard method of minimizing the root -mean
square (RMS) of the traveltime residuals . A unique feature of the location
procedure developed by John Lahr is that the system of reduced simultaneous
linear equations is rotated into the coordinate system of the principal axes
by diagonalization . This method allows calculation of the ellipsoid of
standard error rather than the usual standard errors in geographic coordinates .
The ellipsoids were calculated assuming a standard error in timing P -wave
arrivals of 0 . 1 second and represent approximately the 68 percent confidence
limits of each hypocenter . The shadows of these ellipsoids are then projected
onto the earth ' s surface (Figure 1 ) . Each ellipse is plotted as an 18 -sided
polygon for computational efficiency .

The locations are listed in Table 1 by origin time. The column headings
are for origin time, latitude , longitude , depth , magnitude , number of P -wave
readings (NP ) , the largest gap in azimuth from the epicenter to any two con
secutive stations , the epicentral distance to the third most distant station
(D3 ) , the root -mean -square of the traveltime residuals (RMS ) , the largest
horizontal deviation of the error ellipsoid (ERH ) , the greatest depth of the
error elipsoid below the hypocenter (ERZ) , a quality code ( Q) and the azimuths
from north , dips from horizontal and lengths (STD ) of the three principal axes
of the error ellipsoid . The quality code (Q ) is based on the values of ERH
and ERZ . A , B , and C are for events with both ERH and ERZ less than or equal
to 2 . 5 , 5 , and 10 , respectively . D represents events with either ERH or ERZ
greater than 10 . The standard error approaches infinity in the vertical
direction as the hypocenter approaches a layer boundary in the assumed crustal
structure. In these cases the standard error is tabulated as 99 . For purposes
of plotting , no standard error was allowed to be greater than 4 .

89
 86° 15 '

Putte Humpe
Lake

Lake Managua
12 ° 15 ' Apoyeque

Lake
Jiloa

‫بسه‬
12 ° 10 '

at
Managu @Th

Lake
Asososca
Lake Tiscapa
Lake
Nejapa

12 ° 05 '
Ma
te
ar
e

Fa
ul
t

t
ul
Fa
es
Nub
Los
86 ° 20' 86 ° 15 '

Figure 1 : Locations of 171 aftershocks . The polygons represent the error in

location assuming a possible error in reading arrival times at each station
of 0.1 second . Station locations are designated by stars . The wide solid line
in Managua represents faults B and C mapped at the surface ( Plate 1 , Brown
and others , 1973 ) .

90
 1:HYPOCENTRAL
.TABLE
STUDY
INTHIS
LOCATED
AFTERSHOCKS
THE
FOR
DATA
NLON
LAT
TIME
WDORIGIN
MAGN
EPTH PGAP
D3 RMS ERH Q
ERZ ELLIPSOID
ERROR
THE
OF
AXES
PRINCIPLE
KM
MIN
MINDEG
DEG
SC
MN
HR
1973 KM
DEG SEC KM KM AZM
STD
DIP
JAN .052142
1812 .951486
11 30.061558 1. 0.8A /10
56 0.9 /31
320 1.2 /57
163 0.5
7.5635
12
38 .72309
16
86 30.071603 .50 .5A0 /1627 0.4 /3320
3 .40 /51
175 0.6
.6544112
11 21 4530
14
02.586 .0T175
7 1.A 205
/15 .90 /20
300 0.6 /65
80 .1
.31654032
11 .35716
13
86 6264 0.04 2.90.9 0.8B /4
66 .92 /26
334 1.0 /6165 3 0.7
.56816
11
12
21 .950
17
86 0.01111
9 .80 .1A2 6901 .60 8
1811 0.8 /80
325 2.

Courno
.8716282
10 .4
14
86 4.2 1,5 7 20.07
164 0.8 1.8A I
2071 0.8 9
2971 .60 /81
110 1.8
.61161
11
12
41 .086
14 .43 2.0 6 0.11904
0 1.0 5.C /1
36 1.0 /2306 0.6 /81518 5.

to aonan
316 28
.446
11 .9
17
86 6.0 .18 6 .03
30
217 .02 0.6A 6 179
/3 2.0 /37
271 0.6 /53
85 .60

wen we
.4721
11
12
21
46 14.1
86 4.1 ,31 6 40.06
255 2.5 2.9B 2 334
/4 0.7 /37
241 1.9 /52
70 3.
,28058
11
12 .4
8614 5. 1.6 7 30.04
175 1. .8A0 /3401 1.2 /32873.60 /41
162 0.7

covona
one
81424
19 .412
11 .8
13
86 3.9 0.9 6 231 4 0.04 1.6 2.9B 3
171 .61 /6
286 0.6 /8131
4 2.9
814
58
42 .0
11
12 14.3
86 4.1 1.5 8 171 3 0. 6 .80 .9A1 52121 0.8 7
3021 0.5 /8862 .91
4815
48 2.7
12 .6
13
86 5.6 1.0 6 272 0.05 4.0 1.0B /0
338 .0 /34
248 1.4 /56
67 0.7

soo
821
13
30 .3
11
12 .4
14
86 4.8 3.0 8 1783 0.07 0.9 2.0A 2 0 .5
3021 /9
211 0.9 /81
46 2.1
821
59
37 .4
11
12 .1
14
86 3.0 1. 1 184 3 0.05 .90 .2D
46 O
3071 0.6 O
371 0.9 /90
153 .2
46

COCO O O O
.7821
11
12
15
38 .256
14
86 2.0 1 192 4 0.07 1.6 .8A0 /1249 .71 /2122 0 0.7 /61
255 .60
.682461
11
4112 , 51.
.1
14
786 7 1894 .00 4 1.4 0.8A /10
299 0.7 /24
34 1.5 /64
190 0.6
.0321
11
12
16
59 051.
14
.486 7 227 3 0.05 1.8 2.0A /7
278 0.6 /35
183 1.4 /54
18 2.3
10
12
38
,823692 .451 0.8
14
86 6 247 3 0.03 1.8 1.0A /12
68 1.8 /19
162 0.7 /63068
.582173
11
12
55 ,14086
14 ,1 7 818 4 .04 0.9 2.8B 3071 0.6 /4
217 79
/85 .82 0.1
9 8321 .4
11
12 ,0
14
86 5,7 1,7 8 186 4 0.03 0.8A /2355 1.5 /33
288 0.6 /47
154 .60

91
41.
9 33326 .5
11
12 .086
14 6.2 0.8 7 8
18 4 0.06 .9A1 /4
306 .60 82151 1.2 /8631 1.9
9 4919 6.
12 .4
17
86 1.9 1.0 8 90 3 0.05 .50 2.1 .6A0 /1338
3 0.4 /32
77 /55
229 0.6
9 431
14 6.
12 .3
17
86 1.7 1.0 8 873 0.07 0.5 0.6A /19
353 0.4 /24
91 0.4 /59
229 0.6
9 553
57 .9
11
12 .8
13
86 5.8 1.6 8 203 5 0.06 .61 .8A0 /5127 0.6 /1359 1.7 /7232 0 0.6
947
18
11
.412 .086
14 .34 1.2 8 186 4 .00 7 0.9 2.3A 3
3031 0.5 5
2121 0.9 /84 .32
60
12
32
28
3.2914 .8
13
86 6.1 1.4 6 263 6 0.01 ,3 ,1C5 2651 1.0 /9
155 3,2 /81 5.1
322
25012
1.10
98 16.3
86 4.5 .0 9 8 63 4 0. 4 0.5 2.4A 2
697 .50 /3339 .50 /87 2.4
198
434
9.610
12
29 .3
15
86 1.6 .71 7 117 1 0.05 0.9 .1A2 42847 .70 91931 0 .8 /80
36 2.
439
,310
11
12
59 .1
14
86 6.7 1.6 9 111 3 0.06 0.7 1.7A /1
255 0.6 3
3457 0.7 /86
147 1.7

FEnzo nrfww
53306
10 7.9
12 .4
11
86 9,2 0.7 7 78 4 0.05 1.2 3.8 /4
344 0.8 /12 1.0
75 /77 3.4
237
545
1510 .4
11
12 14.1
86 4.7 1. 8 185 0.07 0.9 2.A 3
3021 .50 8
2121 0.9 /8512 .2
734
10
34 .0
12 .5
8618 4.0 0.2 7 186 4 0.05 1.6 3.8B /11
185 0.6 192
/ 6 0.9 308
/71 4.0
938
1410 ,4
13
12 .9
17
86 1.9 1. 7 158 1 0.02 143
/4 .60 7
/2306 .71 /51599 .40
30
10 6.0
12 .1
17
86 2. 0. 9 8 106 2 0.05 .6A00.8A /
293 0.4 /38
197 0.9 /51
32 0.3
il 045
35 .1
12 .9
13
86 4.0 1.0 8 125 5 0.07 .1B3 1
801 0.5 23501 .60 /88
195 3.7
11 21433 10.812 .486 6.3
14 .1 8 101 2 .00 9 .70 1.5A /2265 .60 /5
355 0.7 /8150 5 1.5
il 220
32 .2
11
12 .5
18
86 5.9 0.6 8 183 3 0.07 1.2 0.7A 198
/13 0.6 /24
293 1.3 /63
81 0.5
il 52267 1.126 .686 5.2
16 .70 7 97 5 .00 5 .60 3.0B /O
345 0.6 6
751 0.5 /84
253 3.1
11 656
13 12
9,3 .5
15
86 4.8 0.2 6 147 1 0.03 1.3 2.1A /4264 0.5 /25
172 0.9 3/65 2.3
740
.811
10
12
48 14.0
86 4.6 0.7 8 104 3 0.06 .70 .2A1 /1852 .50 2350
/1 .60 203766 1,3
12
12
50
.11
8553 .4
86
18 .65 0.7 6 193 3 .00 4 1.4 0.9A /24
46 0.8 /25
304 1.5 174
/54 0.6
.6
10
12
18
53
16
11 .8
14
86 8.5 .50 6 97 2 0.07 0.9 1.?A 4
3347 .9 651 0.7 214
/83 1.9
12
43
7.4019 .7
16
86 3.9 1. 8 60 3 0.05 0.6 2.8 4
3311 0.5 /5
61 0.5 202
/83 2.9
34112
7.12
130 .9
16
86 3.0 0.7 1 81 3 0.06 0.6 99.0D O
2571 0.5 O
3471 0.6 90/ 0 .0
99
 ‫‪TIME‬‬
‫‪ORIGIN‬‬
‫‪NLON‬‬
‫‪WLAT‬‬ ‫‪NP‬‬
‫‪MAG‬‬
‫‪DEPTH‬‬
‫‪03‬‬
‫‪GAP‬‬ ‫‪RMS‬‬ ‫‪ERH‬‬ ‫‪Q‬‬
‫‪ERZ‬‬ ‫‪PRINCIPLE‬‬
‫‪ERROR‬‬
‫‪THE‬‬
‫‪OF‬‬
‫‪AXES‬‬
‫‪ELLIPSOID‬‬
‫‪DEGMIN‬‬
‫‪MIN‬‬
‫‪DEG‬‬
‫‪SC‬‬
‫‪MN‬‬
‫‪HR‬‬
‫‪1977‬‬ ‫‪KM‬‬ ‫‪KM‬‬
‫‪DEG‬‬ ‫‪SFC‬‬ ‫‪KM KM‬‬ ‫‪STD‬‬
‫‪STD‬‬
‫‪DIP‬‬
‫‪AZM‬‬
‫‪JAN32 5‬‬ ‫‪524‬‬ ‫‪8 81,7 35, 1, 6‬‬ ‫‪308‬܂ܘ‬ ‫‪1, 1‬‬ ‫ܐ‪.‬‬ ‫‪80/‬‬ ‫‪r28‬‬
‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪331‬‬
‫‪/ 30‬‬ ‫‪86‬‬ ‫‪6‬ܐ‪9 +.‬‬
‫‪/203‬‬
‫‪12 3 4 2 12 12 12‬‬ ‫‪,185612‬‬
‫‪.‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪136‬‬
‫‪908‬‬ ‫‪30‬ܐ ‪ 20‬ܐ‬ ‫‪3,‬‬ ‫‪30‬‬
‫‪42_ 2 _ _,0, q‬‬ ‫‪14‬‬ ‫_‪22 ,‬‬ ‫‪,38‬‬ ‫‪619‬‬
‫‪2‬‬

‫ܚ‬
‫‪?i‬‬ ‫‪9 10‬ܟ‬ ‫‪28‬‬
‫‪.12‬ܐ ‪22‬‬ ‫_‬ ‫‪_ .‬ܐ‪8 6 13, 3 .‬‬ ‫‪ 51221‬ܐ‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬ ‫‪08603‬ܘ‪_.‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫ܕܐ‬
‫‪_,486 ?0c‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪125‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪/ 215‬‬
‫‪26‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪,12‬ܐ‪.‬ܐ‪33/ 64 /‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪58‬‬ ‫‪8 96 12, 93. 01, 4‬‬ ‫ܐ‬
‫‪07‬ܘ‪ ,‬ܐ ‪. 228‬‬ ‫‪.‬ܐܐ‪9‬ܐ‪,69‬܂ ܕ‪.‬ܐ ‪1‬‬ ‫‪,_024 _27‬‬ ‫‪0 , 0‬‬ ‫ܐ‪,53/320 .‬‬
‫‪,0/9099‬‬
‫‪55‬ܙ? ‪13‬‬ ‫‪_12 4. 5912‬‬
‫‪,‬‬
‫ܐ‬
‫_‬ ‫_ ‪886‬‬ ‫‪.6‬ܐ ‪.16 2, 6‬ܘ‬
‫‪ 1003‬ܜ_ܘ‪.‬‬
‫‪_,651 _ 0, 9‬‬ ‫‪_,08 A‬‬ ‫‪_.127730‬‬
‫‪01,6‬܂ܛ_ ‪06 : _,38/ _/32‬‬ ‫‪5/ 43 1, 1‬‬
‫ܕܐ‬

‫ܚܝܗ‬
‫‪25538‬‬
‫‪_13‬‬ ‫‪6. _12‬‬
‫‪8 _86 16, 9 2, 9‬‬ ‫‪.6‬ܐ‬ ‫‪1123‬‬ ‫‪12 0‬‬ ‫‪162‬‬ ‫‪8 22 32‬‬
‫‪5015‬‬ ‫‪._03‬‬
‫‪69 18 12‬‬
‫‪13‬‬ ‫‪.‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬
‫‪10‬‬ ‫‪.6 .0 80 _A24 55‬ܐ ‪10‬ܘ܂_‬ ‫‪4// 10 ._1 ,‬‬ ‫‪, _ / /9263‬ܘ‪61//02 391_.‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬ ‫‪._0,6‬‬
‫‪__13‬‬
‫‪22‬ܐ ‪622‬‬‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪.486‬ܐ‬
‫‪86316. 59 54. 88‬ܐ_‬ ‫ܐ‪.‬ܘ ‪2‬‬ ‫‪_2323 2‬ܐ‬
‫‪:‬‬
‫‪_,0 13‬‬
‫‪031‬ܐ ‪05‬ܘ‬ ‫‪, 9 9 _,‬‬
‫ܐ‪_. .‬‬ ‫‪}/‬‬ ‫‪A9‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬ ‫‪59‬‬ ‫_‬ ‫‪256/ 2/‬‬ ‫‪1,9‬‬
‫‪13 -‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪6198 ,6 6 3 . 6‬‬
‫‪.‬‬ ‫‪,‬‬ ‫‪,‬‬
‫‪.1 1‬ܐ‬ ‫‪_,1004‬‬
‫‪_6122 12216 _.05‬‬ ‫‪_0.‬ܘ‪952 _ ,‬‬
‫‪ 61 1 _/16‬ܛܐ ‪9 8 AA‬ܐ‪_.08 0 .‬‬ ‫‪5‬ܐ‪/ 6 6 .‬‬
‫‪/7532 12 _ 0. 5010‬‬
‫‪8 185 76‬‬
‫‪55 12 1 . 0‬܀ܪܐ‪138 13‬‬ ‫‪ .‬ܐ‪ .‬ܘ‪8 6 .816 .‬‬ ‫ܐ‬ ‫‪_ .‬‬ ‫‪_, ,‬‬ ‫‪/‬‬ ‫‪,_08‬‬
‫‪05‬܂_‪25/ 67 .‬‬ ‫‪_297‬‬ ‫ܘ‪.‬ܐ_‬
‫‪138‬‬ ‫‪33 53‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪1, 4 _86‬‬ ‫‪4 16‬‬
‫‪81 1‬‬ ‫‪103‬‬ ‫‪2002 08‬‬ ‫‪1 , 7A‬‬ ‫‪328‬‬
‫‪0_/ _,0‬‬ ‫‪58‬‬‫‪/‬‬
‫‪10 805‬ܐܐ‬ ‫‪235‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬
‫‪13 _10‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪.‬‬
‫?‬ ‫‪591‬‬
‫‪d _816 _,16‬‬ ‫ܐ ܐ ‪,2‬ܙ_ ܐ ‪5 6,, ._ 9 ,‬‬ ‫‪2105‬‬ ‫_‬ ‫ܬܛ܂ܐ ‪0, 0_, _,‬‬ ‫‪3, 6 _B251/ 5 _ 0, 9 _ 343‬‬ ‫‪_. 614‬‬‫‪ 702‬ܘ ‪2//‬‬ ‫‪ 8‬ܐ‪.‬‬
‫‪,‬‬
‫‪13 11 59 11‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪8 65‬‬ ‫ܐ ‪2 6 1 2 7 103‬‬ ‫‪_,80‬‬ ‫‪,_068‬‬ ‫‪,A‬ܟ_‪0‬‬ ‫‪313‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬
‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪216‬‬
‫‪/ 30 0 7 ,194‬‬
‫‪/‬‬ ‫‪63‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬
‫_‪58‬‬
‫‪14‬‬
‫‪13‬‬
‫‪.6112‬ܐܐ‬‫‪10‬‬
‫‪._ 86‬ܐܐ _ ‪,1‬‬ ‫‪16‬‬
‫ܐ ‪,9 , 4.5 , 1,3‬‬ ‫‪140‬‬ ‫‪,0‬ܐ_ ‪,02‬‬ ‫‪,‬‬
‫ܙ‬ ‫‪A‬‬ ‫‪/ 42957 ._ 06‬‬
‫_‬ ‫‪,‬‬
‫_‬ ‫ܐ‬ ‫‪479‬‬
‫‪20‬‬ ‫‪_ , 76 _ / 98 _80, 3‬‬
‫‪,‬‬
‫_‬ ‫ܐ‬
‫‪/‬‬
‫ܘ‬ ‫ܝ‬ ‫܂‬ ‫ܐ܂ܪ‬
‫‪131: 9‬‬ ‫‪35‬‬
‫‪8‬܂‪4‬‬ ‫‪,81‬ܐ‪6‬‬ ‫‪5, 2 1. 3‬‬ ‫‪4_618‬‬ ‫‪3 0, 10‬‬ ‫‪06‬‬
‫‪1.2‬‬ ‫‪1 .‬‬ ‫‪_24‬‬
‫‪9‬ܘ‪6722_.‬‬ ‫‪171‬‬
‫‪/‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪,360‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪/6319‬ܙ‬ ‫‪,6‬‬

‫ܩܣ ܩܘ‬
‫; ‪ : :‬ܘ܂‬
‫‪13 17 18 55‬‬ ‫ܐܐ‪12‬‬ ‫‪10‬‬
‫ܐ ‪186 15 1 4 61 3‬‬ ‫‪105‬ܘ‪137 _.‬‬ ‫‪01 1,‬‬ ‫‪34‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬
‫‪_2927‬‬ ‫‪_.06‬‬ ‫‪202‬‬ ‫ܘ‪6 _,‬‬ ‫‪.5‬ܐ ܂‪54/ 83‬‬
‫‪321 14‬ܐ‬ ‫‪35 45‬‬ ‫‪12 11,‬‬ ‫_‬ ‫‪.,18 1,‬ܐ ‪8, 96 16,, 3 .‬‬ ‫_‬ ‫‪155‬‬
‫‪2 _,‬ܐ‪ .‬܂‪09. 06‬‬ ‫‪._38 _ 29‬‬
‫‪/ 14 _ 0, 9‬‬
‫‪/ 123716‬‬ ‫‪._0,1‬‬ ‫‪/69‬‬
‫‪350‬‬ ‫‪3,0‬‬
‫‪_026 19‬‬ ‫‪18 10.‬‬ ‫‪586 13 8‬‬ ‫‪69‬‬ ‫‪403‬‬
‫‪192‬‬ ‫‪1, 3‬‬ ‫‪_/2_0,1‬‬
‫‪24310379‬‬
‫‪211‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪+4768‬‬ ‫‪2.5‬‬
‫‪33‬‬
‫‪027‬‬
‫‪14‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬
‫‪ .‬ܐ‪ .12 .‬ܐ‪.‬ܠ ‪.13 5‬ܘ ‪11, 4 __86 .‬‬ ‫‪ 1,‬܂ ‪ , 1‬܂ ‪ _.5005‬ܘ‪06 _.‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪,365‬‬
‫‪.1 , 3‬ܐ ܘ‪0 ,63 _ 41/ 9‬‬ ‫‪2017‬ܛܕ_‬ ‫‪_0,9‬‬
‫‪184 __19‬‬ ‫‪25‬‬ ‫‪2.6‬‬ ‫‪6 7,4 2 ,‬ܐ _‪8‬‬ ‫‪0_,86 ,‬‬ ‫‪_912135‬‬ ‫‪4_,005‬‬ ‫‪0,6._5A‬‬ ‫‪_0.66879 167‬‬
‫‪/3‬‬ ‫‪0,4‬‬ ‫‪/46‬‬
‫‪329‬‬ ‫‪._06‬‬
‫‪228‬ܐ ‪14 5‬‬ ‫‪12, 1 _86 13, 6 _ 6, 4 ,‬ܐܐ‪12‬‬ ‫‪_95211.1_92,1‬‬ ‫܂‪4 1 5‬‬ ‫‪,0‬ܐ_ ‪_33057‬‬ ‫‪214‬‬
‫‪/ 17‬‬ ‫‪1. 3 _ 45/ 23‬‬ ‫‪,_38‬‬
‫‪ 13317‬ܕ‪53‬‬
‫‪86114‬‬
‫‪12‬‬
‫‪24‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪ _0.04 . 19‬܂ܘ ‪6‬‬ ‫‪_,27868‬‬
‫‪_3057‬‬
‫‪2 _.,0‬‬ ‫‪215720‬‬ ‫‪1.5‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬ ‫܂‬ ‫‪3, 8‬‬

‫‪92‬‬
‫‪14 5 33 33‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪11‬‬
‫‪9.8 6 .13‬‬ ‫‪9 5, 3 1.‬‬ ‫‪5_9‬‬ ‫‪63,‬ܐ‪ .‬܂ ‪,‬ܘ ‪4031‬‬
‫‪18‬ܘ‪9_,‬‬ ‫‪_A‬‬ ‫‪302‬‬ ‫‪92‬‬‫‪08‬‬
‫‪/203‬‬ ‫‪ 1 , 2‬܂ ܐܘ‪8‬‬
‫‪86‬ܛ‪/‬ܟܐܐ‬
‫‪86 14‬‬ ‫‪068‬‬ ‫‪191 0‬‬ ‫‪94‬‬ ‫‪37/ 3‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪36‬‬ ‫‪11 8‬‬
‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪2 10 9‬‬
‫‪,_616‬‬ ‫‪22 8722 _.1,‬‬ ‫‪68‬‬
‫‪397‬‬
‫ܟ‬ ‫ܐܟ‬ ‫‪20‬ܘ‪ ,‬ܟ‬ ‫‪ 056 0 5 ,_138‬ܐ‪.‬‬ ‫ܐ‬ ‫‪.‬‬
‫‪29‬ܐ ‪9 10 11‬ܐ‬ ‫‪8 .‬ܐ܂ ‪2‬‬ ‫_‪16 ,71 , 2 ,, 9 _.06 .‬‬ ‫‪_182‬‬ ‫ܘ‪_.‬‬ ‫‪. _ .‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬
‫‪_8807‬‬ ‫‪_,05‬‬ ‫;‪ 3 : 3/ 58 0.‬ܘ‪.‬ܐ‪112731‬‬
‫‪18 18 19 53 12 ,12‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪209‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪14‬‬ ‫‪39‬‬
‫‪/A233l‬‬ ‫‪104‬‬ ‫‪4109‬‬
‫‪12‬܀ ‪14‬‬‫‪3 31 12 9‬‬ ‫‪_88 66 13‬‬
‫_‬
‫‪6‬ܘ‪_.‬ܐܘ‪_?1 0 8 _9226903 06‬ܘ‪,163 5 2 2, 28 ,‬‬ ‫‪ 0,6‬ܐ‪.‬‬ ‫‪,67 _,5A‬‬ ‫‪/ 230‬‬
‫‪/24 . _0,4‬‬ ‫‪ 0,1‬ܙ‪/30 ;,‬‬
‫‪125‬‬ ‫‪/ 352‬‬
‫‪/50 ,_0,3‬‬
‫‪13 02 8 ,‬‬
‫ܟܐ‬ ‫‪ 12‬ܐ‬ ‫‪_8 6 ,16‬‬
‫‪_208‬ܘ‪. 4 _ 3 , 3 , 76 _ i35 _ .‬‬
‫‪,‬‬ ‫ܐ ‪_,‬‬ ‫ܘ܂_‬ ‫‪,01‬‬ ‫‪1, 8‬‬ ‫‪_ 5‬ܘ‪8_4275.‬‬ ‫‪312‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪,‬‬
‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪181783‬‬ ‫‪1.8‬‬
‫ܙܐ‬ ‫‪1,1‬ܐ‪_29 .‬‬
‫‪52‬‬
‫‪13‬‬
‫‪14‬‬ ‫_ ‪,0_2.8‬‬
‫‪11‬‬
‫‪86‬‬ ‫‪102‬‬ ‫‪.03 0,‬‬
‫‪10‬‬ ‫_‪0,4A‬‬ ‫‪/_o‬‬
‫‪291‬‬ ‫‪/ _3.5201722‬‬ ‫‪22768 0‬‬
‫‪F‬‬

‫‪20‬‬
‫‪_14‬‬
‫‪23 12 11, 0‬‬ ‫‪_86 13. 9‬‬ ‫;‪.‬ܐ‬ ‫‪1. 5‬‬ ‫‪_8822 3‬‬ ‫‪6. 01 1. 8‬‬ ‫‪.A _ 235‬ܘ‬
‫‪/ 15 _ 0. 6‬‬ ‫‪10/ 17‬‬ ‫‪_1,8‬ܘ‪.‬ܐ‬ ‫‪1,767‬‬ ‫‪_0,9‬܂ܛ_‬
‫ܟܟ‪.‬‬

‫‪WWNW‬‬
‫‪142 0‬‬ ‫‪193212‬‬ ‫‪8136 13 5‬‬ ‫‪51 ,‬‬
‫‪,41‬‬ ‫‪49‬‬ ‫‪1‬ܙ‪137 ,‬‬ ‫‪10319 _.90‬‬ ‫‪279‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪142 0 22 11 12 .512‬‬ ‫‪5 , _86 , ,413‬‬ ‫‪,‬‬ ‫‪526‬‬ ‫‪,+80 281‬ܐ_ ‪_81223‬‬
‫ܘ‬
‫‪.‬‬
‫_‬ ‫‪603‬‬ ‫‪,‬‬‫‪ .‬ܕ‪9‬‬ ‫ܘ‬
‫‪,_0189c‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬ ‫‪11 //15‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪/ 21 _ 6292722‬‬
‫_‬
‫ܘ‬
‫‪.‬‬ ‫‪8,‬‬
‫‪14‬‬
‫‪32‬‬
‫‪56‬‬
‫‪20‬‬ ‫‪6,‬‬ ‫‪,2_86‬‬
‫‪13‬‬ ‫‪.51‬‬
‫‪2 5 196‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪_0,02 1 4‬‬ ‫‪/_25 1557‬‬
‫‪8 _ ,‬‬ ‫‪4‬ܘ‪,‬ܛ ܝܐ‬ ‫‪51/ 57‬‬
‫" ܢ ܩ ܗ ܗ‬

‫‪0 , ,_ 5A‬‬ ‫_‬

‫‪15 32‬‬ ‫_‬
‫‪.‬‬
‫ܐ‬‫‪812‬‬
‫‪i9‬‬ ‫ܐ ‪6 13. 9. 60 ,_89‬‬ ‫_‬ ‫܂‪ , 1,9‬܂ ‪2005 _.065‬‬ ‫‪3, _78‬‬ ‫‪303‬‬
‫_ܘ‪/ 1 $,‬‬
‫‪,12212‬‬
‫‪/5031 231‬‬
‫‪/‬‬ ‫‪,‬‬ ‫‪35/‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬
‫‪,563‬‬
‫‪_15‬‬
‫‪4612 1, 9 _8 6 ,16‬‬ ‫‪2 2 , 8 _ 0,‬‬ ‫‪_87 _95‬‬ ‫ܣܗܩ‬
‫‪305 _ 0. 5‬ܘ‪_,‬‬ ‫‪A‬‬ ‫_ܘ‪,‬ܟ‬ ‫‪«12/ 18‬‬ ‫_ܘ܂ܛ ‪19/ 59‬‬
‫‪0‬ܛ܂_ܐ ‪,_862 0 /025‬‬
‫‪i5‬‬
‫‪6_012‬‬
‫ܕܐ‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬
‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪17‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬
‫‪6‬‬ ‫_‬ ‫‪69‬‬ ‫‪1, 1‬‬ ‫‪4_/82‬‬
‫‪6 _ 0. 5 _ 351‬‬ ‫‪10‬‬ ‫‪26‬‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪1,2‬‬
‫‪15‬‬
‫‪8 _ _13‬‬
‫‪_15‬‬ ‫‪20‬‬ ‫ܐ‬
‫‪.‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬
‫‪38.‬‬ ‫‪_ 61,1 0 , 4 _ , 621‬‬
‫‪,‬‬ ‫‪.‬‬
‫ܐ‬
‫_‬ ‫܂‬
‫ܐ‬ ‫_‬ ‫_‪9‬‬ ‫‪.056 07 _ 0. 660‬ܘ_‬ ‫‪16 A‬‬ ‫‪30 _47‬‬ ‫‪0 _ 0. 5‬‬ ‫‪/ 347130 5 _, 2/ 79‬‬
‫_‬ ‫_‬ ‫‪.‬‬ ‫_‬ ‫‪.‬ܐ ‪2137‬‬
‫‪_815‬‬ ‫‪19 20‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪85‬ܘ‪86 16 3 . _.‬‬ ‫‪_8 _18‬‬ ‫‪1 .‬‬ ‫‪_,06‬‬ ‫‪1. .5‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬
‫‪_43357‬‬ ‫‪6779 205‬‬
‫‪ 1 . 3,45‬܂ ‪39‬ܐܐ ‪/‬‬
‫_‬ ‫‪ .12‬ܐ‪8 37 31 12 .‬‬ ‫‪5 _8_ 6 .‬‬ ‫܀‬
‫_‬
‫‪,‬‬ ‫‪36‬‬
‫‪13‬‬ ‫‪0.‬‬ ‫_‬ ‫܂ ‪ 1 ,_. 1‬܂ ‪606‬ܘ‪81223 _, _,‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬‫‪,‬‬ ‫‪38305‬‬
‫‪_,86 0 21815 1 _05‬‬
‫‪/‬‬ ‫‪55775‬‬ ‫ܢܐ‬
‫‪39‬ܐ ‪16‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫‪37‬ܐ‬ ‫‪8‬܂ܐ‬ ‫‪616 .12 .‬‬ ‫‪ _85‬ܐ ‪_.08‬‬ ‫;‪_,120 6 ._0,‬‬ ‫‪:,34‬‬ ‫‪,‬ܐ_‪8712 0.5‬‬
‫‪25‬‬ ‫‪/3161‬‬
‫‪ , _0.g‬܂‪7‬‬ ‫‪_6/55‬‬ ‫‪_0.3‬‬
‫ܨܩܡ‬

‫‪_16‬‬
‫‪2‬ܘ ‪4 39‬‬ ‫‪1‬ܐ‪12 .‬‬ ‫‪_8 6 .16‬‬‫‪8 6 9 1, 0 _8‬‬ ‫‪16‬‬ ‫‪_,1864‬‬ ‫‪89 A 167 6‬‬ ‫‪0‬ܟ܂_ܐ ‪73 45‬‬ ‫‪.5‬ܐ‬
‫‪515‬‬
‫‪,16‬‬
‫‪12‬‬
‫‪15‬‬ ‫‪610 ,‬‬
‫‪,38‬‬ ‫‪.1,‬‬
‫‪38‬‬ ‫‪,_08,82913330‬‬
‫‪031‬‬
‫‪_,9‬ܘ_ ‪264‬܀‪ _28 / ,-‬܂_ ‪3 ,‬‬ ‫‪19/ /82 6‬‬ ‫‪€/204 ._09338763‬‬
‫‪.32,3‬ܕ ܂‬
‫‪6‬ܐ‬ ‫‪32‬ܐ‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫‪43‬‬ ‫‪86 .16‬‬
‫‪1 3, 8 ._0‬‬ ‫‪_883‬‬ ‫‪.23‬ܘ_‬ ‫‪9 0‬‬ ‫‪_.6‬ܘ ‪0/ 14‬‬ ‫‪?n 9773‬‬
‫‪ 12 11‬ܐ ‪8 10 58‬‬
‫‪_16‬‬ ‫‪ _ 86‬ܛܐ܂ܐ ‪1‬‬‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪1 1‬‬ ‫‪911631238‬ܕ‬
‫‪_6 005121, 7 24 430 _/82‬ܘ܂‬
‫‪,65 ,‬ܘ‪_.‬‬ ‫‪06‬‬
‫‪_ _/232017‬‬
‫‪._535209‬‬
‫‪/ 13‬‬
‫‪68‬ܐ_‬ ‫‪. .14‬ܝܐ‪13 58 12 , ,411 _86‬‬‫‪6 . . ._,860‬‬ ‫_‬ ‫‪42‬܂ܘ_‬ ‫‪.‬‬ ‫܂‪_+‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬ ‫‪_.0806 15‬‬
‫‪_. _ /‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪,‬‬
‫‪ 1, 181‬܂ ‪_.901 1755/ 68776‬‬
‫‪ .‬܂ ܝܐ‬
 ‫‪LAT‬‬
‫‪TIME‬‬
‫‪NORIGIN‬‬ ‫‪LON‬‬
‫‪MAG‬‬
‫‪WDEPTH RMS‬‬
‫‪D3‬‬
‫‪GAP‬‬
‫‪NP‬‬ ‫‪ERHERZ‬‬
‫‪Q‬‬ ‫‪ERROR‬‬
‫‪THE‬‬
‫‪OF‬‬
‫‪AXES‬‬
‫‪PRINCIPLE‬‬
‫‪ELLIPSOID‬‬
‫‪MIN‬‬
‫‪DEG‬‬
‫‪SC‬‬
‫‪MN‬‬
‫‪HR‬‬
‫‪1973‬‬ ‫‪KM‬‬
‫‪MIN‬‬
‫‪DEG‬‬ ‫‪KM‬‬
‫‪DEG‬‬ ‫‪SEC‬‬ ‫‪KM‬‬ ‫‪STD‬‬
‫‪STD‬‬
‫‪DIP‬‬
‫‪AZM‬‬
‫‪JAN‬‬ ‫‪i5‬‬
‫‪_26‬ܛܐ‬ ‫‪.3‬‬ ‫‪6 3. 9 _ 6. 5 _ 0. 6‬ܐ ‪_8‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪_64 0, 02‬‬ ‫‪. 2‬ܐ‬ ‫‪2 ,‬‬ ‫‪0A‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬
‫‪_/302‬‬ ‫‪_.06‬‬ ‫‪211‬‬
‫‪/‬‬ ‫‪151‬‬
‫‪.2‬‬ ‫‪52‬‬
‫‪/‬‬ ‫‪152‬‬
‫‪,‬ܕ‬
‫‪16‬‬
‫‪129‬ܐܐ ‪51‬‬ ‫‪. 2‬‬ ‫‪_86 15‬‬ ‫‪9‬ܐ‪,148 .‬‬ ‫‪_26 6‬‬ ‫‪_,005‬‬
‫‪1 _;,0‬‬ ‫‪.1SA‬‬ ‫‪1: 5‬‬ ‫‪,_506‬‬ ‫‪26‬‬ ‫‪/60 .65‬‬ ‫‪6783‬ܙ‬ ‫‪1,6‬‬
‫ܙܐܐ ‪6016‬‬ ‫‪06‬‬
‫‪,12‬ܐ‬ ‫‪_8‬‬ ‫‪0‬ܐ‪6 ,‬ܐ‪,‬ܟ‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪,112 59‬‬ ‫‪20‬‬ ‫‪,1 6‬‬ ‫‪2,‬‬ ‫‪13 ,‬‬ ‫‪_18‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬
‫‪6/ 12‬‬ ‫‪20‬‬ ‫‪4 4 / 31 _ 0,‬‬ ‫‪8756‬ܐ‬ ‫‪,13‬‬
‫‪638‬ܐܐ‬ ‫‪6‬‬
‫‪16‬‬ ‫‪35‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪,‬‬‫‪1‬‬‫‪12‬‬ ‫_‬ ‫‪86‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬
‫‪,‬‬ ‫‪,‬‬ ‫‪36‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫_‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪,‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬ ‫ܐ‬ ‫ܐ‬
‫_‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪250‬‬ ‫‪50‬‬ ‫‪,‬‬ ‫‪07‬‬ ‫‪.20‬‬ ‫_‪4‬‬‫‪1857‬‬‫‪,‬ܐ ‪2. 8‬‬ ‫‪/293‬‬
‫‪7.‬‬ ‫‪0.9‬‬ ‫‪282762 0.8‬‬
‫‪16 12 11, 1 8 6‬‬ ‫‪.10 6.3 1 .‬ܘ_‬ ‫‪_28‬‬ ‫‪137‬‬ ‫‪306‬ܘ‪,‬‬ ‫‪1,‬‬ ‫‪1, _,‬‬ ‫‪,_A08‬‬ ‫‪9304ii‬‬
‫‪/‬‬ ‫‪210‬‬
‫‪/ 17‬‬ ‫‪0,9‬‬ ‫‪_65720‬‬
‫܂‬
‫ܘܗ‬

‫ܐܐܐܐܐ‬
‫‪16 23‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬
‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪10 8 6 15 6‬‬ ‫_‬ ‫‪31‬‬ ‫‪6193‬‬ ‫‪2003‬‬ ‫‪53/56_ 6‬‬ ‫‪256‬‬
‫‪/ 56‬‬ ‫ܘ܂ܟ_‬
‫‪9‬‬ ‫‪. 90 _ 86 , 15‬ܘ ‪ 28‬܀ܐ‬
‫ܕ‬ ‫‪,5812‬‬
‫‪, 81. 19‬ܘ‬
‫‪.‬‬
‫‪_, 12‬‬
‫‪_.2003‬‬
‫‪ _ 0, 18‬ܙ‪.‬ܘ‬ ‫ܟ‪A16 ?,‬‬ ‫‪A‬ܐ ‪. 6 _ 89/ 336257_ ud6‬‬
‫‪/ 84‬‬ ‫‪.8‬ܐ ܂‬
‫‪7929‬ܐ_ܐܐ‬ ‫ܐ‬ ‫ܐ‬ ‫‪,‬‬
‫_‬ ‫‪7‬‬ ‫_‬ ‫‪8‬‬‫‪_6‬‬ ‫‪,_56 662.‬‬
‫‪,‬‬ ‫‪,‬‬
‫_‬ ‫‪8‬‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫‪d‬‬ ‫ܜ‬
‫_‬
‫ܘ‬
‫‪.‬‬ ‫‪02‬‬
‫‪178‬‬ ‫‪_ 08, 1‬‬ ‫‪,50 A‬‬ ‫‪224‬‬ ‫‪,;15‬ܐ‪-‬‬ ‫‪_/ ,_120742_ 67‬‬
‫_ܘ‪,‬‬ ‫‪/‬ܛܟ‬ ‫‪329‬‬ ‫_‪0.5‬‬
‫‪17 17 18 19‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬
‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪8 6 13 16 .10‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪03‬‬
‫‪.258‬ܐ‬
‫‪_3 0‬ܘ‪.‬‬
‫܂ ‪.‬‬
‫‪_. 82‬‬
‫_‪.‬‬
‫‪/28‬‬
‫‪10‬ܐ‬
‫‪4/‬‬ ‫‪_ 0. 818‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬ ‫‪123‬‬
‫‪/ 63‬‬‫‪ 2, 0‬܂‬
‫‪_19‬‬
‫‪12‬ܐ‪.‬܂ܐܐ ‪0 11 10‬‬ ‫‪286 _ 16,, ,16‬‬ ‫‪. 31‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪_.3005‬‬ ‫‪,214‬‬ ‫‪_/89‬‬
‫‪_, 06‬‬
‫‪_.‬‬ ‫‪215‬‬
‫‪/ 23 253‬‬
‫‪/‬‬
‫‪, 21‬‬
‫‪.‬ܘ‬ ‫‪117‬‬
‫‪2‬ܐ‪/ 65 .‬‬

‫‪WENN WUINNE‬‬
‫‪13 01 36 12 7.‬‬ ‫‪.28616 3.8‬‬ ‫‪0.8 6‬‬ ‫‪135‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫܂‪80,‬‬ ‫‪2, 24‬‬ ‫‪283‬‬
‫‪8‬ܘ‪9 _,‬‬ ‫‪139‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫‪18 18‬܀‬ ‫‪8 12 12 12,10‬ܐ_‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪_08866 14,315‬‬ ‫‪2 3, 4‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪ 1005‬ܘܕ‬
‫‪8‬܂ܘ‬ ‫‪1 5A‬‬
‫‪.‬‬
‫‪/_ 318‬ܐ‬
‫‪_/6‬‬
‫‪,_8650‬‬
‫‪_.‬‬ ‫‪622‬‬
‫‪/‬‬
‫‪_/11‬‬ ‫‪/ 61772192‬‬
‫‪_.‬‬ ‫‪85,‬‬ ‫ܐ‪.‬‬
‫_‬ ‫‪,‬‬ ‫܂‪_1221 _8 0, _,09‬ܕܐܐ ܐ ‪.7‬ܐ__‪5. 8 ,‬‬ ‫‪.‬‬ ‫‪_80‬܂‬ ‫‪1575‬‬ ‫‪,48‬‬ ‫‪283‬‬
‫[ ‪/ 19 1 , 1‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬
‫ܘ‪/ 10 ,‬‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫‪,838‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫‪32‬ܙܐ ‪_4‬‬
‫‪_,804‬‬ ‫‪0‬ܐ‪.‬‬ ‫‪A‬‬ ‫‪.0‬ܐ ‪160715‬‬ ‫‪ 1 ,‬܂‪66/ 15‬‬ ‫‪1‬܂ܘ ‪195169‬‬
‫‪20‬‬ ‫‪ 1 . 3‬܂ܐܐܐܐ‪22535 12‬‬ ‫‪6 2 1221235‬ܐ‪,681 86 53. 52 .‬ܐ‬
‫_‬ ‫‪.‬‬ ‫ܐ ‪,‬ܘ_‬ ‫_‪.‬ܘܐ‬ ‫‪0‬ܐ‪_.‬ܐܨܐ‬ ‫‪1.6A‬‬ ‫‪_4 0,_1‬‬
‫‪957‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪/12‬‬ ‫‪_0.5‬‬ ‫‪/72084‬‬ ‫‪1.6‬‬
‫ܟ ‪21‬‬ ‫‪92‬܀‬ ‫‪11‬‬
‫‪12.‬‬ ‫‪19‬ܐ ‪6‬ܐ‪_28‬‬
‫‪,‬ܘ‬ ‫‪2 6‬‬ ‫‪_8‬‬ ‫‪1, 1‬‬ ‫; ‪,A‬ܘ‪1‬‬ ‫‪302‬‬
‫‪184‬ܘ‪_.‬‬ ‫‪og/_ 6 _ ,d6 _ 45/ 41 1, 3 _ 212‬‬ ‫‪/ 48‬‬ ‫‪_.,8‬‬
‫‪21 5‬‬ ‫‪60‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬
‫‪i86‬‬ ‫‪202‬‬ ‫‪,52896‬‬
‫‪2 1, 9‬‬ ‫‪312‬‬ ‫‪66‬‬
‫‪64‬‬
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‫ܘܘ ܘܘܘܘܘ ܘܘܘܘܘ ܘܘ‬

‫‪, 12‬ܐ‬ ‫‪553‬‬
‫‪,421‬‬
‫‪11‬‬ ‫‪, ,518‬‬ ‫ܬܐ ‪_861,63 61‬‬ ‫‪ _ 0, 4199‬ܟ܂‬ ‫‪_40,‬‬ ‫‪1,6‬‬ ‫‪,24 /12,4A3A 211‬‬ ‫‪,1_082157271‬‬‫‪/6_ 04‬‬
‫ܙ‬ ‫‪,2‬ܕ‬
‫‪,21‬‬
‫‪11‬‬
‫‪12‬‬
‫‪13‬‬
‫‪_6198‬‬ ‫‪13‬‬
‫‪9_1,86‬‬
‫‪2140 6‬‬ ‫‪_6.06‬‬
‫‪2245‬‬ ‫‪3,4‬‬ ‫‪,6c2,6_8‬ܘ‬ ‫‪8_ /311‬‬
‫‪228‬ܐ ‪1 , 1‬‬ ‫‪261‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬ ‫‪567‬‬ ‫‪63‬‬ ‫‪6,1‬‬
‫‪22‬‬
‫‪620‬‬
‫‪_21‬‬ ‫‪12 18‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫ܐ ‪_ 6 . 8 _ 2, 3‬‬ ‫‪8‬ܐ܂ ‪209 _4 0, 09‬‬ ‫‪/10 _0.8‬‬
‫‪10‬‬ ‫‪/ 21572‬‬
‫‪8 , 1,3‬‬ ‫‪/60‬‬
‫‪58‬‬ ‫‪.36‬‬

‫ܗ ܝܚ‬
‫ܘܩܩܣ ܇ ܇ ܘ‬
‫ܘܨ‬

‫ܗ‬
‫‪2 29‬ܐ‪216‬‬ ‫ܐܐ‬ ‫‪.12‬ܐ‬
‫‪3‬ܐ‪4 _86 13. 8 ,_6 .‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫܂ ‪5‬ܐ‪40 .‬‬
‫‪198‬܂ܘ܀_‬ ‫‪A‬‬ ‫‪312‬‬ ‫‪2111221‬‬‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪60 61 ,‬‬
‫‪216‬‬ ‫‪26 25‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫ܐ‪11.‬ܐ‬ ‫‪586 13‬‬ ‫_ ‪6184 ,28‬‬ ‫‪.‬ܐ ‪9002 1 1 2 3‬‬
‫‪201‬‬ ‫‪.0‬ܐ_ ‪/ 9 0‬‬
‫‪/8312‬‬ ‫‪7218 29‬‬ ‫‪1 . _ 55/ 60‬‬ ‫‪2,8‬‬

‫‪93‬‬
‫‪629 10‬‬
‫‪_21‬‬ ‫ܝ‪5‬‬‫‪1211‬‬ ‫‪.174624 .‬ܘ‪8__6 13,. 3 ,‬‬ ‫‪_03 _, 3.. 5 _ 2,, 18‬ܘ‪4.‬‬ ‫‪3327‬‬
‫‪ ,34 2 4 / 2751 2,1‬ܐ‪ .‬܂‪0_ __ 0,, 8 _ 62// 39‬‬

‫ܘܝܚܪܝܪ ܘܝܗܘܗ ܘܚܪܝܩ‬

‫‪216‬‬ ‫‪35 212‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪46‬ܐ‬ ‫‪56‬‬ ‫‪26‬‬ ‫‪0. _5460 3 , 1‬‬ ‫‪83‬‬ ‫‪/‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪20‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪38‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪171‬‬
‫‪/‬‬ ‫‪45‬‬ ‫‪2,4‬‬

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‫ܕ ‪216 35‬‬ ‫‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬‬ ‫‪186‬‬
‫‪58‬‬ ‫‪.3183 , 69‬‬ ‫ܐ‪63 .‬‬ ‫‪3267‬‬ ‫‪903‬‬
‫‪,‬ܟܐ‪.‬‬ ‫‪3 8‬‬ ‫‪,82283 81‬ܐ_‬
‫ܘ‪,‬‬ ‫‪,‬‬ ‫_‪.‬ܙ‬ ‫‪/‬‬ ‫‪,‬ܘ‪151‬‬ ‫‪,‬܀_ ‪.28/ 36‬‬
‫‪/‬‬ ‫‪18 / 50‬ܐ ‪.‬ܛ‬ ‫‪23‬܂ _‬
‫ܐ‬
‫‪8‬‬
‫‪_21‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬
‫‪10‬‬
‫‪38‬ܟ‬ ‫‪ .10‬ܐܐ‪12‬‬‫‪8‬‬ ‫_‬ ‫‪86 .18‬‬‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪.45‬‬ ‫ܐ‬ ‫‪122‬‬ ‫‪,‬‬
‫_‬ ‫‪2003 2, 0‬‬ ‫‪_,87 c‬‬ ‫‪.110‬‬
‫‪86170 _,89‬‬
‫‪8‬‬
‫‪219‬‬ ‫‪78 6‬‬
‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪6 6‬ܐ‪.3916 .‬‬
‫‪4‬ܘܐ‪.‬‬
‫ܐ‬ ‫‪693 _,0 1 , 0‬‬ ‫‪/310 110‬‬
‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪_.0664 2 0 219‬‬
‫‪/ 44 1 3‬‬
‫‪/‬‬ ‫‪,‬‬ ‫‪,/16‬‬
‫_ܘ‪6 ,‬‬
‫ܐ‪ 52 12 11, .‬ܐ‪21 16 16‬‬ ‫‪0_86 14‬‬ ‫‪ ,‬ܐ‪9.‬‬ ‫ܐ‬ ‫ܕ‬‫_ ‪17‬‬ ‫‪3001 2‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪_,609 8AA‬‬ ‫‪,22‬‬
‫‪/‬‬ ‫‪199 _,0‬‬ ‫‪,‬ܐ‬‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪1 3‬‬
‫‪30‬‬ ‫‪/‬‬ ‫‪.‬‬ ‫‪0 6‬‬
‫‪270752‬‬ ‫‪_,‬‬
‫‪_8‬ܐ ‪22‬‬ ‫‪12 ,18‬‬ ‫‪6 _8 6 12,, 0 12,,3‬‬ ‫‪.0‬ܐ‬‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪_8229‬‬ ‫‪_10‬‬
‫‪ 1. 8 _ . _,86 c‬ܐ‪0, _,05 _ .‬‬ ‫‪/?133‬‬ ‫‪1.3‬‬ ‫‪/4225‬‬
‫‪ 2,‬܂‪2‬‬ ‫‪1/‬‬ ‫‪481,1 5‬‬
‫‪8422 5 12‬ܐ_‬ ‫‪,10‬‬
‫‪386 14, 5‬‬ ‫‪,5‬‬ ‫ܙ‪,‬‬ ‫‪_8152‬‬ ‫‪2003‬‬
‫‪_,‬‬ ‫‪1A‬‬ ‫‪,‬ܘ‬ ‫‪3031‬‬
‫܂ ! ‪/‬‬ ‫‪.06‬‬ ‫‪203‬‬
‫‪/‬‬ ‫‪410‬‬ ‫‪.‬ܐ‬ ‫ܠܢ‬
‫‪22 12 30 30 12 13, 0‬‬ ‫‪_8 6 13, 6‬‬ ‫‪.54‬‬ ‫‪1. 5‬‬ ‫‪,863‬ܐ_ ‪236‬‬ ‫‪_ 2, 2‬‬ ‫‪9 _4‬ܘ‪_,‬‬ ‫‪38‬‬ ‫‪/ 39‬‬ ‫‪_08‬܂‬ ‫‪8‬‬
‫‪142‬‬ ‫ܘ‪.‬ܐ‬
‫‪22 18‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪2 5‬‬
‫‪52‬‬ ‫ܐ‬ ‫ܐ‬ ‫‪.16‬‬
‫‪1 1, 2 0 _.96 :‬‬ ‫‪108‬‬ ‫‪,1A‬ܘ‬ ‫‪321‬‬
‫‪/ 12 2,2 6140 298‬‬
‫‪/‬‬ ‫‪.‬‬ ‫‪56‬‬
‫‪/ 17 5 _,80‬‬ ‫‪;(194768‬ܐܚܪܢܐ‬
‫‪ 1, 1‬܂‬
‫‪_222‬‬
‫‪_86 8‬‬
‫‪61, 6‬‬
‫‪12‬ܐ‪.‬‬
‫‪1,_8125‬‬
‫‪,432 2 6‬‬ ‫‪102‬‬
‫܂ ‪_6‬ܘ‪._0030063 ,‬‬ ‫‪3,1_8‬‬ ‫‪/9‬‬
‫‪59‬‬ ‫‪_.‬ܘ ‪/_9328‬‬ ‫‪124‬‬
‫‪6/8 3 ,‬‬
‫‪238‬‬‫‪33 4 4‬‬‫‪12 .612‬‬ ‫‪13‬‬
‫‪86‬‬‫‪,6860‬ܐ‪, 6 .‬‬ ‫‪50‬‬
‫‪:21‬‬ ‫܂‬ ‫‪1, 1‬‬ ‫‪.‬‬
‫_‬ ‫‪06 4‬‬ ‫‪2237‬‬
‫‪2 1 1‬‬ ‫‪_8‬ܘ‪130 ،‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬
‫‪315‬‬
‫‪25‬‬
‫‪9 5 34 12 ,12‬‬
‫‪6 3, 6 2,‬ܐ ‪2 _8‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬
‫‪,6 _32‬‬
‫‪0 2215‬܀‪,‬‬
‫‪_008‬‬ ‫‪.‬ܐ‬ ‫‪.07 A‬‬ ‫‪2215 1 ,‬‬
‫‪/‬‬ ‫‪,‬‬ ‫‪2316‬‬
‫‪/43‬ܜ‬
‫‪/‬‬ ‫‪ /‬ܐ _ܘ‪,‬ܟ‬ ‫‪8‬ܘ‪.‬ܛ_ ‪26 /97 0‬‬
‫‪_ ,‬‬
‫‪uuwww wowwin‬‬

‫ܣ ܣ ܗ‬
‫‪23 12 3,6‬‬
‫‪23‬‬ ‫‪,6_8186 5,3‬‬ ‫‪3.5‬‬ ‫‪:‬‬ ‫‪1:3‬‬ ‫‪2‬ܐ‪3_0,09 .‬‬ ‫‪1167‬‬‫‪9‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫‪2,_0/12 33‬‬ ‫ܛ‬ ‫‪12756‬‬ ‫‪_,06‬‬
‫‪_024 39 23‬‬ ‫‪12 .10‬‬
‫‪5 _86‬‬ ‫‪,19‬‬ ‫‪3 5. 2‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫_‬ ‫‪163‬‬
‫‪9‬ܘ‪02, 05 _,‬‬ ‫‪_.09 13AA 05‬‬
‫‪/ 11‬‬ ‫‪6 6‬‬ ‫‪ 1, 1‬܂‬
‫‪012‬‬
‫‪24‬܀ܛܐ_‬ ‫‪,‬‬ ‫‪68‬ܐ‪410 _8 .‬‬ ‫‪6‬ܐ‪.‬‬ ‫‪_8‬‬ ‫‪150‬ܐ_‬
‫‪,6A308‬ܘ ‪0 , 11 _.0 6 0 ,‬‬ ‫‪/‬‬ ‫ܘ‪،‬ܜ_? ‪12 _ .‬‬ ‫ܝܐ ‪6‬ܘ܂‪_2008 38 /‬‬
‫ܐܟ ‪/‬‬
‫‪| 53749‬ܟܐ‬ ‫‪._0,6‬‬
‫‪_0458‬‬
‫‪24‬‬ ‫‪,1‬‬
‫‪11‬‬
‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪,38614‬‬ ‫‪5,6‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪179‬‬ ‫‪3_0,01. 1,3‬‬ ‫‪,A‬ܘ‬ ‫‪_,86‬‬ ‫‪/5.5_201‬‬
‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪_0,8‬‬
‫ܐ ‪21‬ܙ‬ ‫‪.5‬‬
‫‪_192729‬‬ ‫‪_8 6‬‬ ‫‪,15‬‬
‫‪5 3. 2‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪163‬‬ ‫‪_,1008‬‬ ‫‪5‬ܐ‪ .‬ܐ‪.‬ܘ‬
‫‪ 8266‬ܐ‪/309‬‬
‫‪_/9 _ 0,‬‬
‫‪+ 351/0331 22‬‬
‫‪/‬‬ ‫_ܘ‪,‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪16‬‬
‫‪/‬‬ ‫‪66‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬‫‪.‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬

‫ܪܪܟܘ ܩܘܟ ܘܗܟ ܡܫܟܗ ܦܗܗܗ‬

‫‪_84183‬‬
‫‪25‬‬ ‫‪.5‬‬
‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪,1_86 6 .5‬‬
‫‪17‬‬ ‫‪_0.8 _8‬‬ ‫‪156‬‬ ‫‪_20,05‬‬ ‫‪_2,3‬‬ ‫_‪3,8‬‬ ‫‪/5_68‬‬ ‫ܐܪܐ‬
‫‪_0,9‬‬ ‫‪161730 0390759‬‬
‫‪943‬‬
‫‪25‬‬ ‫‪191.2 6 _86 ._16‬‬ ‫‪8 2, 6 1. 3 _8 _62 _4 0, 02 _ 0 . 5‬‬ ‫‪,‬‬
‫_‬ ‫‪65‬‬ ‫‪234‬‬ ‫‪16‬‬ ‫‪0‬ܢܐ܂_‬ ‫‪ ._032 4 2‬܂ܕ ܂ ‪42‬܂ ‪92/‬‬ ‫‪06‬‬
‫‪49‬‬
‫‪11 23‬‬
‫‪9 9‬‬ ‫‪16‬‬
‫‪86 48 5, 1 1, 8 1‬‬ ‫‪_,150‬‬ ‫‪1002 _ 0, 9‬‬ ‫‪/ 139‬‬ ‫‪234‬‬
‫‪/ 38‬‬ ‫‪06‬‬ ‫‪40 55‬‬ ‫‪2 _.‬‬
‫‪25 23 _10‬‬ ‫‪26‬‬ ‫‪1219‬‬
‫‪,12‬܂ ‪6 ,_86‬‬ ‫ܐ‪.‬ܘ ‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪,14‬‬ ‫‪2 14, 6‬‬ ‫‪ 0294‬ܐ‪/‬‬‫ܘ ‪8‬‬ ‫‪_614‬܂‬
‫‪«197‬‬
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‫‪:‬‬ ‫‪.64‬ܘܐ_‬ ‫‪.3‬ܘ‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪,/‬‬‫‪729 80_/21‬‬ ‫‪_ ,‬‬ ‫‪0.‬‬ ‫‪9172739‬‬
‫_‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪631‬‬ ‫‪./‬‬ ‫‪3, 9‬‬
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 NLON
LAT
TIME
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ERHERZ PRINCIPLE
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KM
MIN
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DEG SEC KM STD
STD
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AZM
JAN
26 26 40
314282 7.
12 16.3
86 5.7 1.0 6 1004 0.09 0.8 13.B521 0.6 23221 0.8 /8176
8 3.1
49 8.012 86
.3
16 .45 .61 6 96 4 .005 0.8 34.93 .70
1721 /5
262 0.6 /84
55 .94
27 15306 .2
10
12 14.886 3.9 2.3 7 202 1 0.02 .21 81.4A2/ 74 .60 /3179 1 .01 /5178 1.6
27 612 3 .812
11 12
.886 .85 .01 8 230 5 0.04 2.4 /10.9A553 2.5 /21
149 0.7 /64
291 0.6
27 919
38 .4
12 12
86
.7 4.8 1.5 8 2436 0.05 2.1 /10.9A409 2,1 /13
317 .70 /7175
3 .90
9224
1.27
612 16.8
86 2.9 1.9 6 783 0.04 0.7 0.7A /5
59 0.5 /44
324 0.4 /46
154 0.9
,227
13
12
22
1040 .186
12 .75 .91 8 264 7 .00 3 .63 .8B0 /5
46 .63 /1315
1 .80 /7158
8 0.7
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12
35
51
21
27 .4
14
86 5.3 1.4 6 2 6
24 0.03 2.4 1.0A /1442 2.5 /39
144 0.6 /49
301 1.
50
.328
14
12
45 .1
13
86 8.6 1.3 8 265 8 0.07 5.3 6.1C /3
128 1.0 /40
221 /49
34 7.8
.9
10
1212
33
16
28 16.6
86 2.9 0. 9 6 243 4 0.02 2.7 0.9B /10
14 2.7 /44
274 0.4 /44
114 .90
17
1639
28 .0
11
12 14.2
86 3.6 1.3 8 180 3 0,05 0.9 2.A 4
3101 0.5 4
2201 0.9 /84
85 2.
30
14
21
28 7.5
12 .986
16 .43 .41 8 64 4 0.04 .60 .4C5 /2314 0 5. 3
447 .50 /8195
6 .45
28
56
44
21 6.122 .7
14
86 4. 0.7 6 179 2 .00 6 1.5 2.0A 1 9
234 .5 /3324
1 1. /59
143 2.
47
58
23
28 12
.3
11 .4
14
86 4.8 1.4 8 182 3 0.04 1.0 4
3101 /14
219 0. 9 56/75 2.3
710
30
10 .0
12 .386 .91 1. 3 8
13 224 5 .00 4 .52 .4B32.A /6315 .800.6 /3221 4 .31 /553 6
6.8
212
54
11
30 .0
17
86 5. ,20 7 1303 0.10 0.8 1.A /5
259 0.7 /31
352 0.6 /58
160 .31
7.301
21
17
12 .6
16
86 5.8 .62 7 71 3 0.05 0.9 1.2A /O
268 0,6 /35
358 0.6 /55
178 1.4
.7
11
12
22
52
18
30 .0
14
86 3.5 1.2 6 2015 0.04 2.9 .5D
29 13101 .60 /5
220 /85
54 .6
29
7.3
12
58
34
20
30 .8
16
86 2.6 1.5 6 133 1 0.02 .80 0.5A /2
297 0.5 /23
206 .901. /67
33 0.4
912139
6,31
12 .5
17
86 3.1 1. 2 6 1121 0.04 0.7 .1A 1
2637 0.6 21737 0.6 /8278 .1
02314
17 .412
11 14.586 4.3 .21 6 2403 .00 6 1.9 2.6B /5
279 0.7 /18 1.8
187 /71
24 2.6
FEB 1344
43 .9
126 16.9
86 9.8 0. 7 94 1 0.08 .61 4.0B /8
76 1.2 /72
193 .24
01822 9.6
12 15.2
86 3.1 1.4 8 122 1 0.04 0.6 /8
285 19311344/160.9 /77
50 1.2

ome
38113
33 9.3
12 15.2 6.0
86 2.3 8 82 1 0.05 .80 ,5A11.A 23421 0.7 /1251
8 0.6 /7792 1.6
352109 1.2
12 .5
16
86 3.5 1. 8 73 2 0.08 0.6 1.6A /8
61 0.5 9
3301 0.5 /78
191 1.6
no 100

H
9.7210
12
29
48 .143 1. 1
8614 7 188 1 .20061 1.8A /13
270 0.6 /22 0. 9
175 /64
29 2.0
.230116
11
12 .95786
14 .01 6 208 6 .5001 9 .9A0 /20
56 .61 /29
157 .60 /5296
4 9.0
1.63842012 6 .819
16
86 1. 7 98 2 0.507 0.8A /2328 0 .4 /1596 0.3 /74
233 .80
.2321
14
12
33
42 811
.38611 1. 6 315 9 NO .2003
19 .8D12 /
306 ,32 /3373 ,822 /5214
7 3.8
.46157
12 .513
17
86 0.8 8 141 3 3.006 5.3C 8741 1.0 /28
168 0.8 /61
330 .06
Tacou

41290
20 .912
11 .586 .95
14 .51 9 194 0.06 .81 0.9A /2
309 0.6 /23
40 1.9 /67
213 .50
411
21
55 5.0
12 16.9
86 .12 1.4 8 170 .00 7 0.6 0.4A /10
169 0.6 /37
266 0.6 /51
66 0.3
42121
22 .5
13
12 .486 .4
13 2,3 9 2498 .00 9 .91 .31A /2
129 0,7 /11
39 .02 /79
228 1.3
Noo

421
27 .4
12 .3
14
86 2. .1 9 7 213 5 0.08 1.3 0.6A 43101 0.4 /11 0 1.3 /82000 0.5
52 5017 9.2
12 .38615 3.5 .80 6 131 1 0.04 0.9 1.6A /12 0.5
247 /14
154 0.8 16/71 1.7
514
14
44 1210.9 8614.3 3.9 1.6 7 173 3 0. 5 0.9 53.4B3047 0.5 6 0.8
2131 74/82 3.4
 Magnitudes were calculated using the maximum trace amplitude (Eaton and
others, 1970 ) and the coda length (Tsumura , 1967 ; Lee and others, 1971) .
Neither system is entirely rigorous , particularly without simultaneous
recordings from a Wood - Anderson seismograph for comparison (Hamilton , 1972 ;
Lee and others, 1972 ; Thatcher , 1973) . Since the dynamic range of these
high - gain , portable instruments límits use of record amplitude to about 1 .25
units of magnitude , the coda length magnitude is given in Table 1 . Since
there are no data available to calculate the constants in the formula for
coda length magnitude , the values determined by Lee and others (1971 ) were
used . The magnitudes given could be incorrect by one unit .

No effort was made to make the sample of 171 earthquakes complete for any
magnitude. This sample consists only of those events that were best recorded
during this study .
The distribution of aftershocks clearly shows one main seismic zone
passing under Managua and directly under the two main faults mapped at the
surface by Brown and others (1973) and several other authors . Thus the after
shocks show there was one zone of primary activity during the main earthquake .
This zone extends from 8 or 10 km depth to the surface , strikes N30 to 35°E ,
and dips 80 to 90°E . The zone is probably less than a kilometer wide and in
our opinion (Ward and others , 1974) represents one fault at depth bifurcating
near the surface to two fault traces . This fault passes through Lake Tiscapa
and the Customs House and within 1500 meters of nearly all of the severely
damaged part of Managua . The large amount of damage can be partly attributed
to the proximity of so many structures to the active fault where ground
acceleration even from a small earthquake (Page and others , 1972) may be
considerable .
Acknowledgments
Funds for collection and analysis of the seismic data during the last two
weeks of January and early February were provided by the Agency for Inter
national Development under PASA LA ( IC ) 24 - 73. Al Vaughn assisted in the data
collection during this period . Thanks to John Lahr for use of several of his
computer programs . John Lahr and Elliot Endo reviewed the manuscript . The
assistance of Leroy Anstead, Cartographic Representative of the Inter American
Geodetic Survey , and of many persons on the staff of the American Embassy
was very valuable during the field work .

References

Brown , R . D . , P . L . Ward, and G . Plafker , 1973 . Geologic and seismologic

aspects of the Managua , Nicaragua , earthquakes of December 23 , 1972 ,
U . S . Geol . Survey Prof . Paper 838 , 34 p .

Eaton , J . P . , M . E . O 'Neill , and J . N . Murdock , 1970 . Aftershocks of the

1966 Parkfield - Cholame , California , earthquake: A detailed study ,
Bull. Seism . Soc . Amer . , 60 , 1151 - 1197 .

95
Hamilton , R . M . , 1972 . Aftershocks of the Borrego Mountain earthquake from
12 April to 12 June 1968 , in The Borrego Mountain earthquake of April 9 ,
1968 , U . S . Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 787 , 31 - 54 .

Lee , W . H. K . , M . S . Eaton , and E . E . Brabb , 1971 . The earthquake sequence

near Danville , California , 1970 , Bull . Seism . Soc. Amer . , 61 , 1771 - 1795 .

Lee , W . H . K . , R . E . Bennett , and K . E . Meagher , 1972 . A method of estimating

magnitude of local earthquakes from signal duration , U . S . Geol. Survey
open - file rep .
Page , R . A . , D . M . Boore , W . B . Joyner , and H . W . Coulter , 1972 . Ground
motion values for use in the seismic design of the trans - Alaska pipeline
system : U . S . Geol. Survey Circ . 672 , 23 p .
Thatcher , W . , 1973. A note on discrepancies between. local magnitudes (M1 ) and
microearthquake magnitude scales , Bull . Seism . Soc . Amer . , 63 , 315 - 319 .

Tsumura , K . , 1967. Determination of earthquake magnitude from total duration

of oscillation , Bull . Earthquake Res . Inst . , 45 , 7 - 18 .

Ward , P . L . , J . G . Gibbs , D . Harlow , and A . Aburto Q . , 1974 . Aftershocks of

the Managua , Nicaragua , earthquake and the tectonic significance of the
Tiscapa fault , Bull. Seism . Soc. Amer . , in press .

96
 AFTERSHOCK AND INTENSITY OF THE MANAGUA EARTHQUAKE
OF 23 DECEMBER 1972
by

Tosimatu Matumoto
Marine Biomedical Institute
University of Texas Medical Branch
Galveston , Texas
and

Gary Latham
Marine Biomedical Institute
University of Texas Medical Branch
Galveston , Texas

Abstract . Two portable seismic stations and a fixed array of five seismometers
were used to record aftershocks in the vicinity of Managua , Nicaragua , after
the earthquake of 23 December 1972 . Approximately 3000 aftershocks were re
corded during a 20 - day period in January 1973 . Left lateral motion along at
least two faults , both trending N40°E , is inferred from the seismic data . This
is in good agreement with dislocations mapped at the surface in Managua . The
data suggest that the shallow earthquakes of the Managua region are a conse
quence of north - south compressional stresses and east -west tensional stresses.
This is consistent with regional plate movements deduced in other investiga
tions .

Managua is situated near the western edge of a long, narrow depression - -

the Nicaragua Trough - that runs through much of Central America (Fig . 1 ) . A
belt of youthful volcanoes runs along the depression . This feature is inter
preted as a graben in which the block that forms the floor of the trough has
moved downward relative to the blocks on either side ( 1 ) . There is some evi
dence that the bounding block to the west has tilted downward toward the Pacif
ic , raising the western wall of the trough ( 1) . The volcanoes of Nicaragua
are noted for the explosive character of their eruptions. It is estimated that
outpourings of ash from these volcanoes over the past 200 years have been suf
ficient to cover the entire region of the seismic belt to an average depth of
1 m ( 2 ) . In fact , most of the ash falls to the west of the volcanic belt ow
ing to the prevailing easterly winds . Thus, over long periods of time, the dan
ger of widespread destruction in western Nicaragua may be as great from volcan
ism as it is from earthquakes .

Sixty - eight earthquakes , large enough to be located by the World -Wide

Standard Seismograph Network (WWSSN ) (generally magnitude 4 and larger ) , have
occurred in Nicaragua in the past 11 1 /2 years , as shown in Fig . 1. This num
ber includes the coastal zone arbitrarily taken as extending 15 km from shore
along the western border of Nicaragua . Many earthquakes, too small to be loc
ated by the WWSSN , have undoubtedly occurred in this region during the interval
plotted . Many others occurred seaward of the 15 km limit . But neither the

97
 °
14

X NICARAG
EARTHQU
)
x
( UAN
AKES
1972
-
1961

XXX
°
13

х X X
x
x X
x
X мал LAKE
MANAGUA
oO o
ºo
X X
XX манастик

°
12

98
L
X A
K
E
NI
CA
*** X RA
GU
A

oooo
°
11
KM
100

X
X
°88 °87 °86 °
85 840 830

epicenters
Earthquake
in
Stan
-W
World
the
by
Nicaragua
(x)lFig ide
.1. ocated
between
Network
Seismograph
dard
August
31
and
1961
1972 anuary
.1Jedges
The
Williams
and
McBirney
Trough
---
a
by
given
as
(1).ofre
Nicaragua
the
small earthquakes, nor those that occur farther seaward , are likely to be haz
ardous to land areas in Nicaragua .

As shown in Fig . 1 , the earthquakes of Nicaragua are confined almost en

tirely to a belt lying along the western border of the country . Ninety percent
of the earthquakes plotted fall within 70 km of the coastline. The largest of
these was the Managua earthquake of 23 December 1972 , with a magnitude (M ) of
6 . 2 . In general, the earthquakes of the region are intermediate to small in
size . Ten of the located earthquakes occurred near Managua (within 35 km ) dur
ing the 11 1 / 2 year period considered here. The eastern region of Nicaragua is
essentially aseismic .

Using the criteria given by the modified Mercalli intensity scale ( 3 ) , we

have determined the intensity distribution of the earthquake of 23 December to
be as shown in Fig . 2 . From this distribution , the earthquake must have been
centered beneath the southern end of Lake Managua , close to the shoreline of
central Managua , at shallow depth ( a few tens of kilometers or less ) . An in
tensity of IX is assigned to central Managua out of a maximum of XII.

Damage to structures in a particular area varied greatly depending on the

type of construction . In general , the severe damage suffered in Managua was
a result of the fact that structures there are poorly designed for resistance
to earthquake vibrations ; this is particularly true of the widely used type of
construction call taquezal (a combination of wood and adobe ) .

Two portable seismograph stations and a fixed array of five seismometers

were used in our study . The portable stations were moved at daily intervals
to measure aftershock activity over the region from Managua southward 30 km to
Masaya . Recordings with these two stations between 10 and 30 January 1973 were
made at a total of 30 different sites including 8 sites near the summit and
flanks of the Santiago and Masaya volcano complex .
The
The fixed array was installed on the property of the Nejapa Country Club ,
5 km south of downtown Managua , on 16 January 1973 . The five seismometers of
the array were connected by cables to amplifiers and a magnetic tape recorder
located near the center of the array . The maximum separation between seismom -
eters was 890 m . Accurate timing was provided by a stable clock synchronized
with WWV radio time transmissions . Continuous recordings were made from the
seismic array over a period of 9 days .

Two explosions were detonated in Lake Managua at ranges of 0 .5 km (75 kg

of dynamite ) and 4 km (110 kg ) from the shoreline of Managua . Seismic signals
from these explosions were recorded by both the portable stations and the seis
mic array at ranges up to 9 . 4 km . These measurements have been used to deter
mine the local structure and the velocities of seismic waves in the material
underlying Managua.
Managua is located on a thick deposit of alluvium and deeply weathered
volcanic ash that has accumulated in the Nicaragua Trough . The age of the
trough is uncertain , but McBirney and Williams ( 1 ) estimated that subsidence
and infilling of the trough occurred during the past 1 million years (Quater

99
 MANAGUA EARTHQUAKE

LAKE MANAGUA
X
*X

Hat xx

* +IX VMI VII

m
o
bi ti
Et be
ANAGUA

ARRAY * *
X

+ + O 5 KM

Fig . 2 . Intensity map for the main shock and epicenters of 300 aftershocks lo
cated by data from a 5 - station seismic array . At least two linear trends in
the aftershock activity are suggested , as indicated by the dashed lines .

100
nary ) . Using the seismic signals detected from the two explosions in Lake
Managua , we determined the thickness of the trough infilling to be about 1 . 4 km
beneath Managua . The compressional wave and shear wave velocities in this
material are 2 . 6 and 1. 3 km / sec , respectively . The compressional wave velocity
in the underlying Tertiary volcanic rock that presumably forms the floor of the
trough is about 3 .6 km / sec . The difference in elevation between the present
trough floor and the top of the western wall reaches nearly 1 km near Managua .
Thus, we can say that the relative vertical movement along the western edge of
the graben has been about 2 . 4 km .

The number of aftershocks detected during the 20 day period covered by

this report (10 to 29 January 1973 ) varied between 50 and 200 per day . The
magnitudes of these earthquakes ranged between 0 . 0 and 3 . 0 . Approximately ten
aftershocks large enough to be felt in Managua occurred during this period .
Using the velocity model derived from the two explosions described above , we
have located 300 aftershocks to date . As shown in Fig . 2 , two clusters can be
distinguished within the distribution of aftershock epicenters . After the
Managua earthquake a series of seven to ten parallel fault lines trending
northeast - southwest through the city could be mapped ( 4 ) . There is evidence
of left lateral motion at several points along the faults (the northwestern
side moved in a southwesterly direction relative to the southeastern side) .
The southern cluster coincides closely with the principal fault mapped in the
area , indicated by a dashed line in Fig . 2. The trend of the fault is N40°E .
The directions of the fault movements responsible for the aftershocks can
be deduced from the directions of the first motions of the recorded seismic
waves . The solution is not unique, since only compressional waves were used .
Of the two possible solutions , one is in good agreement with the surface obser
vations (predominantly left lateral movement along faults trending approximate
ly N40°E ) . As shown in Fig . 3 , the aftershocks are concentrated at depths of
between 2 and 8 km , with a few as deep as 14 km and as shallow as 1 km . The
planes of the active zones are essentially vertical. Thus , we conclude that
the aftershock clusters define two steeply dipping faults , or systems of faults ,
each about 10 km in length and 10 to 15 km in vertical extent , along which left
lateral movement was taking place at the time of our fieldwork . The northern
fault system is approximately in line with a fault that cuts through to the
southeast along which movement occurred during the devastating earthquake of
1931. If the two faults are part of the same system , the actual length of that
system may be much greater than 10 km , with current activity restricted to the
segment defined by the aftershocks .
A system of crustal stresses compatible with the inferred directions of
faulting is north - south compression and east -west tension . We obtained the
same stress distribution from an analysis of aftershocks following an earth
quake that occurred in Costa Rica , 235 km southeast of Managua , on 14 April
1973 (5 ) . This suggests that the same stress system may persist over a region
including most of Nicaragua and Costa Rica .

This stress system may be explained as a consequence of differential move

ments between two plates : the Cocos plate on the western side of Nicaragua and
the Caribbean plate on the eastern side. According to the hypothesis of Mol
nar and Sykes (6 ) , the Caribbean plate is presently moving eastward " dragging "

101
 MANAGUA EARTHQUAKE N40E
ARRAY MANAGUA SHORE, LINE

X* + * +
XX X

xx + +

5 KM
P . . . 5 KM
(K)DEPTH
M

ARRAY N50W

X ,X
Xx
x

x
x
x
xix

orskn
5 KM .

Fig . 3 Focuses of aftershocks (pulses ) projected onto (A ) a vertical plane

oriented northeast - southwest through the center of the array and (B ) a vertical
plane perpendicular to the dashed lines of Figure 2 .

102
eastern Nicaragua with it , while the Cocos plate is moving in a northerly di
rection , plunging beneath the western edge of the Central American Arc .
The agreement between the source mechanism of the Managua earthquake and
iferred plate movements implies that the large - scale tectonic processes that
formed the Nicaragua Trough are still active . Thus, we must assume that the
probability of future earthquakes in the Managua region is high . If a recon
structed city is to survive where the ruins of Managua now stand , it must be
built to withstand earthquakes of at least moderate intensity .

References and Notes

1. A . R . McBirney and H . Williams , Volcanic History of Nicaragua (Volume 55 ,
University of California Publications in Geological Sciences , Univ . of
California Press , Berkeley , 1965 ) .
2. H . Williams, Contributions to American Anthropology and History , No. 52
(Publication No . 596 , Carnegie Institution of Washington , Washington , D .C . ,
1952) .
3. C . F . Richter , Elementary Seismology (Freeman , San Francisco , 1958 ) ,
pp . 136 - 138 .
4. F . Fielder , chief city engineer of Managua. personal communication .
5. T . Matumoto and G . Latham , in preparation .
6. P . Molnar and L . R . Sykes , Geol . Soc. Amer . Bull. 30 , 1639 ( 1969) .
7 . Funding for this project was provided by the University of Texas through
the good offices of Dr . P . Flawn and T . Blocker . Equipment was kindly
loaned by the Johnson Space Center of the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration and by the Sprengnether Corporation . The assistance and en
couragement of General Anastasio Somoza and many officials of the govern
ment of Nicaragua is gratefully acknowledged . We also thank Dr . J . Dorman
and Dr . M . Ewing for reviewing the manuscript and providing constructive
comments, and M . Zuniga and D . Fridge who ably assisted in the field pro
gram . We acknowledge the use of the earthquake file of the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , Environmental Data Service, Boulder ,
Colorado, which supplied the epicenter data of Fig . 1 . Contribution No .
20 , Earth and Planetary Sciences Division , Marine Biomedical Institute .

103
 · ISOSEISMAL MAPS OF THE MANAGUA DECEMBER 23 , 1972 EARTHQUAKE

by

Francisco Hansen A .
Executive Direction ,
Cadaster and Natural Resources Inventory

and

Víctor M . Chávez
Chief Operations ,
Cadaster and Natural Resources Inventory

INTRODUCTION

Just a few days after the December 23 1972 Earthquake , which practically level
ed the city of Managua , Capital of Nicaragua and the site of government and
economic life of the country , the technical personnel of the Hydrogeology Sec
tion of the Cadaster and Natural Resources Inventory Office , with the support
of the Executive Direction of the same Office and the initial lead from Mssrs .
Leeds , Duke and Valera from the Earthquake Engineering Research Institute Team ,
began a survey of earthquake intensities , to find out the various levels of
seismic effects and destructivity , their distribution , the relationship between
ground shaking and structural damage and other effects , and to prepare maps of
isoseismal curves .
The survey was conducted in two stages ; the first one was concentrated within
the Managua urban area and was afterwards extended to cover the suburban area .
The second part of the survey extended over the most part of the Country . Isos
eismal maps were prepared for both surveys , figures 1 and 2 . The scale used
was the 1931 Modified Mercalli scale of intensities , 1956 version . (Annex A ) .

THE MANAGUA SURVEY

With the initial lead from the aforementioned members of the EERI team who vis
ited Managua after the Earthquake , three parties were organized , each one com
posed of two people . It was considered advisable that these people should be
at least civil engineers or persons who could properly interpret the meaning of
the different degrees of the scale and relate them to earthquake effects as
seen on the scene . These two people in each party assesed intensities and
checked each other to within one third of a degree , and were often interchanged
so as to have a different combination of personnel every day . After each day ,
work notes were compared within each party and where other parties could have
crossed the same path . It was found that agreement was very reasonable and
very regular within the natural uncertainties involved due to personal judge
ment and interpretation of earthquake effects .

The survey was conducted in eight calendar days , just by observing structural
damage , and where possible , by observing ground and soil effects , without try

104
ing to search out the effects on people , which on the other hand were generally
clear and evident to be just under IX in the scale .
The general strategy was to concentrate first on those parts of the city that
sustained the most of the damage and which by government action were already
surrounded by a barbed wire fence in an area within which demolition operations
and rubble removal were well under way .

Each party was assigned several paths separated at least by a distance of two
blocks or about 200 meters appart , and traversed on foot along the streets
( east -west general direction ) and avenues (general north - south direction ) . Along
each traverse an observation was made on every other corner and more often at
each corner . Where empty lots were found , the observation was performed either
in the middle of the block or on the nearest interesting structure .
After covering the wire enclosed area the survey was extended to the rest of
the urban area , increasing the distance between survey points to about 200 to
300 meters , until the last points in the suburban area were about 500 or more
meters distant (except in areas of sizable housing developments where a little
more detail was considered necessary ) . In total , 306 points were surveyed in
the Managua area .

Some difficulties were found as to the proper classification of dama ged struc
tures within masonry types A , B , C and D , as given by the pertinent definitions
in the 1956 version of the Scale , since it is somewhat difficult , just by look
ing at structural damage for a few minutes to qualify good or bad workmanship
or to establish the limit between proper or poor design practices and use of
materials . However this will be an ever - present handicap unless a more detail
ed survey could be made . On the other hand , many instances were found of poor
building practices which in a score of cases caused heavy damage or total col
lapse . Within these , lack of proper reinforcement , short splices , the use of
plain bars in important structural elements , widely spaced stirrups of their
total absense , could be mentioned as characteristics , as is the use of poor
quality agregates and concrete of low strength , poured with a very high water
cement ratio , showing pockets and segregation of materials . Cases were found
of very slender columns supporting heavy slabs , especially in the housing de
velopments around Managua . In these areas many of the private dwellings had
suffered some changes due to remodeling and additions performed by the owners
on their own , just by giving the work to any particular laborer . This resulted
in a bad construction attached to an otherwise type A structure , which remained
standing practically undamaged while the addition collapsed . Other cases were
found of the indiscriminate use of materials and building practices such as
taquezal houses supporting a second and even two floors of hollow concrete block
units . Most of the damage was concentrated on the taquezal type of construction
which is basically a wooden frame without lateral ties and walls made out of a
mixture of mud , grass and stones enclosed in a frame work of slender posts and
studs , supporting a somewhat heavy framed tile roof. This type of structure
was very sensitive to the earthquake due to its natural weakness . It is inter
esting to note that in many instances this type of construction could have
fallen at any time in the future due to the rotting of the structural elements
caused by dampness , insect action or other causes .

105
With the above considerations in mind to properly judge the various levels of
damage , it is also an element of judgement to note that prior to the earthquake
there was not any mandatory law to enforce the use of any building code and
that seismic design was only performed by local designers and engineers on
their own , as a matter of good professional practice , using the Uniform Build
S a

ing and other Codes .

THE NICARAGUA SURVEY

After finishing with the field work in the Managua area and while data was being
analyzed , a plan was launched to make a similar survey in the rest of the Count
ry . This was chiefly motivated by reports of earthquake effects coming from
different places in Nicaragua . This is interesting for this Earthquake , since
other destructive earthquakes of the past had a much smaller area of influence .
The march 31 , 1931 earthquake with a reported magnitude of 5 . 3 to 5 . 9 which
destroyed the city at that time was not felt in nearby Granada , only a few miles
from Managua . So was generally unnoticed the January 4 , 1968 , 4 . 6 magnitude
earthquake which caused moderate damage in southeastern Managua . Inquiries were
delivered to more than 100 cities and villages using as a questionaire a model
kindly provided by Engineer Jesus Figueroa of the Institute of Engineering ,
National University of Mexico . It was possibly due to some natural disorgan
ization in the mailing services that just a few answers were received , so it
was decided to work on the basis of personal interviews . The work had to extend
for about a month since facilities were somewhat limited . Priority was given to
the cities and villages close to Managua, then the population centers of the
Pacific Coastal areas and finally the areas extending beyond these , to the east
and north of the country . Due to the lack of facilities , the eastern plains
facing the Caribean Sea were not visited . In this fashion 79 population centers
were covered, making at least two interviews at each one , among people consider
ed to be the most objective and reliable. To test on reliability a particular
city was chosen at random where 25 interviews were performed , showing a general
agreement of about 80 % .
Unlike the case of Managua , personal response to the earthquake was given due
consideration along with the interest on reports of structural response (very
limited to some small wall cracks ) and other effects such as movement of ob
jects , broken glassware , etc .

THE MANAGUA ISOSEISMAL MAP

Refering to figure 1 the intensities in Managua during the December Earthquake

reached a value of nearly IX in the MM 1931 scale in central downtown Managua ,
with diminishing values outwards away from the city .

There are three areas affected by heavy damage : a ) The area between the Nation
al Palace and the Campo de Marte in the N - s direction and between the Central
Market and 6th . NW Avenue in the E -W direction ; b ) The area between the Lake
shore and the Southern tip of Ciudad Jardín in the N - s direction , and between
the East Market and the vicinity of the old airport in the E - W direction , and
c ) The area between Restaurant Los Gauchos at the head of the Managua - Masaya

106
highway , and 6th . SE street in the N- S direction , and between 1st . SW avenue
and 15th . SE a venue in the E- W direction .

In the zone around Tiscapa Lagoon which is a volcanic collapse crater , degree
IX was observed . This can be explained by the fact that the Tiscapa Fault ,
along which seismic activity was concentrated , passes right through the Lagoon ;
damage was considerable east and west of the crater , reaching to total collapse
of buildings like the Blood Bank ( Banco de Sangre ) Building to the east and the
Guerrero Pineda Building to the west . Besides this , structural damage was very
heavy in structures located right over the rim of the crater , like the Military
Hospital , The Presidential Palace , The Headquarters of the Army and the American
Embassy , this last being almost totally destroyed . On the other hand , local
damage and the development of large cracks and fractures in the soil around the
rim of the crater , along with the occurrence of some landslides in the very
steep interior walls of the crater can be explained by an increase in ground
shaking due to local topographic effects . This effect was also observed in
Asososca Lagoon and along the South Panamerican Highway where it borders the
Ticomo Depression , also a collapse structure .

Other areas of concentrated heavy damage between VIII and IX can be observed in
the isoseismal map ; one located northwest of Tiscapa Lagoon where population
concentration was high , and a second one northeast of Tiscapa , reaching the Lake
shore and comprising some heavyly populated and industrial areas .

Areas where intensities were between VII and VIII are limited by the Managua
Lake to the north , the National Stadium to the west , The Central American Uni
versity ( UCA ) and Colonia Centroamerica to the South , and through a series of
medium and low class housing developments such as Colonia Managua , Maximo Jerez ,
Salvadorita , Maestro Gabriel and Jardines de Santa Clara , to the east . These
areas were by far the most important ones since they housed most of the com
mercial bussines and industries , Government Offices and the bulk of residential
units .

An area of intensity VII was located around the rim of the Asososca crateric
Lagoon , which is used as a natural reservoir for the water supply system of the
city , where large landslides and ground cracking was observed .

In the southern area of the city , the sector extending from the Central American
University to the Colonia Centroamerica , where there were many schools and col
leges and medium and high class housing , the significative intensity was VII .
So was a small area around the eastern end of the International Airport where a
local high of VII plus was observed .

Areas affected by VI - VII extend over a wide area around the city , limited to
the west by Barrios Santa Ana and San Judas , then turning east to the vicinity
of Reparto Las Colinas , and from there turning northeast along a wide curve
passing through Colonia 14 de Septiembre , Reparto La Argentina and the vicinity
of the Airport , to the Lake .

A zone of VI - VII was observed around the fracture zone of the Jiloa - Los Angeles
System , from Laguna de Asososca to the Ticomo Depression . The existence in

107
 LAKE
MANAGUA

ElTriunto DEJARDINS
CLARA
SANTA
IRISAS
LAS -IX
Yin
SANTA
MA LAGO VVI
- II
NACIONAL
Septiembr
15de e
Ad S
JETC A
NASTADIO ie
DLCAMPO
NANTE
ls
Colds MORIZONTE
HELLO
OVALUT -VVII
III MAESTRO
-VVI VIII
I-X

Dow ?
-VII
VI C.SALVADORITA INTERNATIONA
AIRLPORT
LAGUNA DOLOR NANAGUA VI
-VII
OE
ASOSOSCA
ELRETIRO
MON
ALTAGRACIA
POR
TO

-VVIII CWAXINO
JELZ
IOTENORE
C1DE6
NICA

UNLACE RACE UCA

E
RAGU
A

CARRCT
-VVIIII
V-I
JUDAS
SAN
SAY
WOLINA
TORRES A ANGLICA
C.CENTRO

108
-VII
VI
PISTA RURAL CIR
DE CUNVALACION

TO
YEC COLINAS
LAS
PRNO
E

LEGEND

SCALE
BOUNDARY
URBAN LOR

ISOSEISMAL
ISOSEISMAL
MANAGUA
MAP
OF
FAULTS
EARTHQUAK
DECEMBER
OF
23
,1 972 E
HIGHWAYS
PRINCIPAL

AVENUES
PRINCIPAL STREETS
AND MERCALLI
MODIFIED
1931
SCALE
INTENSITY
RESOURCES
NATURAL
AND
CADASTER
INVENTORY VERSION
1956

.
1
Figur e Isoseisma
Map
Managua
of
Area l
this zone of volcanic structures with collapsed craters and cinder cones was
determinant in observed damage .

Zones of V - VI are much more wider and comprise the ESSO Refinery and the south
ern edge of Los Brasiles Valley to the west , the small villages of Monte Tabor
and San Isidro to the south and the towns of Sabana Grande and Tipitapa to the
East .

As to the pattern of the isoseismals , they are more or less systematically

grouped around and following the trend of the Tiscapa Fault System , with the
zones of heaviest damage as already outlined in downtown Managua and adjacent
areas . Three blocks of VIII - IX are well defined , with axes in a northeast
direction parallel to the strike of the fault system . The Tiscapa Fault passes
through the southernmost block while the northeast block seems to be more as
sociated with the Ciudad Jardin Fault , east of the Tiscapa Fault . The third

area to the nortwest seems to be lying over a block bounded to the east by a
possible fault extending from Barrio Bolonia to the Railroad Station , and by
the postulated 1931 earthquake fault to the west .

The VII isoseismal line shows also a form regularly following the main fault
and fracture system . To the west this line shows an abrupt change of direction
near the National Stadium which suggest the existence of a local zone of struc
tural weakness , which along with the observed pattern of damage marks the trend
of the 1931 earthquake Fault .

Isoseismals of VI and VII were located around and following the trend of the
Jiloa - Los Angeles fracture zone to the west of the city , which very much con
firms this as a zone of structural weakness .

Finally , the isoseismal line passing through the eastern end of the Internation
al Airport seems to be related to the Esquipulas Fault , belonging to the Cofra
dias Fault System .

THE NICARAGUA I SOSEISMAL MAP

Referring to figure 2 , it can be seen that the earthquake was felt over a some
what wide area throughout the Country . It is difficult to establish the limits
of the zone of human perceptibility due to the fact that not much information
could be gathered in the sparsely populated areas of eastern Nicaragua . This
is why areas of II - III are not continually defined . Reports of negative percep
tion came from some population centers in the Atlantic Coast , as Waspan , Puerto
Cabezas and Bluefields , and from Rivas and San Juan del Sur in the southeastern
tip of the Pacific Coastal area . To the north however , some unconfirmed reports
claim the earthquake was felt in some villages of Honduras , north of the Nica
ragua border , but it was unfortunate these facts could not be checked .

The limits of the areas of positive identification are marked by such populated
centers as Potosi and Puerto Morazan in the Gulf of Fonseca , Ocotal near the
northern border ; Bonanza , within the mining district of Nicaragua , 180 miles
northeast of Managua ; El Recreo , near the end of the Rama Road , 140 miles east
of Managua , and Belen , 55 miles southeast of Managua , near the Nicaragua Lake

109
 25
NICARAGUA
ISOSEISMAL MAP OF THE HONDURAS
DECEMBER 23, 1972 EARTHQUAKE

1931 MODIFIED MERCALLI INTENSITY

SCALE , 1956 VERSION

PTO CABLUS
BONANZA

OCOTAL

ATLANTICO
SOMOTO III - IV

JINOTECAS
SOMOTILLO
DinoTea
MATAGALPAO

OCEANO
nanosen / Iv -v / v-VII
OCHINANDEGA
COMITTO
0
III - IV
POACO
hiv -v II -III
JUICALA
EL RECREO
EL RECREO
ILVIA
PAC
OC
EA

IFI
NO

CO

RIMS

CARLOS

COSTA RICA
FOR HIGHER INTENSITIES , SEE THE
MAMASUA 190SLISMAL MA .
CADASTER AND NATURAL RESOURCES INVENTORY,

Figure 2 . Isoseismal Map of Nicaragua

110
 shore . Within these limits , the area
AS of earthquake sensibility is around
DUR 23,500 square miles and comprises most
15 H ON of the Pacific Area , the Central and
northern zones of the Country , and a
small part of the Atlantic Plains to
the East .
14

ATLANTICO
The isoseismal map as delineated ac
cording to the collected information
Š

III 고 I does not show local variations or

I contrasts of higher or lower inten
P sities ; maximum intensity was near IX
A
C on the MM 1931 scale as seen in the
I
A isoseismal map of Managua .
Y
C
O
&

Areas of III - IV are by far the most

extense and comprise 37 surveyed towns
and villages where shaking was report
edly felt between 1 to 15 seconds ;
COSTA RICA
some people woke up and there were
some reports of noise heard like rumb
Figure 3 . Isoseismal Map of the Some doors , dishes ,
ling at distance .
November 14 , 1958 earthquake
glasses , rattled , and hanging lamps
swayed .

Areas of IV- V have its center more or

less around Managua Lake and comprises 14 surveyed population centers where
strong shaking was felt between 3 to 45 seconds . Most people woke up and some
heard noises like thundering at distance . Doors , dishes , glasses , rattled ;
hanging objects swayed and some loose objects were displaced . Some structural
noise was reported .

In areas of V- VI , 19 surveyed population centers are enclosed where strong shak

ing was felt between 5 to 60 seconds . Practically all people woke up , were
frightened and rushed out their homes . Earthquake noises were reported as rum
bling , roaring and thundering ; glasses , dishes and small objects were broken ,
fell off from shelves or were displaced . There were some reports of plaster
cracking and falling and of trees swaying .

Areas of VI - VII are centered around Managua and are much more localized ; they
can be best seen in the isoseismal map of Managua , figure 1 . In these areas all
people woke up and rushed out their homes in panic . Strong shaking lasted for
about 1.5 minutes and more ; walking was very difficult and there were personal
reports of loud noises like rumbling or roaring resembling thundering. Doors ,
dishes , glasses , rattled and broke , hanging pictures were displaced , with many
instances of objects thrown to the floor . There was widespread minor to mode
rate damage in masonry D , as floor and wall cracks , plaster falling and tile
sliding from roofs . There was some ground cracking and small landslides along
the loose steep enbankments of some natural ditches .

111
Areas of intensities higher than VII , up to IX are better defined in the isos
eismal map of Managua , where as already said , grading was done on the basis of
observed damage in the city and around .
Looking at the Nicaragua Isoseismal Map , there seems to be a general trend in
the northeast direction for the orientation of the curves which seems to be
related to the trend of the fault system of the Managua Earthquake , oriented in
the same direction . Except for this fact , there does not seem to be a direct
association with the main nicaraguan structural system oriented in the north
west- southeast direction , comprising the Nicaragua Depression and the bounding
system of the volcanic chain and marginal normal faults . Other non destructive
earthquakes of the near past have shown isoseismals oriented parallel to the
general structural system , but there is at least one instance of an earthquake
(November 14 , 1958 ) , which was non destructive but widely felt that shows very
closely the same pattern of intensity spreading as this december 1972 earth
quake (figure 3 ) .

Finally , the area of strongest shaking , set close to IX , right in the Managua
urban area , favors a macroseismal epicenter in the city itself , against the in
strumental epicenter determined teleseismically , which is located about 16 miles
northeast from Managua in the Punta Huete Peninsula , to the other side of the
Managua Lake .

112
 ANNEX A

MODIFIED MERCALLI SCALE , 1956 VERSION

I. Not felt . Marginal and long-period effects of large earthquakes .

II .
Felt by persons at rest , on upper floors , or favorably placed .

III . Felt indoors . Hanging objects swing . Vibration like passing of light
trucks . Duration estimated . May not be recognized as an earthquake .

IV .
Hanging objects swing . Vibration like passing of heavy trucks ; or
sensation of a jolt like a ball striking the walls . Standing motor
cars rock . Windows , dishes , doors rattle . Glasses clink . Crockery
clashes . In the upper range of IV wooden walls and frame creak .

V. Felt outdoors ; direction estimated . Sleepers wakened . Liquids disturb

ed , some spilled . Small unstable objects displaced or upset . Doors
swing , close , open . Shutters , pictures move . Pendulum clocks stop ,
start , change rate .

VI . Felt by all . Many frightened and run outdoors . Persons walk unstead

ily . Windows , dishes , glassware broken , Knickknacks , books etc. , off

shelves . Pictures off walls . Furniture moved or overturned . Weak
plaster and masonry D * cracked . Small bells ring ( church , school ) .
Trees , bushes shaken ( visibly , or heard to rustle ) .

VII . Difficult to stand . Noticed by drivers of motor cars . Hanging objects

quiver . Furniture broken . Damage to masonry D , including cracks . Weak
chimneys broken at roof line . Fall of plaster , loose bricks , stones ,
tiles , cornices ( also unbraced parapets and architectural ornaments ) .
Some cracks in masonry C. Waves on ponds ; water turbid with mud . Small
slides and caving in along sand or gravel banks . Large bells ring .
Concrete irrigation ditches damaged .

VIII . Steering of motor cars affected . Damage to masonry C ; partial collapse .

Some damage to masonry B ; none to masonry A. Fall of stucco and some
masonry walls . Twisting , fall of chimneys , factory stacks , monuments ,
towers , elevated tanks . Frame houses moved on foundations if not bolt
ed down ; loose panel walls thrown out . Decayed piling broken off .
Branches broken from trees . Changes in flow or temperature of springs
and wells . Cracks in wet ground and on steep slopes .

IX .
General panic . Masonry D destroyed ; masonry C heavily damaged , some
times with complete collapse ; masonry B seriously damaged. (General
damage to foundations ) . Frame structures , if not bolted , shifted off
foundations . Frames racked . Serious damage to reservoirs . Under

ground pipes broken . Conspicuous cracks in ground . In alluviated

areas sand and mud ejected , earthquake fountains , sand craters .

113
 X. Most masonry and frame structures destroyed with their foundations .
Some well -built wooden structures and bridges destroyed . Serious dam
age to dams , dikes , embankments . Large landslides . Water thrown on
banks of canals , rivers , lakes , etc . Sand and mud shifted horizontally
on beaches and flat land . Rails bent slightly .

XI. Rails bent greatly . Underground pipelines completely out of service .

XII. Damage nearly total . Large rock masses displaced . Lines of sight and
level distorted . Objects thrown into the air .

* Masonry A , B , C , D . To avoid ambiguity of language , the quality of mason

ry , brick or otherwise , is specified by the following lettering (which has
no connection with the conventional Class A , B , C construction ) .

Masonry A. Good workmanship , mortar , and design ; reinforced , especially

laterally , and bound together by using steel , concrete , etc . ; designed to
resist lateral forces .

Masonry B. Good workmanship and mortar ; reinforced , but not designed in

detail to resist lateral forces .

Masonry C . Ordinary workmanship and mortar ; no extreme weaknesses like

failing to tie in at corners , but neither reinforced nor designed against
horizontal forces .

Masonry D . Weak materials , such as adobe ; poor mortar ; low standards of

workmanship ; weak horizontally .

114
 SURFACE GEOLOGIC EFFECTS
OF THE MANAGUA EARTHQUAKE OF DECEMBER 23, 1972
by

George Plafker
U . S . Geological Survey
Menlo Park , California
and

R . D . Brown , Jr .
U . S . Geological Survey
Menlo Park , California

INTRODUCTION

Managua , Nicaragua ' s political capital, its business and industrial center ,
and by far its largest city , was struck by three moderate -sized earthquakes
within less than an hour in the early morning of December 23, 1972 . The earth
quakes and related surface faulting severely damaged the central part of the
city , interrupted essential services , and , by their effect on Managua , severely
disrupted the entire Nicaraguan economy . The first and largest earthquake was
felt at 12 : 30 a .m . , local time. It was assigned a Richter magnitude , Mh , of
5 . 6 (surface -wave magnitude, M . , of 6 . 2 ) by seismologists of the U . S . National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration , 1973) . The two largest aftershocks were felt at about 1 : 18 a . m .
and 1 : 20 a . m . Both were smaller (M2 , 5 . 0 and 5 . 2 ) than the main shock , but were
large enough to cause substantial additional damage.

Although all of the earthquakes were of moderate size, they caused extensive
damage because (1 ) they occurred at shallow depth under the city , (2) at least
four surface faults broke in and near Managua , and (3 ) most buildings had little
resistance to seismic shaking .

An accurate evaluation of the geologic hazards and the possibility of fu

ture earthquakes like those of December 23 is critical to future development
plans. Such evaluations have obvious applications in formal planning and in
plan implementation by governmental bodies , but they are also used by financial
institutions , insurance companies, and by business and industry . In recent
years geologic knowledge concerning recognized active faults and other clearly
identifiable geologic hazards has been increasingly applied by private industry
to decisions on site selection , mortgage loan evaluation , and the setting of
insurance rates. These nongovernmental decisions can profoundly affect the
pattern of growth and development simply by directing or influencing the flow
of investment capital away from high -risk sites and towards those where the
level of risk is deemed more acceptable .
Much current planning , both at governmental and private levels , reflects
the viewpoint that earthquake safety in modern cities involves designing for

115
the interaction of two complex systems: the manmade system that is the city
itself , and the natural system consisting of the geologic processes that cause
or accompany a major earthquake. Successful planning for earthquake safety
involves far more than the prevention of structural failure in buildings . It
should include, as well, ensuring the integrity of communication lines , water
service , sanitation facilities, and emergency services such as police , fire ,
and hospital facilities . Such planning should also recognize that massive eco
nomic loss will recur in accordance with the recurrence rates of catastrophic
geologic processes. Such losses are largely independent of structural design
and construction practices, which are directed primarily to the safety of human
lives, at least insofar as earthquake - resistant characteristics are concerned .
Comprehensive urban planning for earthquake safety depends first of all on a
clear understanding of the processes that accompany earthquakes and how these
processes may affect the works of man .
Purpose and Scope . This report on the earthquakes of December 23, 1972 , is
intended to ( 1 ) record and interpret preliminary geologic data and ( 2 ) evaluate
these data as an aid for those who face decisions like those that control the
future development and reconstruction in Managua .

Many of the painful lessons learned in Managua may save hundreds of lives
and millions of dollars if they are used to guide policy and planning at Managua
and in other earthquake-prone regions .
Among the topics that are critical to decisions on land use and redevelop
ment plans are several that are essentially geologic in nature . Those that are
addressed here include :

Identification of the various geologic processes that accompanied the

earthquake of December 23.
An assessment of the relative importance of these processes .

An estimate of the future hazard from similar or greater earthquakes with

in the Managua area .
Geologic conditions that may suggest constraints or limitations on certain
types of functions, land use , or structural or design types within the
Managua area .
The scope of this report is restricted to earthquake -related effects in
the Managua area (that is , within a few kilometers of the city center ) , to
geologic conditions within that area , and to the relations between observed
damage patterns and geologic conditions. This range of topics is dictated by
the brief nature of our field investigation and by its focus on these explicit
problems .

Acknowledgments. The authors of this paper spent approximately one week in

early January , 1973 on the ground in Managua , and the senior author returned ,
with Robert E . Wallace, for several days of follow - up studies during June . To
accomplish much of value in so brief an investigation requires the support ,

116
cooperation , and assistance of many people . It is not possible to acknowledge
all here , but everywhere we received the most courteous cooperation from both
Nicaraguan officials and private citizens during a time of great hardship for
them . We are especially indebted to Capt . and Ing . Orlando Rodriguez M. ,
Director , Servicio Geológico Nacional , and to Ing . Humberto Porta C. , Director
General , Instituto Geográfico Nacional . These two men , and the organizations
which they head , provided information , data , logistics support , liaison , and
coordination with other activities in connection with the disaster .

We are also indebted to Mr. Lloyd Cluff , who preceded us to Managua by

about 10 days . Mr. Cluff reported his observations of active fault breaks in
Managua to us on January 2 , and those observations helped guide our investiga
tions and make them more effective .

Superb vertical stereophotographic coverage in both color and color infra

red , at optimum altitude and sun angles , of the entire earthquake area was
provided by the NASA Manned - Spacecraft Center in Houston , Texas , and was used
most effectively in this study .

We also acknowledge , with thanks , the efforts by Ambassador Turner Shelton

and others on the U.S. Embassy staff to accommodate our field investigations at
a time of extreme difficulty for the Embassy .

GEOLOGIC ASPECTS OF THE EARTHQUAKES

By far the most important geologic effect of the earthquakes of December 23 ,

1972 , was the tectonic movement that occurred on at least four subparallel
surface faults in the Managua area ( fig . 1 ) . Warping along the fault zones and
displacements on fractures along the fault caused direct damage to many buildings ,
streets , and utilities . Relatively minor secondary geologic effects of the
earthquake include displacement on surface fractures not obviously related to
the faulting and a variety of downslope mass movements . There was no evidence
that compaction or liquefaction of the unconsolidated deposits played a signif
icant role in the damage distribution . A reconnaissance study of the shoreline
along the south shore of Lake Managua indicates that there was no significant
earthquake - related regional tilting or relative land - level changes in that area .

Earthquake Faults . Four faults were identified in the Managua area along which
Displacement occurred during the earthquake of December 23d or its aftershocks
( pl . 1 , fig . 1 ) . The faults are manifested in the unconsolidated alluvial and
pyroclastic surficial materials as continuous lines of open fractures or zones
of en echelon fractures that consistently show a sinistral ( left - lateral ) sense
of motion and locally show subordinate extensional and vertical components of
displacement . In a few localities , particularly where there is appreciable
topographic relief , it was not always possible to differentiate surface fractures
related to faulting from fractures that may have been formed through surficial
processes such as down - slope slumping or lurching . To the extent possible ,
however , fractures mapped in the field and described here are those believed to
be primarily of tectonic origin .

Numbers on plate 1 show data points where surface faulting was observed .
Details of the observation at each data point are given in table 1 . Within the

117
 Pleistocene
86 ° 20' 86 ° 10'
12 ° 20 '

(?)Pleistocene Holocene
EXPLANATION

and
ALLUVIUM , LAKE DEPOSITS , AND SOIL
MAFIC AND INTERMEDIATE PYROCLASTIC ROCKS
Pliocene

INTERBEDDED FLOWS AND PYROCLASTIC ROCKS

and

MAFIC PYROCLASTIC ROCKS

Contact TITT Volcanic collapse --- Fault or lineament

1931 earthquake fault 1972 earthquake fault – Dotted
where inferred from aftershock
distribution
Huete Pt

LAKE
Lake MANAGUA
Apoyeque ( elev 39m )

Chiltepe
Volcano

Lake Jiloa

100

12'10 '
MANAGUA

Las Mercedes
Lake Tiscapa Airport
(Lake Asososca 90 ° 80
20 "
Mexico Caribbean
City Sea
200 AMER TMap
RENC
MIDD ICA area H
LE
NICARAGUA
PACIFIC
OCEAN

INDEX MAP

2 0 2 4 6 8 KILOMETERS

2 2 4 MILES

Figure 1. - Generalized geologic map of the Managua area showing faults related to
the 1972 and 1931 earthquakes . Geology modified from 1 : 250,000 - scale Managua
Sheet (ND 16-15 ) of the Instituto Geográfico Nacional , Nicaragua .

118
 TABLE 1. — Characteristics of fractures along the Managua faults
[ Measured aggregate displacement: Tr., trace . N.m., cracks observed but displacement not measured ; ( ? ) , measured displacement may not be true
value. Sense of displacement: S, sinistral; D, dextral; V , vertical ( down -to -southeast ) ; E, wall separation ( extension ). Observations by R. D.

displacement

displacement
Measurede
Brown, Jr. , and George Plafker, January 6-11 , 1973 )

st
aggregat
placemen
fracture
fracture

Calculated
maximum
sinistral
Trend

parallel
fractures

Sense
zone

dis
number
Approx

trend
fractures

on

zone
of

Trend
fracture
Approx

of

to
width

of
zone
zone

of
of

in
(m
Station

zone
Ground surface Remarks

(cm
.1)(pl

)in

)(cm
Fault A
1 76 N. 35 E. Tr . Open field Open fractures with no
2 30 horizontal displacement.
Tr. do Do.
3 S En echelon , poorly exposed

cucu
N.m. Dirt road and

Uma
lawn. fractures .
4 N. 25 E. 9 >1.2 Asphalt pavement
1.2

}
5 >1.2 Interlocking tile Broken underground pipes .
1.6 pavement. Offset concrete block fence.
6 76 >6 N.m. Asphalt pavement Southeast-facing slope break.
10.2 and open field .
7 N.m. Severely damaged new con
crete home astride fracture
zone .
8 2 <1.2 S Asphalt pavement . Damage to concrete homes
astride fracture zone.
9 2.0 Tile floor
10 N. 30 E. 15 N. 15 E. -
-- do
11 Tr. Concrete curbs and Fracture exposed in ditch ;
dirt road . dip approx 85 ° SE.
12 Tr. ..- do Fracture zone appears to die
out near here.
Fault B
13 5 3 2.5 S Concrete fence Fracture zone concealed to
foundation . north beneath garbage
14 ---- S dump.
N. 10 E. <1.2 Dirt road and Broken waterline and con
open field. crete fence foundation.
15 1 N.m. Dirt road Broken waterline.
16 5-9 3.8-10.2 S Railroad embank
ment, asphalt
pavement, con
crete sidewalks
and curb .
17 ---- N. 10-40 E. N.m. Dirt road and bare Entire area intensely frac
ground on low hill tured. Includes lurch
( Chico Pelón ). cracking.
3

18 N. >5.1 D Asphalt pavement Measurement on curb.

19 2 and concrete curbs .
N. > 1.0 --- do
06

20 1 N. 5.1 D - .. do Curved fracture in asphalt

pavement west of sta . 36
convex towards northeast
21 N. 15 W.-N. 4 E. 2.5 S Cutbank 12 m high
and concrete re
taining wall.
22
}

5 2 22.9 25.9 Asphalt pavement Near collapsed part of

10.2 and concrete Customs House.
curbs.
23 1 N. N.m. ---do East side ( uphill ) overrides
west side of fracture,
}
{

24 12 3 N. 10.2 S Asphalt and tile

7.6 pavement.
25 23 >8 N.-S. 19.0 S Asphalt pavement Compression with spalling
and concrete at joints of curbs that
curbs. trend north-south.
26 52 10 N. 10 E. 10.2-15.2 --- do
27 N. 42 E. 12-15 1 N. 42 E. Open field
28 6 N. 10 E. 5.1-7.6 Asphalt pavement
and concrete
curbs .
}

29 23 2 ( ? ) 25 Asphalt pavement, Broken waterline. Horizontal

10.2 E concrete curbs, displacement measured on
and sidewalks. curved road.
30 1 N. 45 E. 10.2 S Asphalt pavement Broken waterline.
----- and concrete
curbs.
31 1 N.m. Asphalt pavement
32 2 2 N. 15 E N.m. Dirt road
33 2 2 N.m. Open field
34 46 Many N. 5-10 W. >3.8 Asphalt pavement Possible lurch cracking.
35 N. 32 E. 12 N. 5 W.-N. 32 E. N.m. Open field
36 1 >2.5 Interlocking tile
pavement.

119
 displacement

displacement
TAELE 1. - Characteristics of fractures along the Managua faults - Continued

aggregate
placement
Measured
fractures
fracture

Calculated
sinistral
maximum
Trend

fractures

parallel
dis

Sense
zone

number
Approx

trend
fractures

on

zone
Trend
of

fracture

of
Approx

to
width

of
zone
of
zone

in
of
pStation

(m
)
Ground surface Remarks

zone
(cm
.1)(l

)in

)(cm
Fault B - Continued
37 N. 25 E. N.m. Interlocking tile Probable en echelon offset
pavement and to west between stas. 36
open field . and 37.
38 76 Many N. 26 E. N.m. Asphalt pavement At Baptist Hospital.
and tile sidewalk.
39 18 5-6 5.1
5.1 Asphalt pavement . Broken waterline.
40 50 >5 N. 17 E. 6.1 ..do Do.
41 N. 42 E. 46 >5 N.-N. 30 E. 15.2-17.8 Asphalt pavement , Pressure ridges trend east
2.5-3.8 } 16.8–19.6 concrete curbs, west in field . Two broken
and open field . waterlines in street.
42 50 8 N. 10 E. 15.2- ( ? ) 48.3 S Asphalt pavement, Horizontal displacement
concrete curbs, measured on curved road
and tile sidewalk. and sidewalk.
{

}
43 43 N. 10 E. ( ? ) 22.3 S Broken waterline.
5.1 Asphalt pavement
and concrete
curbs.
44 N. 25 E. 46 >4 N.m. S Dirt road , concrete
lined ditch , open
field .
45 ~90 >5 >2.5 Asphalt pavement . Possible lurch cracking.
46 N. 12 E. 6 N. 10 E. N.m. S Dirt road En echelon offset between
stas. 46 and 47.
47 N. 32 E. 1 N. 6 W.-N. 10 E. N.m. S Interlocking tile
pavement and
open field .
48 ---- N. 24 E. 6 1-3 ( ? ) 35.6 S ( 7 ) 41.1 Open field Offset fence. Posts may not
have been perfectly aligned
S --- do prior to faulting.
49 N. 22 E. 12 1-3 >15.2 Do.
50 N. 8 E. 23 1 N. 20 E. N.m. do
Duma

Several centimeters dextral

offset of fence. Fracture
dies out within 100 m to
south .
51 9-12 1 N.m. --.do
52 N. 34 E. 12 1 N. 15 W. N.m. do
53 1 N. 22 E. N.m. --- do In baseball field.
54 N. 32 E. 9-12 N. N.m. -.do Do.
55 N.m. Asphalt pavement
56 N. 45 E. 9 N. 45 E. 12.7-16.5 Asphalt pavement Prominent zone dextral frac
and concrete tures across Pan American
curbs. Highway. Cannot be traced
to northeast
Fault C
57 Lake shore Broken sewer outfall along
fault trace .
58 8 1-3 N.m. S Open field and Slump in cliff at old lake
cliff. shoreline.
59 16 1 N.m. Open field
60 N.m. Interlocking tile Powerplant parking lot.
pavement.
61 37 33.0 S 38.1 Asphalt and inter Measured on north curb of
locking tile pave highway.
ment, and con
crete curbs.
62 12 28.6 S 33.0 Concrete slab
17.0 E sidewalk .
63 ----- 30.5 S 35.2 Asphalt pavement, Broken waterline. Measure
concrete curbs , ment on curb south of
railroad embank railroad line.
ment.
64 61 9 N. N.m. S Asphalt pavement Broken waterline.
and concrete
nuomo

curbs.
2
>

65 N. Tr. D ... do Few poorly exposed cracks

with slight horizontal
Tr . displacement.
66 --- do Do.
waino

--do
o

67 5 2 17.8 Broken waterline.

? ??

15.2-17.8
68 55 27.9 31.3 .- . do
4.3
Poorly exposed cracks in street
1

69 ----- N.m. --- do

and market floor.
70 14 12 N.m. --- do Down - to -southeast slope break
on east side of fracture
zone .
24 7 N.m. s ... do

120
 TABLE 1. - Characteristics of fractures along the Managua faults - Continued

ofdisplacement

displacement
placement
aggregate
Measured
fractures

sinistral
fracture

Calculated
maximum
parallel
Trend

offractures

Sense
number
zone

Approx

dis

trend
on

tozone
fractures
fracture
Approx

Trend
of

width
zone

of
inzone
of
(m)
.1)Station

Ground surface Remarks

)inzone
(cm
(pl

)(cm
Fault C — Continued - - --
N . 28 E . 88 > 5 .1

noni
> 20 Asphalt pavement
and concrete
N .m . curbs.
27. 9 - 30.5 . . .do . .
31. 9 -34 . 9 . . . do . Down- to -southeast slope break

usni
on east side of fracture
zone.
11

> >10.6 . 32
* * *N40E Broken waterline.
unaniu
VV

>N 15.2
1

.m . Broken waterline.
.

N .m .
!
1

27 . 9 29. 3
1

do .
N . 40 E. N. N16. E . > 5.1
!

Open field . . .
N .m . Asphalt pavement
and dirt road.
- - - - - -- N . 10– 15 E . > 5.1
1. 3 - 2.5 Open field - - -- - -- Fracture
brush inzone
fieldobscured
to southby.
N . 20 E . N .m . -- -- -- Dirt road and
earthen floor of
house.
N>.m5 .1. Broken
Fracturewaterline.
15 - -- -- - -- - - -- - - - - - of
. .do - - - floor
86 Earthen Fracture inte
intersects wood.
house. frame shack .
- -- -- -- 15 - 18 2-3 N .m . Dirt road
Biz

88 3 N .m .
89 1-2 N .m .
7.6
Open field --- -- ----
90 N . 20 E . -- - -- -- - - - - 2.5 . . .do - - - - - - - - - - - - Pressure ridges that trend
N .32 E . N . 10 E.-N . 20 W . 7 . 5 - 10. 2 - - -do -- - -- - - -- - -- - Enofeast-west betweenalong
echelon cracks
southeast- facing
fractures.
base .
slope.
35 -- - -- -- ( ?)33.0 Interlocking
pavement in tile Approx 15 .2 cm down
displacement, probably part
- to -east
highway. ly due to fill compaction .
unui

93 - N . 45 E. N . 5 - 10 E . N .5m. 1. - - -- - - Open field

94 ------- N . 10-40 W . N .m . ---do Atslope.
base of southeast-facing
iii;

N . 20 W . 1 5(?).N1 -.m15.2
sui

95 10 ..2 .. .do - -- - -- -
9697 N .- N . 5 E .
2 NN .. 1515 Ww .. N .m .
N .m .
- - . do - - - - - -
Golf course air
way.
Fracture zone concealed.
98 .. .do . Fracture zone dies out to
south.
N. N. NTr.m. . ---do
- do -------
99
100 N . 10 W . --- Fracture
south . zone dies out to
N . 28 E . 1-2 N . 8 -20 E . N .m . Open field
i i

101 En echelon fractures in arcu .

a te zone concave to east.
102 N . 45 E . N . 30 E . N .m .
2 .5 - - do end
Asphalt pavement .
1

103
104 N .m . Golf course fair
1

way.
1

105 - Golf
and course
asphaltfairway
pave
ment.

121
 TABLE 1. - Characteristics of fractures along the Managua faults - Continued

displacement
displacement
aggregate
placement
Measured
fractures
fracture

sinistral
Calculated
maximum
parallel
Trend

of s
zone

ofSense
Approx

dis
number

fracture

trend
tozone
fractures

on
fracture
of

Trend
Approx
width

of
zone

inzone
of
(m)
.1)Station

Ground surface Remarks

)inzone
(cm
(pl

(w )
Fault D - Continued
106 - - - - N . 30 E . Tr. Dirt road - -- - - - - - Open fracture with no
measurable horizontal
displacement.
NN .. 406 W E ..
107 - - - - 1-3 Tr . Open field Do.
108 - - - - N .m . Asphalt pavement
and concrete
curbs.
109 - - --- 1 N . 25 E . 1.9 sS 2.2 . . do - - - - - - Measurement at painted
yellow line on road.
110 5 135.9 .. .. ..do - - - - - - - - - - - - - Broken waterline.
111 ---- ( ?) 5 . 1 do . Measurement on south curb.
No offset ofonnorth curbde.
112 - - - - > 1 .3 S Asphalt pavement, Measurement
concrete curbs, Americas sidewalk .
Banco
and sidewalk .
113 -- - - 1.3 S Asphalt pavement,
concrete curbs,
and interlocking
tile pavement.
114 -- - N . 20 E . - -- N .m . Vacant lot and
asphalt pave
Broken waterline.
ment.
11516 ----- N .m . Asphalt pavement. Broken Waterline.
116 - -- N . 10 E. N .m . Asphalt
and pavement
concrete
curbs.
117 N . 10 E . NN .m.m .. . . . do - - - - - - - - -
118 - N . 16 E . N . 10- 12 E . Asphalt pavement
and open field . Severe damage to Texaco
station
zone
astride fracture
119 -- - - -- -- - 44 8-10 N. 8 E. > 1.3 Asphalt pavement
and concrete
curbs.
.
Severe damage to concrete
homes astride fracture
zone .
wWCS

120 -- -
121 ----- N .m .
N .m . . . do
- - - do
-

44
122 . . N . 35 E. N .m . - -do Severe damage to concrete
homes astride fracture
zone.
123 - N.36 E. ..... >3 3 N. 10 –18 E. > 1. 0 Open field and
earthen floor of
warehouse.
Fracture zone appears to
die out to south .

122
limitations of the map scale , we have tried to plot and describe as accurately
as possible the distribution of surface fractures observed in the field . High
resolution 1 : 6 , 000 - and 1 : 10 , 000- scale vertical color photographs of the Managua
area taken by NASA on December 27th and 28th enabled precise location of data
points in the field . These photographs were also used to update the 1 : 10 , 000
scale topographic base map of the Managua area (used for pl . 1) in the immediate
vicinity of the mapped faults so that the data points could be plotted accu
rately relative to streets, highways , major buildings, and other features .

It is entirely possible that faults other than the four described herein
moved during the earthquake sequence but were not identified during our brief
geologic reconnaissance of the earthquake -affected area . Open surface cracks
without detectable horizontal or vertical slip were seen at many localities in
the earthquake -affected area . In a few cases , most notably along the trace of
the 1931 fault near the Somoza Stadium and in areas between the eastern limits
of the city and Las Mercedes Airport (fig . 1) , the linearity of crack zones and
the orientation of individual cracks were suggestive of possible sinistral slip
on northeast - trending faults . The combined surface geologic and seismologic
data described in the following sections clearly indicate , however , that the
faults we have mapped include the most important ones along which displacement
occurred during the earthquakes .
Surface Expression . The four surface faults along which displacement occurred
during the December 23d earthquake or during its aftershocks are subparallel and
trend northeastward across the Managua area . On plate 1 these faults are labeled
A through D from east to west . Faults A and B are about 850 m (meters) apart ,
faults B and C are 270 to 500 meters apart , and faults C and D are roughly 850
to 1 , 150 meters apart . The faults can be traced on land for the following dis
tances: A - - 1 . 6 km (kilometers) , B - - 5 . 1 km , C - - 5 . 9 km , and D - - 2 . 7 km . All the
faults die out on land to the southwest. Towards the northeast , fault A dies
out on land but the other three faults extend to the shore of Lake Managua . The
distribution of aftershocks , described elsewhere, is in good agreement with the
mapped southwestern limits of faulting and further suggests that one or both of
faults B and C probably extend at least 6 km northeastward beneath Lake Managua
approximately as indicated in figure 1 .
Zones of surface fractures along the faults vary considerably in width and
number of constituent fractures , depending upon both the amount of displacement
and the nature of the ground surface . In open fields displacement tends to be
concentrated in a single fracture or in a well-defined band of en echelon frac
tures a few meters to 20 m wide . The fractures along fault Care effectively
masked in cultivated and planted fields between the Circumferential Highway and
the Nejapa Country Club . In built -up areas where rigid structures such as
streets, curbs, sidewalks and buildings locally tend to bridge the shear zone,
displacement may be distributed over broad areas 60 m or more wide in which there
are as many as 20 fractures . Buildings commonly hide fractures that pass beneath
them , unless displacement is large enough to visibly affect the structure . The
fractures in urban areas commonly ruptured underground utility lines , so that in
many places the fault trace was marked by flowing water or utility excavations
in the streets (fig . 2) . Localities at which waterline breaks were observed are
indicated by an " x " on plate 1. Throughout much of the central part of Managua ,

123
Figure 2 . -One of many flowing waterline breaks along earthquake fractures .
(Located on fault B , sta . 40 , pl . 1 . )

Figure 3 . - Displaced sidewalk blocks at Figure 4 . - Sinistral offset in railroad

fault C along north side of Pan American line where it is crossed by fault C
Highway ( sta . 2 , pl. 1 ) . (near sta . 63, pl. 1 ) .

124
where earthquake damage was greatest , the fracture zones were concealed by
rubble . This is especially true along fault D between stations 109 and 116 .

The traces of faults A , C , and D are straight to slightly sinuous , with

uniform average strikes for most of their lengths of N. 38 ° to 40 ° E .. Towards
the southwestern end of fault C in the vicinity of the Nejapa Country Club ,
where the trace is marked by several short , linear fracture zones over a broad
area , there is a gradual change in strike to north - south or even N. 10 ° W. In
contrast , fault B is a more complex feature , consisting of three major segments
showing en echelon offsets and considerable variability in strike . The overall
trend of the zone is approximately N. 40 ° E. , but individual segments have
average strikes of N. 23 ° E. in the area north of the Pan American Highway
( Highway 1 ) , N. 43 ° E. from the highway to the vicinity of Lake Tiscapa , and
N. 32 ° E. in the area south of the lake . The three en echelon segments of
fault B are connected by broad complex zones of fractures near the Pan American
Highway and the Managua -Masaya Highway ( Highway 4 ) . At the Pan American Highway
there is an offset of approximately 200 m between segments of the fault , with a
large number of intervening fractures , some of which have small components of
dextral slip in the vicinity of stations 10 , 19 , and 20 . The exact location of
the fault trace in the Pan American Highway area is further complicated by per
vasive lurch- and slump - fracturing related to settling and spreading in loose
pyroclastic deposits that underlie a small hill ( Chico Pelón , sta . 17 , pl . 1 )
situated approximately in the en echelon offset between the linear fault segments .
The en echelon offset in the vicinity of the Managua - Masaya Highway is marked by
a diffuse zone of cracks over 100 m wide . At this locality some of the fracturing
may be due to downslope lurching of highway fill and the loose pyroclastic mate
rial that makes up the slopes of the Tiscapa crater .

Displacement on fractures within fault zones associated with the December

23d earthquakes is predominantly horizontal and in a sinistral sense : that is ,
to an observer looking across the surface cracks , the opposite side has moved
toward the left . The sense of lateral displacement can be ascertained from the
fact that en echelon fractures have more northerly trends than the fault zones ,
as determined by offsets of streets , curbs , railroad tracks , walls , and fences ,
or by matching irregularities in the walls of open fractures ( figs . 3 to 8 ) .
The amount of displacement across individual fractures and the aggregate dis
placement across the zones were measured where suitable linear reference features
were available . Inasmuch as the streets , curbs , or fences on which horizontal
slip was measured are oblique to the trend of the fracture zones , the measure
ments give a vector component of the slip , rather than the total slip . The cal
culated true sinistral slip is shown in table 1 and on plate 1 at those localities
where we obtained the largest reliable measurements of horizontal slip across
each of the fracture zones . Although the aggregate displacements vary from fault
to fault and along the trace of individual faults , this variation is generally
systematic . Maximum aggregate displacements of 22.9 cm ( centimeters ) ( sta . 22 )
and 33.0 cm ( sta . 61 ) measured on faults B and C , respectively , in the vicinity
of the Pan American Highway give calculated total sinistral displa nents at
these localities of 25.9 cm and 38.1 cm . For both of these faults the displace
ment is reasonably constant southwestward to the vicinity of Lake Tiscapa and
appears to diminish progressively to the southwest of the lake . Aggregate
sinistral displacement on faults A and D is small : It is 2.0 cm or less on

125
Figure 5 . - Fault displacement in gas Figure 6 . -Sinistral offset of street
station pavement along fault B . Sinis and curb on fault C near U . S . Embassy
tral offset of line is 12 . 7 cm . (view towards south , sta . 80 , pl . 1 ) .

Figure 7 . - Open fracture along fault C in vacant lot north of U . S . Embassy ( sta .
81, pl . 1 ) . Both the fault trend and opening direction on the fracture parallel
the ruler . Scale is 15 cm long .

126
 fault A and at least 2 . 2 cm , but pos
sibly as much as 5 . 9 cm , on fault D .

Minor vertical displacements in

which the southeast block is relatively
downthrown (fig . 8 ) are evident across
the fracture zones at a number of local
ities along faults A , B , and C . Most
of the observed vertical displacements
are along fault A and the southwestern
two - thirds of fault C where there is
clear evidence for prior vertical move
ments in the form of southeast - facing
topographic slope breaks . In many
places , vertical offset on the faults
related to the December 23d earthquakes
is difficult to ascertain because of
preexisting topographic slopes that
parallel the faults . Maximum aggregate
displacement across the zones as deter
mined from measurements of the vertical
component across constituent fractures
Figure 8 . - En echelon fractures along is 1 .6 cm for fault A , 5 . 1 cm for fault
fault B (between stas . 42 and 43, B , and possibly as much as 10 . 2 cm for
pl. 1 ) . fault c .

Several features of the two main faults , B and C , suggest the possibility
that they merge into a single master fault at some unknown depth beneath the
thick fill of unconsolidated deposits that underlies Managua . The two faults
are within a few hundred meters of one another at the surface and , judging from
their trends , they could intersect in the vicinity of the Nejapa Country Club
(pl. 1) . Both underwent roughly equal amounts of strike - slip displacement of
30 to 40 cm . On a gross scale, they may be considered as a single rupture with
sinistral displacement of about 64 cm , the sum of the maximum observed offsets .

Fault C has a continuous linear surface trace along which there is clear
geologic evidence for repeated recent movements involving large vertical dis
placements , as will be discussed in a following section . In contrast , fault B
has a discontinuous , irregular surface trace , and there is no geologic evidence
along it for preexisting movements . Thus , the irregular , en echelon segments of
fault B may be interpreted as splays resulting from upward spreading of the
rupture zone along fault C within the near - surface unconsolidated deposits .
Arguing against this interpretation is the fact that none of the en echelon
segments that make up fault B merge into fault C or come closer to it than 270 m .
Unfortunately , the resolution of aftershock locations is inadequate to permit a
unique solution to this question .
In addition to the sinistral displacement across the fracture zones , there
typically is a subordinate gaping or extensional east -west component , a local
compressional component in a general north - south direction , and a minor vertical

127
component in which the southeast block is relatively downthrown . The maximum
measured extensional components across the fracture zones, 10 . 2 cm on fault B
( sta . 22 and 29) and 17 . 8 cm on fault C ( sta . 68 ) , are between one - third and
two -thirds of the measured sinistral displacement (figs . 3 , 5 , and 7 ) . A large
extensional component ( 10 . 2 cm ) was also measured at one locality on fault A
(sta . 6 ) , but at this locality , the gaping is probably due in part to slump on
a prominent southeast - facing slope. The north - south compressional component in
the fracture zones is manifested by east -west - trending buckles and overthrusts
that connect en echelon fractures (fig . 8 ) or by local compressive buckles and
overthrusts of north - south streets and pavements ( fig . 9 ) . The amount of north
south compressive shortening in the fault zones cannot be ascertained from the
available data but appears to be smaller than either the sinistral or extensional
components .
Fractures with Dextral Displacement . Fractures with predominantly dextral
(right - lateral) displacements were observed at several localities near the four
earthquake faults. They are located along the Pan American Highway in the gap
between faults B and C ( stas . 18 , 19, 20 , 56 ) and in an open pasture less than
100 m west of fault B (sta . 50 ) . The largest amount of dextral slip , 16 . 5 cm ,
was measured at station 56 across a zone 9 m wide that causes a pronounced offset
in the pavement and curbs of the Pan American Highway (fig . 10 ) . Dextral slip
on fractures at stations 18 , 19 , and 20 amounted to > 5 . 1 cm , 1 . 0 cm , and about
5 . 1 cm , respectively ; the slip at station 50 may be as much as several centi
meters but could not be accurately measured . Unlike the fractures on the zones
along the trend of the earthquake faults, the dextral fractures appear to be
local effects that do not extend along strike for more than a few hundred meters ;
for instance, those at the highway were not seen on parallel streets either to

Figure 9 . -Compressional rupture and Figure 10 . - Dextral offset of 12 . 7 -

lateral buckle of N - S trending curb 16 . 5 cm in curb of Pan American Hwy .
along fault zone B (near sta .25 , pl . l) . between faults B and C (sta . 56 , pl. l ) .

128
the north or south . They appear to be local movements related to the sinistral
movement on the faults .
Lack of Evidence for Fault Creep . We could not find evidence for creep deforma
tion along any of the surface faults . Absence of pre - quake creep is suggested
by the fact that all observed surface fractures in paved streets and in curbs
appeared to be new and there was no patchwork to suggest movement along them
prior to the earthquake . By the time we made our initial study of the faulting
( January 6 - 11) , many of the larger fractures in paved streets had been patched
with asphalt (fig. 6 ) . Nowhere did we see evidence of additional cracking
through the asphalt patches . Furthermore, reoccupation of a number of stations
on the faults by the senior author in June showed no additional movement in the
six -month period between measurements . Thus , the major part of the displacement
appears to have occurred prior to our field study in January .

Relationship of Faults to Structural Damage Displacement along surface faults

was directly responsible for severe localized damage to the streets and under
ground utilities of Managua and to many buildings along the fault traces .
Virtually all underground utilities along the faults were disrupted , most
critical of which were the waterlines. Fires raged out of control in downtown
Managua for weeks after the earthquake . Early control of the fires was prevented
by the loss of most fire-fighting equipment due to station house collapse during
the earthquake . However , even had the equipment survived intact , the loss of
water pressure throughout the city as a result of waterline breaks along faults
(fig . 2 ) would have hindered effective control of major fires . In addition to
the waterlines , there was extensive , but less critical, damage along the faults
to sanitary and storm sewers, as well as to street pavements and curbs .
Many structures located on or close to the faults appear to exhibit more
damage than structures of comparable design and construction away from the
faults. This may be because , in addition to being subjected to the seismic
shaking , which affected the entire Managua area , the foundations and structural
frames of such buildings were also distorted or physically ruptured by the
faulting .
The most obvious localization of damage by faulting is along faults B and
C , which had the largest displacement . Heavily damaged reinforced concrete
buildings on or close to these faults include the Customs House office building ,
Baptist Hospital , U . S . Embassy , and Nejapa Country Club (pl. 1 ) . The Customs
House office building , a three - story concrete structure astride a segment of
fault B that had 25 . 9 cm sinistral displacement , was the most dramatic failure
of the larger structures (fig . 11) . Even many of the better constructed resi
dential dwellings along these faults were severely damaged , whereas nearby
buildings of identical construction that were subjected only to shaking sustained
little or no loss (figs . 12 and 13 ) . In some areas where structures were mainly
unreinforced concrete block or older tarquezal (wood frame and adobe ) construc
tion , the fault trace appeared to be marked by a distinct swath of near - total
destruction (fig . 14 ) .
Localization of damage was even noted along faults A and D , which underwent
only a few centimeters slip . Modern two - and four - story concrete buildings of

129
Figure 11. - Collapsed three -story reinforced concrete Customs House office
building . This structure is astride fault B at a locality where aggregate
sinistral slip is 25 . 9 cm (near sta . 22 , pl . 1) .

Figure 12 . - Severely damaged small home Figure 13. -Masonry and wood home dam
on trace of fault B (near sta . 43 , pl . 1 ) . aged by foundation displacement along
Note fractures in street and curb . fault C (sta . 78 , pl. 1) .

130
Figure 14. - Swath of destroyed buildings along fault C ( sta . 64 , pl . 1 ) , which
trends through center of photograph . Open fractures that trend north - south in
street pavement are en echelon to the fault .

the Pureza de Maria School ( Colegio Pureza de Maria ) located close to fault A
and a four - story building of the American School ( Colegio Americano ) that is
astride the fault exhibit severe structural damage . Similarly , along the
southern part of the trace of fault D in the Barrio de Bolonia , a number of
reasonably well- constructed newer homes sustained severe damage due to foundation
displacement . Fault D passes through the commercial center of Managua and inter
sects the 13 - story Central Bank building ( Banco Central ) , which had extensive
nonstructural damage possibly caused in part by foundation displacement . In
contrast , the adjacent 16 - story Bank of the Americas ( Banco de Americas )
building , which is off the fault zone , sustained less severe earthquake damage .

Similarities of the 1972 Faults to the 1931 Earthquake Fault . All the earthquake
faults related to the 1972 event are roughly parallel to a fault that was mapped
in the northwestern part of the city of Managua after a destructive earthquake
on March 31 , 1931 ( pl . 1 , fault E ) . In a study made on the day after the 1931
earthquake , U.S. Army Corps of Engineers personnel identified a fault zone
trending N. 36 ° E. that extended 2 km through the present General Somoza Stadium
to the shore of Lake Managua ( Durham , 1931 ; Sultan , 1931 ) . They found numerous
cracks , none of which was more than 5 cm wide or had more than 10 cm vertical
displacement , generally with the southeast side relatively downdropped . No
horizontal displacement was observed on fractures formed at the surface along
the mapped fault , but the observation that individual fractures had more north
erly trends than the strike of the zone is strongly suggestive of en echelon
ruptures with the proper sense of rotation for sinistral faulting .

131
 The zone of cracks was less than 150 m wide, and there was extreme damage
along the fault trace , especially to the penitentiary and market building , which
were directly over the faultline. The water main leading from the reservoir to
the city was pulled apart where it crossed the fault . As a consequence , the
Engineer troops were badly handicapped by lack of water in fighting the fires
that broke out after the earthquake - - a situation exactly comparable to that
which occurred in 1972.
earthqu t fau n wo
The December 1972 earthquakes his not lappear
ake do t id otot have
rk caused a measurable
amount of renewed displacement on this fault in the segment we examined to the
northeast of the General Somoza Stadium ; we did not work along that part of the
trace to the southwest of the stadium . Hairline surface cracking in the vicinity
of the stadium may have occurred along the trace of this fault . Although indi
vidual cracks did not have measurable displacement across them , their N - S en
echelon alinement is compatible with sinistral movement on a northeast - trending
fault .

Geologic Evidence for Previous Faulting . Of the five faults shown on plate 1
that are related to the 1972 and 1931 earthquakes , only faults A and C have
clear indications of previous Holocene displacement. Both faults were mapped
on the 1 :50 , 000 Managua sheet (Kuang and Williams , 1971) of the geologic map of
Nicaragua as normal faults with the southeast side relatively downthrown , pre
sumably on the basis of the prominent topographic scarps that are locally
developed along them . Faults A , B , and C all show local earthquake - related
vertical displacements in which the southeast block was relatively downthrown
in the same sense as the topographic slopes along faults A and C . All of fault
A (named the " Escuela fault" ) was delineated on the geologic map , and it is
shown intersecting a north - south trending lineament to the south of Managua
(fig . 1) . The part of fault C (named the " Tiscapa fault" ) extending from a few
hundred meters northeast of Lake Tiscapa through the lake and southwestward
past the Nejapa Country Club was also delineated on the geologic map . A number
of other faults that cut Quaternary deposits are shown on the geologic map, most
notable of which is a zone of north - south - trending faults associated with the
Nejapa line of volcanic centers to the west of Managua (fig . 1 ) . The existence
of northeast - trending faults with large vertical components of displacement is
also suggested by the prominent linear reentrant in the northeast shore of Lake
Managua from Punta Huete northeastward , a feature with roughly the same strike
as the 1931 and 1972 earthquake faults at Managua (fig . 1) .

The topography at the Tiscapa pit crater provides some information on the
history of previous displacement along fault C . The trace of the fault on the
northeast side of the crater is marked by a degraded southeast - facing scarp more
than 15 m high at the crater rim and by lakeshore offsets of about 50 m in a
sinistral sense on the northeast and 30 m in a dextral sense on the southwest
(fig . 15 and pl. 1) . Both the rim scarps and opposing lakeshore offsets appear
to result from relative downdropping of the southeast part of the crater , which
is essentially an inverted cone whose walls slope inward 50° to 60° . Asymmetry
in the amount of horizontal offset of the lakeshores could result from a rela
tively small sinistral fault displacement either concurrent with , or after , the
vertical movements . The postulated fault origin for displacement of the crater
rim and lakeshore is illustrated diagrammatically in figure 16 . For clarity ,

132
Figure 15. -Northeast margin of the Tiscapa pit crater and lake showing approxi
mate trace of fault C ( heavy line ) along which there is a degraded scarp at the
crater rim and 50 m apparent sinistral offset of the lake shore ( arrows ) .

N
A

A B С

Figure 16. - Schematic diagrams illustrating topographic modifications at the

Tiscapa pit crater ( oblique views above ) and Lake Tiscapa ( plan views below )
resulting from faulting . Diagrams are not to scale . See text for explanation .

133
the vertical and horizontal displacements are shown sequentially in figure 16 ,
although it is likely that they were at least in part simultaneous . Figure 16A
shows the inferred initial shape; 16B shows the development of a rim scarp and
symmetrical offsets of the lakeshore due to vertical fault slip ; and 16C shows
the asymmetrical offset of the lakeshore due to sinistral slip . The amount of
inferred vertical and lateral displacement on the fault is subject to large un
certainties regarding the original crater shape and the extent to which that
shape was modified by landslides along the crater walls . The most direct geo
metric reconstruction indicates that on the order of 30 m vertical and 10 m
sinistral displacement provides the best fit for the lakeshore . Although the
calculated amount of vertical slip is nearly double that which is indicated by
scarp heights at the crater rim or further south along the fault trace , it is
clear that any reasonable model requires a vertical component that is larger than
the horizontal component . This is at variance with the predominantly strike -slip
sense of displacement observed after the 1972 earthquakes , and may indicate a
late Holocene change in style of tectonic deformation . The Tiscapa data , and
other evidence for young faulting cited previously, indicate an extremely complex
and active Holocene tectonic history in the Managua area involving recurrent
horizontal and vertical movements over a broad zone of faulting . It is note
worthy that about 30 fault movements, equivalent in displacement to that which
occurred during the 1972 event would be required to produce just the 10 m of
sinistral displacement that has offset the shores of Lake Tiscapa - - an indication
that there must have been many repeated displacements on the fault since the
Tiscapa crater was formed .

Landslides and Surficial Effects .

Secondary geologic effects related to
seismic shaking during the earthquake
were relatively minor . Small slope
failures affected steeper slopes in
the Managua area , most notably along
parts of the inner walls and rim of the
Tiscapa crater , where the upper part of
a slide showed rotational tilting
(fig . 17) , and on Highway 2 southwest
of Managua at about km 11, where one
major slide and several incipient
slides in cuts and embankments tempo
rarily blocked part of the highway
(fig . 18 ) . A number of rockfalls and
debris slides were triggered along the
steep slopes of the Asososca pit crater
west of Managua (fig . 1) , and small
areas of artificial fill failed in the
road along the south rim of Asososca
crater . Minor slumping , debris falls ,
and ravelling were widespread along
steep natural and artificial slopes in
loose pyroclastic deposits and alluvium
Figure 17 . -Ground cracks and back - tilt throughout the area (fig . 19) .
ing at head of rotational slump along
rim of Tiscapa pit crater near sta . 45 .

134
Figure 18 . - Part of large landslide 55 m Figure 19 . -One of many minor slides of
wide in highway embankment and cut nearunconsolidated deposits in steep bank
km 11 on Highway 2 (León -Managua Hwy . ) . of dry creek (near sta . 46 , pl . 1 ) .

Although most of Managua is underlain by thick deposits of unconsolidated

materials, there was no obvious damage related to differential compaction ,
liquefaction , and lateral spreading of foundations . Lack of such effects is
probably due to the high permeability of the predominantly pyroclastic deposits
that underlie the city , a low water table , an unusually dry rainy season preced
ing the earthquake (Santos , 1972 ) , and the short duration of seismic shaking .
The only clear indications of surficial slumping and lateral spreading were found
along the banks of a sewer outfall along the shore of Lake Managua , where the
water table was within 45 cm of the surface .

SETTING OF THE EARTHQUAKES

Regional Tectonic Relations Managua lies within the trend of volcanic and
earthquake activity that girdles the Pacific Ocean basin and that popularly is
referred to as the " Pacific Ring of Fire. " According to modern geologic theory ,
the earthquakes and volcanic activity around the Pacific result from relative
movement between large plates of the earth ' s crust . Certain boundaries between
such mobile plates are defined by long , linear trenches in the seafloor , well
defined zones of earthquake activity that are shallow near the trench and deepen
toward adjoining continental areas , and linear chains of volcanoes that parallel
both the trench and the trend of the zone of earthquakes . All of these charac
teristic features occur in Central America and have been active there for several
million years (Dengo , 1968 ; McBirney and Williams, 1965 ) . Clearly , the historic
volcanism and earthquakes are natural and continuing processes that man must
understand and plan for if he wishes to live and prosper here .

135
 Major geologic features in Central America are the Middle America Trench ,
a pronounced linear feature 4 to 5 km deep along the Pacific Coast from central
Mexico to Costa Rica (shown on index map , fig . 1 ) , and the chain of young andes
itic stratovolcanoes extending from western Guatemala to Panama . Most earthquake
activity in Central America is in a belt about 200 km wide that parallels the
trench . Where the focal depths of these earthquakes can be well determined ,
they exhibit a systematic distribution - - shallow near the trench and deeper with
increasing distance towards the northeast (Molnar and Sykes , 1969) . The zone of
earthquake activity thus dips about 45° NE . and extends from very near the sur
face at the Middle America Trench to more than 170 km deep at points farthest
from the trench . In Nicaragua , earthquake activity related to this dipping zone
extends as far inland as Lake Managua and Lake Nicaragua . The line of volcanoes
that extends through most of Nicaragua approximately follows the northeasternmost
limit of earthquake activity . Earthquakes along this zone since 1963, when the
data are most complete , have ranged up to magnitude 6 (National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration , 1973) , but Gutenberg and Richter (1954 ) report some
events as large as magnitude 7 . 7 in the period since 1913 . Because Managua lies
100 to 200 km above this zone , even large earthquakes are unlikely to cause
severe damage , although shallow earthquakes in this zone could cause damage in
the Pacific coastal areas of Nicaragua .

The northeast -dipping zone of earthquake activity marks the boundary between
two crustal plates. The Caribbean plate on the northeast includes most of
Central America and extends northeast into the Caribbean . The Cocos plate on the
southwest extends into the Pacific Ocean from the Middle America Trench . Geo
logic and geophysical evidence suggests that the Pacific , or Cocos plate, is
moving relatively towards the northeast and is slowly being driven beneath the
Caribbean plate along the plate boundary .
The Managua earthquakes of December 23, 1972 , were at much shallower depths
than the inferred crustal boundary between the Cocos and Caribbean plates , and
the observed surface faulting , described in this report , exhibits a much differ
ent geometry than that of the plate boundary . For these and other reasons, it
is unlikely that the December 23 earthquakes are a simple and direct result of
relative plate movement between these two major crustal blocks , More likely
they are caused by relatively shallow adjustment to accumulating crustal strain
within the southwesternmost part of the Caribbean plate . This interpretation is
favored both by the historic record of shallow - focus earthquakes in the Managua
area and by the surface trend of the volcanic chain which passes through the
Pacific coastal part of Nicaragua . The line of recent volcanoes in Nicaragua
exhibits a marked bend or offset to the south in the segment between the volcano
Momotombo on the northwest shore of Lake Managua and Masaya Caldera to the south
east of Managua . Detailed crustal structure and geology are not known well
enough in the Managua area to specify the relations between the plate boundary ,
the line of volcanic activity offset to the south in a dextral sense , and shallow
focus earthquakes like those of December 23 with sinistral offset of the ground .
A close relationship between all three, although still unproven , is an attractive
hypothesis for testing and studying .
Physiography . The nature of the land surface in and around Managua provides
important clues both to the geologic history of the area and also to the kinds

136
of damage that may be expected in future earthquakes . Many of the surface
effects of the December 23 earthquakes are likewise related directly to easily
observed topographic features.
Much of the city of Managua and most of the surrounding areas affected by
the earthquakes are on a surface that dips a few degrees toward the north . A
few north - flowing washes drain this surface and feed into Lake Managua , but all
are small and none are incised more than a few tens of meters into the surface.
More deeply incised ravines are common further south , however , in the upland
area lying west of Masaya Caldera . Except near the Chiltepe Peninsula , similar
low relief is also found along the shoreline of Lake Managua , and at most places
near Managua the lake appears to be very shallow for considerable distances off
shore .

This gently north -dipping surface is interrupted in several places by low

hills , most of which are clearly of relatively recent volcanic origin . Examples
include Tiscapa near the south edge of the city , the hill enclosing Lake Asososca
on the west , and the ridgeline on which the Nejapa pits southwest of Managua are
located . Few of the hilly areas rise more than about 100 meters above the
general surface , and few exhibit steep slopes. Steep slopes are found , however ,
in the crater walls at Tiscapa , Asososca , and in most of the other interior
depressions of volcanic origin .
Several lines of evidence suggest that the gentle , relatively undissected
surface at Managua and extending generally to the southeast is very young . This
surface appears to be graded to Masaya Caldera , and locally perhaps to other
nearby volcanic centers. Its essentially planar form has not yet been modified
greatly by erosion , sedimentation , or other geologic processes , and the rock
materials that underlie it exhibit generally the same inclination as does the
surface . Most of these near - surface rocks are lapilli or ash derived from nearby
volcanic sources such as Masaya .
If , as appears likely , the surface in and near Managua is a relatively young
constructional feature, the task of evaluating earthquake risk becomes more
difficult . Geologists commonly recognize and evaluate active faults, those which
are capable of generating destructive earthquakes , by their surface topographic
expression . Recurrent movement on faults produces well - defined scarps , trenches ,
alined stream courses, and other linear topographic features that not only mark
the fault trend , but provide clear evidence of repeated activity along the same
lines. These identifying characteristics, however , can be destroyed by other
geologic processes , and if such other processes are operative, the record of
faulting is apt to be blurred or completely obliterated . However , a very young
surface provides a useful means of dating fault - formed features that clearly cut
or offset it . Hence, if the young surface near Managua does locally show evi
dence of fault displacement , such displacement must be very young indeed .

The general low relief and absence of steep slopes in and near Managua also
had art important bearing on the kinds of damage that resulted from the earthquake .
Landslides and other kinds of slope failure are often among the most important
causes of property damage in large and moderate earthquakes . Although many slope
failures of different kinds could be observed after the earthquake, most of these

137
were small ; there were far fewer than are usually seen in areas with even moder
ate slopes . Other factors probably also contributed to the low incidence of
slope failures , but the low relief and the relatively small area covered by
steep slopes were major ones .

Near- Surface Rock Units . The severity and distribution of damage resulting from
destructive earthquakes depend to a large extent upon the nature of the near
surface geology . Different kinds of rock units respond to shaking in quite
different ways , and in many well - observed earthquake areas , a very close correla
tion has been noted between the geology and the intensity of damage . Although
the relation between damage from shaking and geology is far from simple , damage
is commonly greatest over thick accumulations of poorly compacted water - saturated
deposits and is least over relatively dense well - consolidated rocks .

Our knowledge of the geologic units that underlie Managua comes from pub
lished scientific papers , from our own observations of scattered exposures of
bedrock units , and from a few unpublished records from water wells . The data
are inadequate for a detailed analysis of the geology , and they allow us to " see "
only about 200 m beneath the surface . Nevertheless , the different lines of
evidence are consistent , and they indicate that the city is underlain by a
relatively homogeneous sequence of rocks , predominantly volcanic but with many
interbeds of water - worked volcanic debris .

Exposures in and near Managua show that most of the volcanic debris is
composed of lapilli - sized ( 4 to 32 mm ) angular basaltic scoria . The scoria , or
cinder deposits , contains almost no fine - grained ash except as thin beds a few
centimeters thick . Both the scoria and the thin beds of ash are pyroclastic
debris and appear to be derived either from Masaya or from the line of volcanic
vents immediately to the west of Managua . Locally , these beds contain interbeds
of more compact fine - grained rocks that are the products of volcanic mudflows .
Unlike the scoria , the mudflow deposits are firm and relatively well lithified .
They are thick and firm enough to be quarried for building stone west and south
west of Managua , and Williams ( 1952 ) has described quarried localities at which
the imprints of human feet can be seen on exposed bedding surfaces .

The sequence of interbedded scoria , ash , and mudflow deposits appears to

underlie nearly all of Managua , or at least those parts of the city that exhib
ited the greatest damage ( fig . 1 ) . The relative proportions of each rock type
vary somewhat in different exposures and in the logs of wells , and the sequence
is characterized by lensing and by channeling where water - worked deposits are
evident . Despite these variations , lapilli - sized scoria appears to be the
dominant lithology at least to the depths known from drilling , about 200 m .

Some confidence in extrapolating units for considerable distances from out

crops , wells , or artificial exposures is gained from the structural attitude of
the rocks . In spite of the several faults described in this report , the rocks
are little deformed and generally dip about 4 ° N. They are more steeply inclined ,
however , within a few hundred feet of the faults .

The lack of interstitial fine - grained matrix in the scoria , the rough ex

terior and vesicularity of individual granules , and the angularity of the gran

138
ules together contribute to form a rock unit that is extremely porous and perme
able and that has a low bulk density . Largely because of the angular , rough
surface of the lapilli - sized fragments , this rock is fairly stable under static
loads , and where it is undisturbed it will stand in near -vertical slopes . It is
clearly much less stable under dynamic load conditions , such as the shaking that
accompanies earthquakes . This was well shown by the numerous small debris - falls
( fig . 19 ) that accompanied the earthquakes of December 23 .

Somewhat different geologic relations are evident west of Managua along the
line of volcanic centers that extends south from Lake Jiloa through Lake Asososca .
There , relatively dense lava flows and vent debris are associated with pyroclas
tic deposits ( fig . 1 ) . Damage in this area was much less intense than in the
central city , and although a major part of the difference in intensity is due to
distance from the epicenter of the main shocks , some of the difference may be
related to the differences in geologic conditions between the two areas .

Despite the general uniformity of ground response in the damaged area , it

is likely that shaking was more intense than it would have been in an area under
lain by well - consolidated , relatively dense bedrock . This conclusion , however ,
is based more on knowledge of other earthquakes and research results than on
direct observation of ground effects at Managua .

Ground - Water Relations . A major factor controlling damage in many earthquakes

is ground water . Ground water in permeable zones can result in liquefaction and
loss of strength in foundation materials . A near - surface water table , even if
unconfined , can lead to slope failures , lateral spreading on low slopes , and to
other kinds of failure .

Ground -water levels in the Managua area appear to be well below the surface
except in the northernmost part of the city , where they are at or near the level
of Lake Managua . An unpublished map of the ground -water surface prepared by
Hazen and Sawyer , Engineers , New York-Managua ( 1964 ) , shows that the surface of
the ground water is from 10 to 30 m beneath the ground surface in most of the
area that was damaged , and that the piezometric surface slopes northward somewhat
more gently than the land surface . The high porosity and permeabiltiy of the
rock units that contain the ground water , and the lenticular nature of most of
the impermeable interbeds , are considered by us as evidence that the ground - water
system is relatively open and that confined aquifers are relatively unimportant
in the part of the geologic section penetrated by wells .

CONCLUSIONS

The extensive destruction and loss of life in the Managua earthquakes of

December 23 , 1972 , were caused almost entirely by the following :
1. Occurrence of the earthquakes directly beneath the city .
2. Poor construction of the buildings , chiefly of tarquezal and masonry , which
had very little shear resistance to lateral forces imposed by the strong
seismic shaking . ( These effects are being studied and reported in detail
by other investigators . )
3. Direct displacement on four subparallel surface faults through the Managua
area .

139
 From the standpoint of risk from earthquakes Managua is situated in an ex
ceptionally hazardous location .

On the basis of available geologic and seismologic data the following con
clusions appear warranted :
1. Earthquakes comparable in magnitude to those of 1931 and 1972 can reasonably
be expected within the next 50 years.
2 . Some of these earthquakes will be accompanied by surface faulting like that
in 1931 and 1972 .
3 . Maximum hazard from surface faulting is along the trace of known active
faults , five of which have been recognized .
4 . New surface faulting is possible , and even likely , within a broad zone that
includes all of the present area of Managua .
5. Other conditions of foundation materials , design , and construction being
equal, maximum damage from shaking will be controlled largely by the prox
imity of structures to the surface ruptures and , in the case of a dipping
fault , to the fault plane at depth .
6. In terms of the damage they cause , secondary geologic effects such as slope
failure, liquefaction , and compaction will be far less significant at
Managua than shaking and fault displacement .
7. The nature and distribution of the surface faulting are consistent with a
tectonic origin for the 1931 and 1972 earthquakes .
RECOMMENDATIONS

A reconstruction and redevelopment plan for Managua that is sound and eco
nomically feasible should be based on informed evaluations by experts from a
number of disciplines. Key roles in the long -range decisions that will govern
future development should be played by earth scientists , engineers, city planners,
economists , and political scientists . The required action can take several
routes simultaneously , among the most critical of which are :
1 . Evaluation of the present and potential sites for development so that geo
logic hazards can be minimized .
2 . Development of adequate emergency facilities and response systems to reduce
the impact of natural or other disasters .
3 . Adoption and strict enforcement of building codes and zoning ordinances
that would ensure the integrity of vital utilities and emergency services
such as communications, water , police , fire, and hospital facilities .

Comprehensive planning for the future of Managua depends first of all on an

understanding of the geologic hazards and how these hazards may affect the works
of man . The problems of emergency response systems as well as construction and
zoning practices are beyond the scope of this report and require the expertise
of others. However , some of the specific recommendations that can be made re
garding the geologic and seismologic problems are :
1. A full evaluation of the hazard from earthquakes is required as a basis for
local zoning and structural design criteria . This would involve detailed
geologic and seismologic studies primarily directed towards delineating
active faults and predicting the level of shaking and acceleration that
can be expected in future earthquakes . Other potential geologic hazards
such as the possibility of landslide damage to existing and planned

140
 critical facilities, such as the Lake Asososca water intake and pumping
facility , should also be considered .
2 . To the extent possible, essential underground service facilities , such as
TO
sewer and waterlines , electric power and telephone lines , should be routed
so that they cross known active fault zones in the fewest possible places .
Where crossings are unavoidable , design provisions should be made for
fault displacements of at least the amounts reported here.
3. Emergency and critical facilities, such as hospitals , fire stations , police
stations , powerplants , schools, and important government buildings , should
be sited well away from known active faults and , to the extent possible ,
outside of the zone in which surface faulting is prevalent .
4. Disaster relief planning for future destructive earthquakes should be under
taken and periodically reviewed ; the 1931 and 1972 earthquakes provide
patterns that should be incorporated into such plans. Especially impor
tant are the fault trends , amount and nature of displacement , the rupture
of waterlines at fault crossings , and the effects of such ruptures on
postearthquake fire hazard .
5. Regional earth science studies should be undertaken on a long - range basis to
evaluate safe sites in Nicaragua for future growth and development . Such
studies should include both geological field investigations and monitoring
of active geologic processes .
REFERENCES CITED

Dengo , G . , 1968 , Estructura geologia , historia tectonica , y morfologia de

America central: Instituto Centroamericano de Investigacion y Technologia
Industrial (ICAITI) , Guatemala , 50 p .
Durham , H . W . , 1931 , Managua - - Its construction and utilities : Eng . News Record ,
April 23 , p . 696 - 700 .

Gutenberg , Beno , and Richter , C . F . , 1954 , Seismicity of the earth and associated
phenomena : Princeton , N . J . , Princeton Univ . Press , 310 p .

Kuang , J ., and Williams , R . L . , 1971 , Mapa Geologico de Managua , Nicaragua ,

sheet 2952 III , 1 : 50 , 000 , CATASTRO .
McBirney, A . R ., and Williams, H . , 1965, Volcanic history of Nicaragua : Calif.
Univ . Pubs . Geol. Sci. , v . 55 , 73 p .

Molnar, P . , and Sykes , L . R . , 1969, Tectonics of the Caribbean and Middle

American Regions from focal mechanisms and seismicity : Geol. Soc. America
Bull . , v . 80 , p . 1639 - 1684 .
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , 1973 , Preliminary determination
of epicenters , No . 76 - 72.

Santos, C . , 1972 , La hipotetica probabilidad de occurrencia de temblores en la

cuidad de Managua durante el verano de 1973: Unpub . rept . , Santos and
Heilemann , Consultores de Ingeneria , Managua , Nicaragua , 26 p .

141
Sultan, D .I ., 1931, The Managua Earthquake : Military Engineer , v. 23, p. 354– 361.
Williams , Howell , 1952 , Geologic observations on the ancient human footprints
near Managua , Nicaragua : Carnegie Inst . Washington Pub . 596 , pt . 1 , 31 p . ,
11 figs .

142
 GEODETIC AND GRAVITY SURVEY
of
MANAGUA AND ITS SURROUNDINGS

by
Humberto Porta Caldera
Instituto Geografico Nacional
Ministerio De Obras Publicas
Managua , Nicaragua

General. On December 23 , 1972 ; 0629 GMT, the city of Managua was shaken by a
large earthquake that totally destroyed 30 % of the city and substantially dam
aged another 33% . The remainder sustained moderate to minor damage. The dur
ation of the earthquake in its destruction phase was about 7 seconds . Approx
imately 50 minutes after the initial shock , a major aftershock occurred having
nearly equal acceleration but very short duration .

The topographic alterations suffered in the city of Managua and its sur
roundings were determined by the Instituto Geografico Nacional through geodetic ,
gravity and geomagnetic observations . The purpose of the present work is to show
in an objective manner , the results obtained from such observations .
Superficial Expressions . After the earthquake , the first technical data to be
assembled by the various scientists arriving in Managua were plans and maps of
the general area , showing the detailed layout of the city and locations of
known tectonic faults that cross the city .

In order to preserve a picture of the post - earthquake topography , the

Institute immediately prepared a 1 : 20 ,000 scale photo -mosaic of the Managua
area , showing all the superficial cracks and fissures caused by the earthquake .
Several methods were considered for locating and representing surface effects
and it was concluded that photo - identification or photogrammetry would be the
most efficient and precise .

New photos were taken at 1 : 5 , 000 scale while ground crews examined each
surface crack to determine cause and approximate location and description .
Each surface feature description was reviewed by a team of geologists to veri
fy that it was actually caused by the earthquake. The next step was to locate
and identify each surface feature on the aerial photos. These photos were then
merged and a single photo prepared at 1 : 10 , 000 scale showing a complete over
view of the Managua area . (fig . 1). The contents of the original documents are
shown in figure 2 . The maximum error in the positions of surface features is
+ 50 cm .

The photo - identification work was verified in part by Drs . Walllace and
Plafker of the U . S . Geological Survey . Dr. Wallace prepared a preliminary in
formation paper based on the accumulated data concerning possible siesmic risk
zoning

143
 TA
cer

144
1Photo
.-MFigure
expressions
superficial
showing
Managua
of
osaic
 Photo No. 125 - Line 4 - Roll 7
Scale ; l = 10,000
Work area - Located to the South of
the Bus Station Terminal
and the Country Club

No , 1 : - Grieta fuertemente marcada , Su promedio de abertura es de una pulmada

Su rumbo es $ 0 - NE . El lado levantado es 2 pulgados aprox .
No , 2: - mos datos del punto No. 1 : -
No. 3: - Grieta poggona con rumbo 50 - NE es visinio en un trecho de 5 metros
aprox .
No , 4 : • smos datos del punto No. 3: •
No , 5: • Grieta fuertemente marcada , su rumbo en Sa , su promedio de abertura , •
es de 2 pulgados, no se le encontro continuidad, hacia el Norte ,
0, 6: - Grieta pequeña con rumbo S - visible on un trecho de 6 metros aprox .
su rumbo es de S.N. ,
No , 7 : - Grieta pequeha , se observa en un treche de 10 metros aprox. , su rumbo
SnNE .
NO , 8 : . ) Grieta pooveka , pero visible en un trecho do 2 mts , aprox . , su rumbo
No , OA ) es N - 19. E.
tio , 9: - Grote fuertemente marcada , Rumbo S N tiene un primero de abertura de
2 pulgadas .
NO , 9A: - Puestros un campo de grietas I se ven 6 principales y otras pequelles
1 . Su runto es MY SENO , tiene un promedio de abertura de una pula
gada y están • intervalos de otro arrex.
to, 10: - La formon dos grietas paralelos fuertemente mercados . Su rumbo promedio
es N - 15 E, se observa en un trecho • 30 metros aprox . El lado E., esti
lovantado I pulnade , aprox . ,
Mo. 11 : - Grieta pequeña , visible en un corto trecho . su fumbo os de S , - N.

Figure 2. - Left , aereal photo showing cracks and fissures .

Right , description of each superficial expression .

Faults of Managua . A group of Mexican geologists undertook a detailed geolo

gical study of the city and prepared a complete map of the area showing the
tectonic faults crossing the area . In the group of faults shown , only 4 were
presented as confirmed ; the rest were considered as probable . ( fig . 3 ) In

order to properly position these faults , an extensive trenching program was

carried out . The trenches were approximately 3 meters deep and 100 meters long ,
normal to the faults and spaced at approximately 500 meters . The most probable
sites for trenches on several faults were determined by using geomagnetic pro
filing methods . The vertical component of an Ascania Magnetometer was used for
profiling in the area of the Tiscapa and Chico Pelon Faults . Lines along which
the measurements were made are shown in figure 4 .

Figures 5 and 6 show the geomagnetic profiles of two of these lines . The
" magnetic fall" is evident and indicates the probable intersection of the fault
along the profile . Figures 7 and 8 depict results obtained from trenches
1 and 3 from Chico Pelon's Fault .

Vertical Control . The city of Managua is vertically controlled by a network of

5 major first order levelling lines . ( fig . 9 ) The line along the North High
way was levelled in August , 1968 ; South Highway line - November , 1970 ; Rail
way to Nindiri , July , 1952 ; Railway to Léon , 1949 ; and the highway to Masaya ,
1966 with partial relevelling in January 1968 . Several smaller development
networks were established within the city of Managua . There is also an exist
ing network of polygonal topographic stations situated on the west side of the
city .

145
 MANAG
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146
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Figure 4 - Map showing locations of geomagnetic stations

147
 LINE 2 N80 ° W ( SANTA FELICIANA SECTOR EL - RETERO )
100 meters to the north of line 1
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of fault
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Figure 5 Geomagnetic profile line 2

148
 R
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9-Map
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the
of
locations
mark
bench
showing
 In order to determine what fluctuations in ground elevations occurred dur
ing the earthquake, a complete program of first order relevelling was under
taken . The first step in the levelling procedure was to determine a base ele
vation for each line . To accomplish this , all lines were levelled away from
the city to an area of zero settlement . The base station for the North High
way line was found 19 km from Managua near Las Mercedes Airport ; the base along
the highway to Masaya was 26 km from Managua ; and the base for the South Highway
line was 20 km from the city . Once the bases had been determined , the lines
were relevelled back towards the city and new elevations for each station were
observed .

The results of the levelling are shown in Tables 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , and 5 . The

differences in banch mark elevations were plotted in profile form and appear in
Figures 10 , 11 , and 12 . Within the city of Managua , the largest vertical dis
placement observed was 17 .69 cm at the Babtist Hospital . The rest of the city
suffered substantially less settlement as can be seen in Table 6 and the city
profile in Figure 13.
It is interesting to note that settlements suffered during the 1968 Colonia
Centro - America earthquake along the Managua -Masaya Highway were roughly propor
tional to settlements observed during the 1972 earthquake. This phenomena is
shown in Figure 14 . The maximum settlement in 1968 was 3 .71 cm .

The topographic levelling executed in the west section of the city covered
an area of approximately 100 hectares ( 1 hectare = 10 , 000 m2 ) and employed topo
graphic stations spaced north and south , 200 - 300 meters apart . For this purpose ,
an N - 2 Level was used , reading the central thread only . The distribution of the
topographic stations within the city is shown in Figure 15 . Table 6 and Figure
16 show the results obtained .
Horizontal Control . A total of six triangulation stations of first and second
order are located within the city (fig . 17 ) . In order to determine if horizon
tal displacements occurred during the earthquake , the existing stations were
observed to permit calculation of new station coordinates to compare with prior
positions .
As a baseline for the triangulation network , the first order stations ANA &
LAS NUBES were selected and their separation carefully measured ( estimated er
ror : 1 / 8 , 521 . 0 ) with a geodimeter . The instruments used for observing the tri
angulation network consisted of a laser geodimeter and Electrotape model DM - 20
for distance measurement , and a Wild T - 3 Theodolite for observing azimuths .
All work was conducted following instructions of the Interamerican Geodesic
Service .

Figure 18 shows the work accomplished , with solid lines representing geo
dimeter -measured distances and broken lines representing Electrotape measure
ments . Table 7 contains all the co - ordinate values before and after the earth
quake and the calculated differences . From the data obtained , we know that the
stations situated to the east of Chico Pelon ' s Fault were displaced to the
north ; the stations situated between the Tiscapa Fault and Stadium Fault were
displaced to the southwest ; and the stations to the west of the Stadium Fault
were displaced to the east . These relative displacements tend to indicate

153
 TABLE 1

Changes In Bench Mark Elevations Along The North Highway ( Tipitapa Highway )

BM DATE OLD ELEV . DATE NEW ELEV . ELEV . DIFF .

C 24 30 - 7 -68 48 . 7984 24 - 1 -73 48 . 9165 + 118 . 1 mm .

C 3 29 - 7 - 68 49 . 1058 24 - 1 - 73 49 . 0443 - 61 . 5 mm .

III
CRN 29 - 7 - 68 52 . 3046 24 - 1 - 73 52 . 2407 - 63 . 9 mm .
Base 0 . 22 - 8 - 68 70 . 9891 23 - 1 -73 70 . 9451 44 . 0 mm .
COR 27 - 8 - 68 69 . 7601 22– 1 -73 69. 7263 33 . 8 mm .

lI
C 6AR 27 - 8 - 68 71 . 5184 19 - 1 - 73 71.4824 36 . 0 mm .
C 7AR 1 - 10 -68 58 . 9645 19 - 1 -73 58 .9436 20 . 9 mm .

8 - 2 - 72 61 . 1151 13- 1 - 73 61. 0367 78 . 4 mm .

I G N 8 - 2 – 72 65 . 0989 13- 1 -73 65 .0093 - 89 . 6 mm .
CE- I 9 - 2 - 72 69 . 4538 13 - 1 - 73 69 . 3079 - 145 . 9 mm .

C E2 10 - 2 -72 74 .4546 13- 1 -73 74 .2777 - 176 . 9 mm . mmc

TABLE 2

Changes In Bench Mark Elevations Along The South Highway (Managua Casa -Colorado) sa

BM DATE OLD ELEV . DATE NEW ELEV . ELEV . DIFF

mm
CH 18 - 11 - 70 71.5133 2 - 2 - 73 71 . 4919 - 21 . 4 mm
C11 R 18 - 11 - 70 82 . 9487 30 - 1 - 73 82. 9385 - 10 . 2 mm .
D2 R . 19 - 11- 70 105 . 2736 30 - 1 - 73 105 . 2784 4 .8 mm .

D 3 19 - 11 - 70 150 . 2920 31 - 1 -73 150 . 2989 6. 9 mm .

20 - 11- 70 209. 4530 2 - 2 - 73 209.4513 1. 7 mm .

21- 11 -70 302.5181 6 - 2 -73 302 .4939 24 . 2 mm .

D 6 R 24 - 11 - 70 363 . 1663 12 - 2 - 73 363 . 1291 47 . 2 mm .

Dr 25 - 11 - 70 434 . 7408 14 - 2 - 73 434 . 6994 41. 4 mm .

D 8 R 26 - 11- 70 533. 4897 14 - 2 - 73 533 . 4504 39 . 3 mm .

D9 28 - 11- 70 665 . 7895 15 - 2 -73 665 . 7700 19. 5 mm .

D 10 15 - 12–70 754 .0028 14 - 2 - 73 753 . 9630 39 . 8 mm .

D 11 R 16 - 12 - 70 860 . 8775 16 - 2 - 73 860 .8416 35 . 9 mm .

154
 TABLE 3

Changes in Bench Mark Elevations Along The Railway Between Managua And Nindiri
_ BM DATE OLD ELEV . DATE NEW ELEV . ELEV , DIFF
G 1 3 - 7 - 52 65 , 6295 8 - 6 - 73 65 . 6268 - 2 . 7 mm .
mm .
3 - 7 - 52 13 - 6-73 75 . 9610 - 22.2 mm.
a

75 . 9832
7 - 7 - 52 68 .4142 13- 6 -73 68. 3788 - 35. 4 mm . mm .
m

mm
8 - 7 - 52 74 .7361 14 - 6 -73 74 .6966 - 39. 5 mm . .

8 - 7 - 52 88 . 0972 14 - 6 -73 89 .0493 47 . 9 mm .

I
9 - 7 - 52 99. 1292 15- 6 -73 99 .0739 - 55. 3 mm . mm
0

16 - 7 - 52 101.6198 19- 6 -73 101. 5775 - 42. 3 mm . mm .

G 8 16 - 7 -52 127 . 8390 21- 6 -73 127.8012 - 37. 8 mm . mm .

0

G 9 17 -7 -52 173 . 1629 29 - 6 - 73 173 . 1502 12 . 7 mm

mm ..

I
G 10 19 -7 -52 190 .7478 2 - 7 - 73 190 . 7518 + 4 . 0 mm .
G 11 19 - 7 - 53 205 . 5136 5 - 7 -73 205 . 5214 + 7 . 8 mm .
Aux .
Masaya
Nindirı H2 1966 246 . 4366 6 - 7 -73 246 .4366 0 . 0 mm .
mm .

TABLE 4
Changes in Bench Mark Elevations Along The Railway Managua - Leon
BM DATE OLD ELEV . DATE NEW ELEV . ELEV . DIFF

CA 16 - 2 -53 44 . 1227 21- 3 - 73 44 . 1205 - 2 . 2 mm .

C 13 21–6 –49 44 .4069 21- 3 -73 44 .4039 - 3 . 0 mm .

mm

C 14 R Nuevo

C 15 R
C 16 21- 6 - 49 44 . 3056 23- 3 - 73 44 . 2814 - 24 . 2 mm
mm

C 17 21- 6 -49 42 . 1034 22 - 3 - 73 42 . 0677 35 . 4 mm

24 - 6 -49 43. 1180 4 - 6 - 73 43 . 0720 46 , 0 mm

mm

24 - 6 - 49 49. 0388 6 - 6 - 73 48 . 9882 50 . 6 mm

C 20 24 - 6 -49 66 .2665 6 - 6 -73 66.2116 - 54 . 9 mm mm

155
 TABLE 5

Changes In Bench Mark Elevations Along The Managua -Masaya Highway

BM DATE OLD ELEV . DATE NEW ELEV . ELEV . DIFF .

Embajada 10 - 2 -72 77 . 2772 12 - 1 - 73 77 -2325 - 44 . 7mm

M . IRA NUEVO 12 - 1 -73 112 . 0295
M2 27 - 1 -68 153 . 2990 11 - 1 - 73 153 . 1897 109 . 3 mm

1
27 - 1 - 68 774 . 2206 10 - 1 - 73 174 . 1252 95 . 4 mm

000
29- 1 -68 192. 3760 10- 1 -73 192.3922 83 . 8 mm

1
29- 1-68 234 .8278 10 - 1 -73 234 . 7618 - 66 . 0 mm

29- 1 -68 253. 2947 9 - 1 -73 253. 2398 - 54 . 9 mm

м 7 31- 1 -68 237.2721 9 - 1-73 237.2150 - 57. 1mm

M 8 18 - 11 - 66 231 . 0063 9 - 1 -73 230. 9624 - 43. 9 mm
M9 19- 11-66 213.2690 4 - 1 -73 213.2381 30 . 9 mm

1
M 10 21- 11-66 204 . 3325 4 - 1-73 204. 3075 - 25 . 0 mm
M 11 21- 11 -66 217 .9873 5 - 1-73 217 .9703 -. 17 . 1 mm

M 12 21- 11- 66 229 . 1149 5 - 1 -73 229. 1039 - 11 . 0 mm

O
M 13 28 - 11 - 66 258 . 4071 6 - 1 -73 258 .4039 3 . 2 mm
1

N
M 14 28 - 11 -66 301 . 9761 6 - 1-73 301. 9801 4 . 0 mm
+

M 15 29 - 11 -66 300 . 5923 6 - 1-73 300.6067 + 14 . 4 mm

M 16 29 - 11-66 274 . 9277 7 - 1-73 274 .9314 + 3 . 7 mm
M17 29 - 11 -66 278 . 7681 7 - 1-73 278 .7729 + 4 . 8 mm

M 18 30- 11-66 282.7209 7 - 1 -73 282 . 7784 + 57 . 5 mm

M 19 30- 11-66 283. 3398 8 - 1 -73 283.3417 + 1. 9 mm

Nindirí 1 - 12 - 66 246 . 4366 8 - 1 - 73 246 .4366 = 0 . 0 mm

156
 Marks
Bench
of
Displ acements
Verti
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Graph cal
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Ins
Geo tit ute
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line
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of
-Profile
10
Figure es
 Vertical
of
Graph
Displacements
Marks
Bench
cms
M-( anagua
asaya
)Highway
Geographi
Institute
National c
es Managua
N
,Jicaragua
anuary
1973
20
+54 from
kilometers
1()64 (3).10 )(130 ..) 1()1.12 ແຈ້ງ 100.com
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c
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AL
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158
954
IBS
15
20
25

Vertical
Scale
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= c
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Sca
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izontal
Note
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Figure
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P
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the
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Managua es
asaya
highway
.-M
 T
Graph of the Vertical Displacements of Bench Marks
icms (Managua Tipitapa Highway )
National Geographic Institute
29
Managua , Nicaragua , January 1973
kilometers from
+5+ BM CE - 2 at 4
ol toast teabe fait thara ahol miss.com Batista Hospital
Managua .
5

SM BM B UM OM PANNTERicht
2-2 CM IGNT CHAL сын C6 - R 54 BALOST CAN CZA kms
2.09

--
5

ico 338
19 6.19

n. Vertical Scale 1 cm = 5 cms

Horizontal Scale 1 cm = 1.5 kms

Note : Horizontal Distances measured with

Stadia . Vertical Displacements
measured with first order level .

Figure 12 - Profile of the elevation differences along the North Highway .

cms Graph of Vertical Displacements of Bench Marks

i ( Managua Loop )
)Patter

National Geographic Institute

25

Stop

Managua , Nicaragua January 1973

Estadio
20

)( ATEDRAL
-)(Estacion

Eper
Artes
FCPN
.)decian
Ciride

CMoog
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6

BM BM BM BM OM
cc CA C13 CHIR
a kms
2.10 2.11 blows

730 618

cms Vertical Scale 1 cm = 5 cms

Horizontal Scale 1 cm = 1.5 kms

Figure 13 - Profile of the elevation differences ( first order) observed inside

the city .

159
 TABLE 6

Changes in Bench Mark Elevations Inside the City of Managua

BM DATE OLD ELEV . DATE NEW ELEV . ELEV . DIFF .

1
CC 1949 44 . 9217 25 - 1 - 73 44 . 8539 - 67 . 8mm
CB 1949 44 .6611 25 - 1 -73 49 .6401 - 21 . Omm
СЈ 1949 71 . 0012 29- 1 -73 70 . 9735 - 27 . 7mm
C11 R 18 - 11 -70 82 . 9487 29 - 1 - 73 82 . 9385 - 10 . 2mm
PP . 867 1968 50 . 794 1 - 2 - 73 50 .7783 - 16 . 0mm
PP . 927 1968 51 .772 1 - 2 -73 51 . 76 ] 7 - 10 . 0mm
PP . 975 1968 53 . 240 1 - 2 - 73 53 . 2249 - 15 . 0mm
PP . 926 1968 52 . 868 1 - 2 - 73 52 . 9715 + 104 . Omm
PP . 924 1968 55 . 807 1 - 2 - 73 56 . 1635 + 357 . Omm
PP . 883 1968 53 .699 1 - 2 - 73 54 .0554 + 356 . Omm
PP . 884 1968 54 .614 1 - 2 -73 54 .6004 - 16 . Omm
PP . 1185 1968 59 . 114 1 - 2 -73 59 . 1080 - 6 . 0mm
PP . 1186 1968 64 . 442 1 - 2 - 73 64 . 4346 - 7 . Omm
PP . 1187 1968 66 . 736 1 - 2 -73 66 . 7321 - 4 . 0mm
PP . 962 1968 70 . 556 2 - 2 - 73 70 . 5510 - 5 . Omm
PP . 963 1968 73 . 950 2 - 2 - 73 73 . 9510 + 1 . 0mm
PP . 964 1968 76 . 258 2 - 2 - 73 76 . 3170 + 59 . 0mm

+
PP . 1098 1968 78 . 328 2 - 2 - 73 78 . 3376 10 . 0mm
PP . 1190 1968 85 . 411 3 - 2 - 73 85 . 4172 +6 . 0mm
PP . 1195 1968 91. 436 7 - 2 - 73 91 . 4414 + 5 .0mm
PP . 1197 1968 93 . 068 7 - 2 - 73 93 . 0688 + 1 . 0mm
PP . 1200 1968 88 . 027 7 - 2 -73 88 . 0250 - 2 . 0mm
PP .894 1968 87 . 360 7 - 2 -73 87 . 4115 + 52 . Omm
PP . 908 1968 87 .850 7 - 2 - 73 87 . 9419 + 92 . 0mm
PP . 251 1968 7 - 2 - 73 90 . 8017
PP . 907 1968 89 . 067 7 - 2 - 73 89 . 0707 + 4 . 0mm
PP . 906 1968 88 . 788 7 - 2 - 73 88 .9117 + 124 . 0mm
PP . 905 1968 92 . 707 7 - 2 - 73 92 . 7071 0 . 0mm
PP . 958 1968 99 . 009 7 - 2 -73 99. 0147 + 6 . Omm
PP . 855 1968 109 . 108 6 - 2 -73 109 . 3373 + 229 . Omm
PP . 856 1968 97 . 921 97 . 9246 + 4 . 0mm
6 - 2 - 73
PP . 942 1968 82 . 561 2 -73 82 . 5522 - 9 . 0mm
27 Mayo Nuevo 6 - 2 -73 77 .4858
PP . 866 1968 53 . 886 9 - 2 - 73 52 . 8768 - 9 . Omm
PP . 865 1968 54 . 721 9 - 2 - 73 54 . 7143 - 7 . 0mm
CL 1949 58 .6662 9 - 2 - 73 58 .6367 - 29 . 5mm
PP . 363 9 - 2 - 73 62 . 5121
PP . 862 1968 68 . 510 9 - 2 - 73 68 . 4745 - 35 . Omm
PP . 860 1968 79 .895 9 - 2- 73 79 . 8737 - 21 . 0mm
PP . 861 1968 73 .685 9 - 2 -73 73 . 6687 - 16 . Omm
PP . 859 1968 87. 903 9 - 2 - 73 87 . 8821 - 21 . Omm
PL 9 - 2 - 73 95 . 3386

160
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P P . 861voja imamo

9
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PP : 1190 PP . 90
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PP 907 PP ! 942 Po
PP . 11957 SPP . 894PP . 251 LPP . 858 . nema

JOOC
958.49855 GUNA
App ! 1200 PP . 908 .PP .TPP pm
Sot
HA P P . 1197 U .. TISCAPA

14
SANTA
•ли влон І ДО Dan

Figure 15 - Location of the topographic levelling points within the city limits.
5

55
8.ⓇPP
.883
.924

.ARPP
NPP
PP

9.>P06
PP
9.26

P
.908

LPP
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.964
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195
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Figure 16 - Profile of the elevation differences observed on the West side of

the city .

162
 Martinez
Palacionet
Chico Pelona
Base Oester
-
La Lomas a
La Protector
OSIOS

stepe

W
!
Aniyot

Figure 17 - Location of the triangulation stations inside the city .

TABLE 7
Co - ordinates of the Stations Measured Before and After the Earthquake .

N (1) N (2 ) STATION E (1 ) E (2 ) N
Cm . Cm .
1,3449688. 04 1,364,688.21 Martínez 575,679.05 575.678,77 17N 28 W

1, 342 , 776 . 87 1,342 ,777 .29 B. Oeste 587,658.26 587 . 658 . 45 62 N 19 E

1, 341,979 .46 1, 341,979 .40 Loma 587, 990. 43 587, 990.22 65 21 W

1, 343,632 , 81 1, 343,632 .65 Palacio 579, 152 . 01 579 , 151.93 16 5 8 W

1,343,257.74 1, 343,257,96 Ch . Pelón 581,265- 08 - 581,265.41 22 N 33 E

1, 340,529.47 2,340, 528 .945 Motastepe 573, 243. 31 573, 243. 71 52 s 40 E

old Coordinates N (1 )
Now Coordinates N (2 )

163
 MARTINEZ OESTE
BASE

PALACIO
PELON
ISICO

N
LOMA
LA

ORA
O T ECT
PRA
MOTASTEPE L

164
STADIUM
TISCAPA
FAULT
FAULT
ANA

NUDES
LAS
GEODIMETER
ELECTROTAPE

-Triangulation
18
Figure
in
network
.observed
area
Managua
rotation of the area .

Station LA PROTECTORA was established during the work for future control of
the Tiscapa Fault .

Gravimetric Observations . In 1970 and 1971 gravimetric surveys were conducted

over the first order levelling network that covers the area of Managua . Follow
ing the earthquake , the stations were re - observed to determine if any gravity
alterations had occurred due to the earthquake.

The observations were made with a La Coste Romber LRG - 56 . The results are
shown in Tables 8 , 9, 10 and 11 , and include prior observations along with the
calculated gravity differences between pre - earthquake and post - earthquake read
ings . All readings are in milligals and include the Bouger Anomaly and free
air corrections . The distribution of the gravity stations is shown in Figure 19
along with the readings at each station . The gravimetric differences are also
shown in profile form in Figures 20 , 21 , 22 and 23 .

It is interesting to note that the gravity differences observed at stations

BM - D2 , BM - D3 , and BM- D4 between the Laguna Asososca and Nejapa , were on the
order of 8-10 milligals .

Summary : Following is a summary of the more important results of these investi

gations :

(a) The settlements observed in the area of Managua was generally on the order

BM - CB
BM- C11 - R Catedral NICARAGUA 1:50.000 LEE. GR LAS
3197 ) Est de Graved
CJE-
BM

OTCU BM - CE : VON ng LEMN

LOTULOTLA LICON LEC.GR LEC.
BM - D1 - R 1.256

BM - D2 - R
198 ) Est
de Graved BM- Embaj . LOC.ch NOK
7.2016 DER
C -64
199) Est de Graved BM- M- 1 RISE
BM - D32
300 ) Est de Graved
BM - D4 BM - M - 2 berende

2. GONE BM- M - 4 URORE

1913.09 BM - M - 3
SiceyDAD BM- M- 5
a Geir BM - D5
BM- M - 6
ca BM - DOR

BM - D7

Figure 19 - Locations of the observed gravimetric stations

165
 TABLE 8
Gravimetric Data
Location : Level Line " D " ,
Managua -Monte Tabor
Date: September 11 , 1973
Gravimet Gravimet. Elev . Gravimet .
Readings Gravity Readings | Gravity in Diff . in
Station Date|corrected Meter Datecorrected Meter metersmil ligals
milligals milligals
19 20 - 6
302)BM -C11-R - 47 18 - 10 -7 2005. 447 LRG - 56 13 2010 -397 LRG -56
2004.646 LRG -56 2009. 662 LRG - 58 . 801 0.735 -0. 066
03)BM -D1- R- 1970 " "
2009. 45 LRG -56 0. 149 0 - 247 +0.098
304)BM -D - 2 -R -1970 " " 2004. 497 LRG -56
2013. 765 LRG - 58 2008. 248 LRG - 56 9. 288 1. 169 -8.099
54JBM -D3- 1949
2002 374 LRG - 56 16. 353 5. 812 |-10. 481
305)BM -D4- 1951 1 1997. 412 LRG - 56

22 - 10 -71 1859. 194 LRG -57 1. 611 11.593 -0. 028

619)BM -D5 - 1949 2001. 449 LRG - 57
820)BM -D6R-1970 1857. 583 LRG -57 1999 . 866 LRG - 56 2. 099 | 2.084 -0. 015
621)BM -D7-1949 1855 .484 LRG -484 1997. 782 LRG -56

TABLE 9
Gravimetric Data
Location : Level Line " M " ,
Managua -Masaya
Date : August 24 , 1973
Gravimet Gravity Gravimet . Gravity Gravimet
Station Reading
corrected Meter Date Reading Date Diff. in
corrected Meter milligals
milligals milligals
Managua-Catedral 10-11-71870, 375 L -R -6 -57 119 -6 - 7 20 12 . 808 L - R -G -56
2. 103 | 1. 922 1 -0. 081
TB - M - 1- 1986 1868, 272 L -R -G -57 2010. 886 L - R -G -56
BM - M - 2- 1966 2866.633 L -R -G -57 2009. 042 L - R -G -56 1.639 | 1. 844 +0. 205
BE!

BM -M - 3- 1966 1865. 732 L - R -G -57 2008. 152 0 . 901 10. 890 -0. 011
L - R -G -56
BM -M -4 - 1966 1866 . 459 L - R -G -57 2007...846 L - R - G - 56 0 . 273 10. 306 +0. 033
BM -M -5 - 1966 1865. 362 L- R -G -57 2007. 785 L - R -G -56 0 .097 0 . 061 -0. 036
:

BM -M -8 -1966 1865. 767 L - R -G -57 2008. 190 L - R -G -56 0. 405 0. 407 + .002

166
 TABLE 10
Gravimetric Data
Location : Managua -Los Brasiles
Date: September 8 , 1973
Gravimet , Gravimet . Elev . Gravimet
Station Date Readings Gravity Date Readings | Gravity Tin VIIIDiff.. 111
in
corrected Meter corrected Meter milligals
milligals milligals meter's
73
54)BM -D3-1949 9-Oct-7. 2003.239 LRG -56 25 - Jun 2008. 106 LRG -56
13 960 | 13. 975 +0. 015
1989. 279 LRG - 56 1994. 131 LRG - 56
300)Est de Graved
2008. 522 LRG - 56 14 . 375 14 .391 +0.016
199) Est de Braved 2003. 654 LRG - 58
4 .427 4 . 424 . 002
198 )Est de Graved 2008. 081 LRG -56 2012. 946 LRG -56
3 . 104 . 3. 047 -0 . 057
197)Estde Graved 2004. 977 LRG - 58 2009.899 LRG -56

TABLE 11.
Gravimetric Data
Location : Managua - Loop
Date : September 11 , 1973
Gravimet. Gravimet. Elev . Gravimet
Readings Gravity Readings Gravity in Diff. in
Station Date (corrected Meter Datelcorrected Meter meters milligals
milligals milligals
BM -CB -Catedrall 13-57 - 2009.7299 LRG -56 12-5-7 2012.9597 LRG -56
4.5319 4 .7020 +0 . 170
54)BM -D3.- 1949 2005. 198 LRG -56 2008. 257 LRG -56
2.664 2. 807 +0. 145
55)BM -CJ -1952 2007. 862 LRG -56 2011.0.34 LRG -56
2011. 982 LRG -56 0 . 925 0. 918 -0. 007
56)BM -CM -1952 2008 . 787 LRG -56
2012. 254 LRG -56 0. 252 0. 212 -0 . 040
57)BM -Embajada 2009.039 LRG -56
2010 . 219 LRG -56 2013. 409 LRG -56 1. 180 1. 155 -0.025
50)BM -CE - 1962
0. 340 0. 338 -0 . 002
539BM -CC -1962 11 LRG -56
2010 . 559 LRG -56 2013. 747

51)Old tormipal 11 -9- 71 1877.537 LRG . -57 2020. 289 LRG -56
0.672 0. 692 +0.020
83 Now terminal 1878 . 209 LRG -57 20 20. 981 LRG -56
2. 362 2. 206 -0. 156
58Areo-Club 6-9- 71 1880.571 LRG -57 T . 2023. 187 LRG -56
4. 724 4. 412

167
 Gravity Change
(milligals) PD- 3 and D - 4
16 .353

1. 260
OD - 2 and D - 3

C - 11 -R
and
0 .801 f+
D - 1 -R
a
0 .149 16D - 1 -R and D - 2 - R Distance (km)
0.97 2.03 3.03 8 .49

October 1971

Gravity Change
(milligals )

D - 3 and D -4
5 .072

D2R
and Dir and
1.169 + D1 - R and D3
0 .735 + a D2R O
0 . 247
Distance (km )
0.97
0 .97
2.03
2 .03
3.03
3 .03 49

June 1973

Horizontal Scale 1 cm • 1 km
Vertical Scale 1 cm = 2 milligals

Figure 20 - Gravimetric profile of Managua-Monte Tabor level line.

168
 Gravity Change
A (milligals)

Cated and M - 1
2 . 103 +

1 .639 M - 1 and M - 2

0 .901 + M - 2 and M - 3

0 . 405 + M - 3 and M -4 M - 5 and M -6

0. 273 +
0 .097 + JOM - 4 and M - 5 Distance (km )
3.56 5.00 6:20 7.03 0.57 974
November 1971

Gravity Change
(milligals)
1. 922
Cated and M -1
1844 o M - 1 and M - 2

0 .890 +
QM - 2 and M - 3
0 .407 + M - 3 and M - 4 o M - 5 and M - 6
0 . 306 +
0.0617 VM- 4 and M - 5 Distance (km )
3.56 5.00 6.20 703 57 9.74

June 1973
Horizontal Scale 1cm * 1km
Vertical Scale 2 cm - 1 milligal

Figure 21 - Gravimetric profile of Managua-Masaya level line .

169
 Gravity Change
(milligals )
14. 38 300 and 199 EDG
1396
|D3 and 300 EDG
Legend :
EDG Gravity Station

442
199 and 198 EDG
198 and 197 EDG
3 . 10

Distance (km )
- Iso
SO 330
330 5 05
5 .05

October 1971
Gravity Change
(milligals)
14 . 40 300 and 199 EDG
13. 97
D3 and 300 EDG

4 . 42
199 and 196 EDG
3 .04 198 and 197 EDG

Distance (km )
3305 .05
330
6.45
6 . 45

June 1973

Horizontal Scale 1 cm - 1 km
Vertical Scale 1 cm = 2 milligals

Figure 22 - Gravimetric profile of Managua - Los Brasiles level line.

170
 Gravity Change
(milligals)

CB -D3
4 . 5319

2 .664
D3 -C3

EMBAJ -CE
1 . 180
0.925 +
CJ- CH
0 .340
CE - CC
0 .252 ECH - EMBAJ Distance
4 .36 7.67 897 9.45 11.72 14 .02 (km )
May 1972
Horizontal Scale 1 cm = 1 km
Vertical Scale 1 cm = 1 milligal

Gravity Change
(milligals )

4 . 7020 CB-03
CB - D3

2 .807 D3 -CJ

1.155 - CH
EMBAJ -CE
0 .918
0 .336
CE -CC
0 . 212 CH -EMBAJ Distance
4 .36 7 67 8 . 97 9 .45 11.72 14 .02
(km )
May 1973
Figure 23 - Gravimetric profile of Managua- Loop

171
 of 1 - 2 cm , . Only in the vicinity of Babtist Hospital did the settlement
read as high as 18 cm .

(b ) The settlements observed along the Managua -Masaya highway reached a maxi
mum value of 11 cm , the same as observed after the Colonia Centro - America
earthquake of 1968.

(c ) The maximum displacements observed in various triangulation networks was

(c) The
40 cmmaximum
. displaceme
(d ) The greatest gravity differences observed were in the area of Nejapa and
were on the order of 10 milligals .

172
 PLAN FOR ZONING MANAGUA , NICARAGUA , TO REDUCE
HAZARDS OF SURFACE FAULTING

by

Robert E . Wallace
U . S . Geological Survey
National Center for Earthquake Research

INTRODUCTION
A plan for a zoning policy is presented based on the simple rationale that
the most obvious hazards of surface faulting known at this time should be
avoided or compensated for by site planning and engineering , and that the
greatest concern for hazard reduction should be given to the most critical and
important installations .

The only earthquake hazard considered here is surface faulting. The pro
blem of shaking or ground motion is not considered . The problem of shaking is
compensated for in current practice , for example in California , by incorpor
ating earthquake- resistant design in structures , and by individually evaluating
the characteristics of ground motion for the most critical installations . A
modern building code incorporating earthquake- resistant design factors should
be enforced in Managua . The hazards of earthquake - induced landslides and water
waves appear less significant in Managua and are not considered .

The area is divided into four zones on a map (fig . 1 ) based on a variety
of data in published and unpublished reports and maps and on a field evaluation
of selected faults and fractures that were still visible in June 1973 .
Published reports and maps referred to include Cluff and Carver ( 1973 ) , Brown
and others ( 1973 ) , Durham ( 1931 ) , Kuang and Williams ( 1971 ) , and Sultan ( 1931) .
Unpublished reports and maps , or those of restricted distribution include maps
by Ing . Juan Kuang S . , Catastro , and by Ing . Federico Fiedler , Oficina Nacional
de Urbanismo ; and reports by Rodriquez and Martinez of the Servicio Geológico
National de Nicaragua (1973) and by Schmoll , Krushensky and Dobrovolny of the
U . S . Geological Survey (1973 ) . A map of breaks in water mains that occurred
during the earthquake of 1972 was provided by the Ministry of Public Works .
George Plafker of the U . S . Geological Survey and Leroy Anstead of the
InterAmerican Geodetic Survey accompanied the author in the field , and Mr.
Anstead provided logistic support and assistance without which the work could
not have been carried out. Ing . Humberto Porta , Director Servicio Geográfico
Nacional de Nicaragua , cooperated generously and provided base maps and aerial
photographs . My colleagues of the U . S . Geological Survey , S . T . Algermissen ,
Robert Brown , Ernest Dobrovolny , George Plafker , and Peter Ward provided valu
able council and much data gathered during their own studies as well as review
of the paper . Lloyd Cluff of Woodward -Lundgren and Associates provided very
helpful criticism and comments .

The study was undertaken by the U . S . Geological Survey under the sponsor

173
 MANAGUA
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ship of the Agency for International Development , U . S . Department of State ,
under PASA LA ( IC ) 24 - 73 .

PLANNING ZONES FOR REDUCTION OF HAZARDS OF SURFACE FAULTING

The zones shown on the map ( fig . 1 ) primarily reflect a range of certainty
about the presence or absence of surface faults and the general characteristics
of faults and surface fractures known in June 1973. Additional evidence about
the presence or absence of faults throughout the area undoubtedly will become
known in the future , and the map should be changed accordingly . For example ,
in many areas existing faults may be completely concealed by vegetation and the
faults may become exposed only when excavation for foundations or grading for
roads is carried out. When the planned Center for Earthquake Hazard Reduction
is established in Nicaragua, this zoning plan can be revised on a routine ,
periodic basis . The map should be considered an evolving document that pro
vides one guideline in the reduction of the hazard from surface faulting. It
should be stressed that no area on the map is known with certainty to be devoid
of surface fault hazard .
DESCRIPTION OF ZONES

Zone 1
Zone 1 includes areas in which known surface faulting occurred in the
earthquake of either 1931 or 1972 . According to Brown and others (1973 ) , zones
of surface fractures along faults may vary considerably in width and constit
uent fractures , and displacement may be in a single fracture or in a band of
fractures a few meters to 60 meters wide or more . Both lateral and vertical
displacements occurred , but in the earthquakes of 1972 , lateral displacement
was dominant and in places was as much as 38 centimeters . Brown and others
(1973) report that displacement along surface fractures was directly respon
sible for severe localized damage to streets and underground utilities and to
many buildings along the fault traces .

Zone 2A
Zone 2A includes areas of postulated faults or projections of known
faults . Whether a known fault continues or , if it does , whether the trend
continues unchanged is uncertain . The position of some faults interpreted
indirectly from geologic relations cannot be precisely determined . Some inter
preted faults are not known with certainty to be active .

Zone 2B

Zone 2B includes areas in which many surface fractures developed in 1972 ,

but in which the fractures may or may not represent surface faulting . Some
fractures may be of secondary origin related to shaking , local differential
settling, or internal discontinuities in pavement, curb or other structures .
Continuity of individual fractures generally is lacking, and fractures tend to
be spread over an area rather than concentrated in an elongate , faultlike zone .
Displacements on individual fractures are generally less than a centimeter and

175
may display lateral , vertical , or extensional movement . Despite the small dis
placements on individual fractures , damage to structures directly over the
fractures commonly was more severe than to adjacent buildings . The reasons for
this are not understood . A somewhat greater number of water mains broke in
zones 2A and 2B than in zone 3 .

Zone 3

Zone 3 includes areas in which there was little or no known evidence of

surface faulting or surface fracturing during the earthquakes of 1931 and 1972 ,
and in which there are presently no known faults and no strong geologic sugges
tion of faulting . The zone principally represents a lack of data and does not
necessarily indicate that no hazard from faulting exists . Data may be lacking
for a number of reasons . Faults may be concealed by vegetation or by alluvium ,
or paved roads , in which fractures are easily observed , may be lacking , or the
area simply may not have been examined thoroughly .

IMPORTANCE FACTOR AND CODE GROUPS

The relative importance or critical nature of various installations is a
major factor in the judgment of risk acceptability . In the Construction Code
for the National District , Decree No . 90 , January 24 , 1973, the importance of
installations is defined in three groups, A , B , and C . Definitions of the
three code groups follow , modified somewhat in wording from the definitions in
Decree No . 90 , but hopefully retaining the sense of the decree .
Group A
Group A comprises government , municipal , and public service buildings -
such as water pumps , power plants , communication centers , fire stations ,
military and police headquarters , and hospitals - whose function is especially
important after an earthquake ; installations where there are frequent concen
trations of people , such as schools , terminals , churches , and meeting halls ;
and installations, the contents of which are of great value , such as museums .
Group B

Group B includes private or public buildings in which the average density

of use is great , such as hotels and apartment buildings . Industrial plants ,
warehouses for storage of valuable material or equipment , and other large
installations of high economic value are also included .

Group C
Group C comprises structures , the failure of which would not normally
cause hazard to human beings , small structures that would tend not to collapse ,
and individual private dwellings built to resist at least minimum lateral force
of earthquake shaking , including , for example , diagonal bracing and secure ties
between roof and walls .

176
 SUGGESTED POLICIES TO BE APPLIED IN ZONES
Zone 1
General Guidelines and Policies

No structures intended for human occupancy should be built within a zone

100 meters wide bracketing each of the five faults reported by Brown and others
( 1973 ) , after the earthquake of 1972 , or bracketing other faults demonstrated
by future site studies to be potentially active . The restricted zone may be
narrower if site studies demonstrate that fault activity is more narrowly
defined , but structures should never be less than 10 meters from faults if
design cannot accommodate predictable fault offset . The 100 -meter -wide zones
should be limited to open - space use such as parks , green belts , secondary
roads , or agricultural lands .

The long - term goal for the entire area in zone I should be toward the
lowest risk uses , considering primarily risk to human life but also risk to
installations of high importance . If any use is planned for which risk is of
significant concern , detailed site investigation should be made by an engineer
ing geologist experienced in surface fault problems . Underground utility lines
should cross this zone in as few places as possible , and special attention
should be paid in design to minimize damage and the effects of damage ( for
example , shut -off valves and flexible piping ) and permit ready repairs ( for
example , surface installation rather than underground may be advisable across
zone ) .

All building permits granted should be accompanied by a notice that the

site is in zone 1 , and in all future transfer of property the seller should be
required to notify the buyer that the site is in zone 1 .

Policy for importance groups

Group A . - - No Group A installations should be planned in zone 1 , and existing
structures should be considered nonconforming . However , if Group A installa
tions are mandatory here , detailed engineering geology site investigations
should be required , and site and engineering plans should be reviewed and
approved by the Ministry of Public Works .

Group B . - - Zone 1 should be avoided , if possible , for Group B installations.

Detailed engineering geology site studies are strongly recommended , and review
by the Ministry of Public Works may be required .

Group C . - - No restrictions should be imposed for individual installations , but

long -range plans should discourage use for human occupancy or , at least ,
encourage low -density occupancy .

177
 Zone 2A and 2B

General Guidelines and Policies

No installations should be automatically excluded from this zone , but

engineering geology site studies should be required for critical installations .
All building permits granted should be accompanied by a notice that the site is
in zone 2 .

Policy for importance groups

Group A .-- Detailed engineering geology site investigations should be required

and should be reviewed by the Ministry of Public Works . Engineering compensa
tion or site plan modification may be required to reduce the hazard .

Group B .-- Detailed engineering geology site studies are strongly recommended
and may be required at the discretion of the Ministry of Public Works .

Group C .-- No restrictions should be imposed .

Zone 3

General Guidelines and Policies

No restrictions for use should be imposed automatically .

Policy for importance groups

Group A.-- Detailed engineering geology site investigations should be required

and review and approval by the Ministry of Public Works may be required .

Group B .-- Detailed engineering geology site investigation is strongly recom

mended but should not be required .

Group C .-- No restrictions should be imposed .

ADDITIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS

The Ministry of Public Works should have the authority to obtain , place
in archive , and open file copies of all engineering geology site studies . If

and when other fault zones become identified , the zoning map should be modi
fied , and the policies of the appropriate zone should apply .

A Center for Earthquake Hazard Reduction should be established within the

Ministry of Public Works to develop background data on earthquake hazards and
to provide the technical capability to perform the geologic , seismic and
engineering reviews referred to in policies recommended above .

This zoning plan , which treats only the problem of surface faulting should
be accompanied and reinforced by adequate building codes which include earth
quake - resistant factors . Also an awareness should be developed that other

178
earthquake hazards such as landsliding , differential settlement , liquefaction ,
tectonic elevation changes , and water related effects may require special
attention including individual site studies for important structures .
REFERENCES

Brown , R . D . , Jr . , Ward , P . L . , and Plafker , George , 1973 , Geologic and seismo

logic aspects of the Managua, Nicaragua , earthquake of December 23 , 1972 :
U . S . Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 838 , 34 p .

Cluff , L . S . , and Carver , G . A . , 1973 , Geological observations in Managua ,

Nicaragua , Earthquake of December 23 , 1973: Earthquake Engineering
Research Institute Reconnaissance Report.
Durham , H . W . , 1931 , Managua - Its construction and utilities : Eng. News
Record , April 23 , p . 696 - 700 .
Instituto Geográfico Nacional , 1973 , Fotomapa de la Ciudad de Managua (showing
fractures developed in earthquake of December 1972 ) .

Kuang , Juan , and Williams, R . L . , 1971 , Mapa Geológico de Managua , Nicaragua :

CATASTRO , Sheet 2952 III, scale 1 :500 , 000 .
Sultan , D . l. , 1931, The Managua earthquake: Military Engineer , v . 23 , p . 354
361.

179
 ACCELEROGRAPH AND SEISMOSCOPE RECORDS FROM
MANAGUA , NICARAGUA EARTHQUAKES

by
Charles F . Knudson
U . S . Geological Survey
San Francisco , California
and

Francisco Hansen A .
Ingeniero , Departmento de Ingenieria
Recinto Universitario Ruben Dario
Managua , Nicaragua

Abstract . Strong -motion instruments were first installed in Managua in 1966 .

A number of earthquakes , including those of October 15 , 1967 , and January 4 ,
1968 , which caused substantial damage in Nicaragua , were recorded before the
destructive shock of December 23 , 1972. Four strong -motion accelerograms and
nine seismoscope records were obtained from a series of earthquakes that
occurred in January 1972 . One accelerograph at the Esso Refinery and 13 seis
moscopes recorded the major earthquake of December 23, 1972 . Several after
shocks of the December 1972 earthquake were recorded at various sites ; the
largest aftershock was recorded on March 31 , 1973 at the UNAN station .

Introduction . Managua has a long history of destructive earthquakes , several

of which occurred during the past half century . The most destructive shock
before 1972 occurred in 1931 . Figure 1 shows the approximate location of the
1931 fault trace and the principal faults related to the December 1972 earth
quake (Brown , et al , 1973 ; Cluff and Carver , 1973) .

This report describes the development of the present strong -motion instru
mentation network in Nicaragua . Records recovered since the installation of
the first accelerograph in 1966 are listed , and preliminary readings of maximum
acceleration values are tabulated . A report by Perez ( this volume ) describes
the spectral analysis of some of the accelerograph records .
Strong -Motion Network . The present strong-motion network consists of the
following instruments : Teledyne Geotech Model AR - 240 accelerographs (Halverson ,
1964 ) , Wilmot Seismoscope (Cloud and Hudson , 1961) , and the Kinemetrics SMA - 1
accelerograph (Halverson , 1970 ) . Installation of the Nicaraguan network was
begun by the Dirección General de Cartografia (a government agency ) after
instruments were purchased by the Banco Central de Nicaragua (BANC ) and the
Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Nicaragua (UNAN ) in 1966 and by Esso Refinery
(ESSO ) in 1967 and 1968 .
In mid - 1966 two accelerographs and four seismoscopes were installed at the
Banco Central . After the January 4 , 1968 earthquake, an AR - 240 accelerograph
and seismoscope were installed at the Hospicio Zacarias Guerra in the epicentral
area . In June 1969 these instruments were moved to the UNAN station in the

180
 20
06

APROC

DE
LARO MANAQUA

1210
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Boundary oc AINCE

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BANCO SIGNA SIGNA

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181
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LOCATION UNAN LEGEND
STATIONS
-MOTION
STRONG ACCELEROGRAPH
EXISTING
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SEISMOSCOPE
SEISMOSCOPE
PROPOSED
TRACES
FAULT R
. EMOVED
INSTR
STATION
ALASC
MANAGUA
,N ICARAGUA SCALE
1000 0 1000 2000 3000 Meter
4000
oodle lid

Managua
of
Map
1.
Figure
Recinto Universario Ruben Dario . Unfortunately , the accelerograph failed to
record the December 23 , 1972 earthquake because of a discharged battery . The
instruments were moved in January 1973 to their present location at the
university 's meteorological station where power is available .
The ESSO accelerograph and two seismoscopes were installed in mid - 1969 at
the Esso Refinery. No record was obtained from these instruments until the
January 1972 series of earthquakes . The ESSO accelerograph provided the only
accelerograph record of the December 23 event ,
A fifth accelerograph ( a SMA - 1 ) was purchased by the Compania Nacional
Productora de Cemento and was installed at their office in August 1973.
At the end of August 1973 , 4 accelerographs and 11 seismoscopes were
operating in the Nicaragua network . Proposed locations for eight more available
seismoscopes in Nicaragua and location of past and present instrument sites are
shown in Figure 1 . Table I identifies all stations shown and gives their geo
graphic coordinates .
Nicaraguan Accelerograph Records . Nicaragua ' s first strong -motion records came
from an earthquake located off the coast at a focal depth of 162 km on October
15 , 1967 . These records (Figure 2) were of no particular use to engineers
because the accelerations were so low , less than 0 . 04 g on the 15th floor of
the Banco Central building .
In January 1968 a series of earthquakes was recorded at the Banco Central
and the UNAN instrument at the HOSP station . The event of January 4 was recorded
on the instruments in the basement (Sotano No . 2 ) and on the 15th floor (Piso
No . 15 ) at Banco Central (Figure 3 ) ; the events of January 18 and 22 were
recorded on the UNAN instrument at Hospicio Zacarias Guerra (Figure 4 ) . The
largest shock of this series , magnitude 4 . 5 on January 4 , damaged structures in
the Colonia Centro America (COCA station , Figure 1 ) ; damage ranged from cracks
in the walls to complete collapse of houses .

The January 1972 series of earthquakes was recorded on accelerographs at

the ESSO station (Figure 5 ) and at the UNAN and BANC stations (Figure 6 ) . These
earthquakes , in the magnitude - 4 range , caused incipient damage in Managua , but
were much less damaging than the 1968 earthquake . The maximum acceleration
recorded during this series of shocks was 0 . 22 g at the ESSO station on
January 5 .
The December 23, 1972 record from the Esso Refinery is shown in Figure 7 .
The complete record is 300 inches long and contains 20 separate operations .
The first operation , initiated by the main shock , continued for 85 seconds and
contains two small but clearly identifiable aftershocks at 29 and 67 seconds
after triggering of the instrument. The sixth operation (Sheet 2 of Figure 7 ) .
appears to correspond to the magnitude 5 . 0 aftershock at 0718 GCT, and the
seventh operation (Sheet 3 of Figure 7 ) appears to correspond to the magnitude
5 . 2 aftershock at 0719 GCT. The latter part of the record (Sheets 3 and 4 of
Figure 7 ) from operations 9 through 20 was exposed because the instrument had
not been manually operated to advance the paper into the takeup magazine before

182
 Table 1

MANAGUA , NICARAGUA STRONG -MOTION STATIONS 1967 TO 1973

Symbol Name Coordinates

PROC Procon Prestressed Concrete Plant 86 23' 00" W 12 11 ' 18 " N

RESA Reparto Satelite Asosca 86 20 ' 24" W 12 08 ' 30"N
ESSO Refineria ESSO, Managua 86 19' 18" W 12 08 ' 42" N
SEMI Seminario Nacional 86 18 ' 31" W 12 08' 35 " N
MATA Matadero Modelo 86 18 ' 08" W 12 09 ' 31" N
AMEM American Embassy Ambassador 's Residence 86 18 ' 24"W 12 07' 48 " N
TORM Torres Molinas 86 18 ' 40"W 12 06 ' 10" N
CNPC Compania Nacional Productora de Cemento 86 17 ' 55 "W 12 08 ' 02"N
ELRO El Retiro ( Somoza 's Residence) 86 17' 05" W 12 07 ' 42" N
HERO Hospital El Retiro 86 16 * 45 W 12 07' 58"N
BANC Banco Central de Nicaragua 86 16 ' 23" 12 08' 56'N
INCE National Granary 86 15' 40 " W 12 09' 15 " N
UNAN Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Nicaragua 86 16 ' 18 " W 12 06 ' 18 " N
Recinto Universario Ruben Dario

HOSP Hospicio Zacarias Guerra 86 14 ' 37 " W 12 06 ' 54" N

COCA Colonia Centro America 86 15 ' 05" W 12 06 ' 36" N
ENOR Escuela Normal 86 14 ' 10 "W 12 07' 17 " N
FUNC Funeria La Catolica 86 13' 52"W 12 07' 58" N
IGNA Institute Geografico Nacional (old office ) 86 14 ' 55"W 12 08 ' 52"N
IGNA Institute Geografico Nacional (new office) 86 13' 13" W 12 08' 56'N
LASC Las Colinas 86 14 ' 00" W 12 05' 40" N
CBAN Church Barrio Nuevo 86 12' OONW 12 07 ' 28 "N
ENAG Escuela Nacional Agricultura y Granaderia 86 09 ' 48"W 12 08' 42"N

183
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MANAJUA

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Refinery
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23of972
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189
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‫‪190‬‬
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‫‪7.(Continued‬‬
‫‪)Figure‬‬

‫مسسسسسسس‬
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Accelerogram
Motion
Strong
Refinery
Esso
3
1972
Dec.
23
Earthquake
N icaragua
Managua
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799.0
07
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Mag
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M
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191
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(Continued
7.
)Figure
 ,Sheet
Accelerogram
Motion
Strong
Refinery
4Esso
Dec
23
of
1Earthquake
., 972
icaragua
NManagua

192
MWWNA

7.(Continued
)Figure
record removal. Direct scalings from the original record of the main event give
maximum acceleration values of 0 . 39 g in the east-west direction , 0 . 34 g in the
north - south direction , and 0 . 33 g vertically . The high -amplitude part of the
record starts 1 second after the instrument was triggered and lasts for about
5 seconds with a nominal acceleration of 0 . 2 g . Some longer period motion in
the later part of the record could be more important for taller buildings than
the high - frequency acceleration peaks . Maximum accelerations do not adequately
define the magnitude of ground response . Study of frequency , amplitude , and
duration is required to obtain a true picture ,
A January 30 , 1973 aftershock recorded at the ESSO and UNAN stations
(Figure 8 ) shows a maximum acceleration of 0 .09 g at the UNAN station . Accel
erations at the ESSO station for this event were 0 .01 g and less .
One record was obtained from a strong aftershock on March 31 , 1973 at the
UNAN station , and although of short duration , it registered 0 . 6 g (Figure 8 ) .
The National Earthquake Center (NOAA ) received no readings for this earthquake
and therefore estimated its magnitude at less than 4 . 0 . There were no reports
of damage from this aftershock .
The accelerograms recorded in Nicaragua from 1967 through August 1973 are
listed in Table 2 . The acceleration values shown were derived from direct
scaling of maximum amplitudes from the original records . Periods were measured
by assuming simple harmonic motion but are only approximate because most accel
erograph records are irregular in character .
Nicaraguan Seismoscope Records . The first Nicaraguan seismoscope record was
obtained from the instrument next to the accelerograph in the basement of the
Banco Central on January 4 , 1968 (Figure 9 ) . Nine seismoscope records were
obtained from the January 1972 earthquakes . Four of these records are shown in
Figure 10 ; the other five were lost during the moving and cleanup of the damaged
Instituto Geografico Nacional office after the December 23, 1972 earthquake .
Thirteen seismoscopes were in place during the December 23 , 1972 earthquake ,
eleven at ground sites and two on upper floors of the Banco Central (Figure 1
and Table 3 ) . The smoked record plates of six of the seismoscopes were dislodged
by the high vertical accelerations , and a seventh record from the Seminario
Nacional station was of negligible value because low stylus pressure resulted in
excessive trace skipping . The six seismoscope records shown in Figure 11 provide
a picture of the ground motion for this earthquake . The six seismoscope
records shown in Figure 12 show that the motion at these stations exceeded the
recording range of the seismoscope , which has a maximum value of 7 . 6 cm relative
displacement response . Table 4 gives the orientation and instrumental character
istics of the seismoscopes and the results obtained from the records . Maximum
amplitudes have been converted to relative displacement response , From these
results and the map of instrument locations, it is apparent that the ground
motion was generally high throughout Managua , with a greater motion (within the
limited response range of the seismoscope) at the Escuela Nacional Agricultura
Granaderia (ENAG ) near the east end of the international airport than at the Esso
Refinery just west of the city . Because motion at BANC and Matadero Modelo (MATA )

193
 REFINERY
ESSO ANAGUA
SSO
NM,)(EICARAGUA UNIVERSIDAD
NACIONAL
AUTONOMA
ACCEL
290
AR-2SN40 DE NAN
ANAGUA
NICARAGUA NMU,)( ICARAGUA
EARTHQUAKE
JAN
.12:1OF307973
20GMT ACCELEROGRAPH
SED EARTHQUAKE
S/N2AR-4002121720
1973
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GMT 2cmora0m738 -
3EQOF30JAN15973
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GMT
-
SOUTH.00T- -60 .5851
Dene
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025 ans 055

0-.1 98 CAL
VERT
1 see
037

Teos
30
De
Dump 0039
600

194
ACELEROCA
nUNAN
-M.240tos
31-1973
MARIO
GMT
2013

A8.Figure
records
from
Esso anuary
1JRefinery
,30the
973
ccelerographleft
and
the
UNAN
record
for
March UNAN
t( ophe
records
for
this
same
earthquak
right
,
)
earthquak
ottom e e
131,).(b973
 Table 2

MAXIMUM ACCELERATIONS FROM MANAGUA RECORDS 1967 TO 1973

Maximum
Acceleration
Period Sensitivity Damping Period Amplitude
Station and Date Component sec cm / g sec

BANC (Piso No . 15 ) N 85 W 0 .053 7 .6 0 . 25 0 . 03

Oct . 15 , 1967 Vertical 0 . 056 7.5 0 . 12 0 . 04
S 5 W 0 . 055 0 . 40 0 .02
BANC (Sotano No . 2 ) N 85 W 0 . 055 7 .5 0 . 10 0 . 01
Oct . 15 , 1967 Vertical 0 .054 7.4 0 . 05 0 . 01
S 5 W 0 . 049 7 .4 0 . 10 0 .01

BANC (Piso No . 15 ) N 85 W 0 .053 7 .6 0 . 21 0 . 16

Jan . 4 , 1968 Vertical 0 . 056 7 .5 0 . 15 0 . 12
S 5 W 0 . 055 7 .6 0 . 35 0 . 18
BANC (Sotano No . 2 ) N 85 W 0 .055 7 .5 0 . 18 0 . 13
Jan . 4 , 1968 Vertical 0 . 054 7.4 0 .08 0 . 06
S 5 W 0 . 049 7 . 4. 0 . 35 0 . 10

HOSP S 35 E 0 .050 0 . 11 0 .02

Jan . 18 , 1968 Vertical 0 . 057 0 . 08 0 . 02
N 55 E 0 . 051 0 . 14 0 . 04
iris

HOSP S 35 E 0 . 050 0 . 11 0 .04

Jan . 18 , 1968 Vertical 0 . 057 0 . 10 0 . 04
N 55 E 0 . 051 0 , 11 0 . 06

BANC (Sotano No. 2 ) N 85 W 0 . 053 7 .6 0 . 08 0 , 04

Jan . 2 , 1972 Vertical 0 .056 7 .5 0 , 08 0 . 03
S 5 W 0 . 056 7 .6 0 . 19 0 .04

ESSO South 0 . 060 14 , 75 0 . 13 0 , 10

Jan . 2 , 1972 Vertical 0 .058 13 .62 0 . 10 0 . 06
East 0 . 063 13 . 28 0 , 16 0 , 15
ESSO South 0 . 060 14 . 75 0 . 13 0 . 09
Jan . 5 , 1972 Vertical 0 . 058 13 .62 0 . 10 0 . 08
East 0 . 063 13 . 28 0 . 18 0 . 22
UNAN E - W 0 . 050 7 . 65 59 0 . 09 0 . 12
Jan . 5 , 1972 Vertical 0 . 058 7 . 36 0 , 10 0 ,06
N - S 0 .052 7 . 76 0 . 10 0 , 11

195
 Maximum
Acceleration
Period Sensitivity Damping Period Amplitude
Station and Date Component sec cm /g sec

ESSO South 0 . 060 14 .75 56 0 . 28 0 . 34

Dec . 23, 1972 Vertical 0 .058 13 .62 0 . 18 0 . 33
06 : 29 : 42 GMT East 0 . 063 13 . 28 0 . 25 0 . 39

ESSO South 0 .060 14 . 75 0 . 22 0 . 19

Dec . 23 , 1972 Vertical 0 . 058 13 . 62 0 . 15 0 . 07
07 : 17 GMT East 0 .063 13 . 28 0 . 25 0 . 13
ESSO South 0 . 060 14 .75 0 . 20 0 . 33
Dec . 23 , 1972 Vertical 0 . 058 13 .62 0 . 13 0 . 20
07 : 19 GMT East 0 . 063 13 . 28 0 . 40 0 . 29
ESSO South 0 . 060 14 . 75 0 . 18 0 .01
Jan . 30 , 1973 Vertical 0 . 058 13 .62 0 . 12 0 .01
East 0 . 063 13 . 28 0 . 22 0 . 01

UNAN E - W 0 .050 7 . 65 0 . 14 0 . 09
Jan . 30 , 1973 Vertical 0 .058 7 . 36 0 . 10 0 . 05
N - S 0 .052 7 . 76 0 . 13 0 .07
UNAN E - W 0 . 050 7 .65 0 . 23 0 .60
March 31 , 1973 Vertical 0 . 058 7 . 36 0 . 11 0 .53
N - S 0 . 052 7 . 76 0 . 18 0 . 26

Table 2 - Continued

196
 SODNE
NI E
MA CA UA
K
VA RA 3
GU GU RTHQ e d
A, A
ENAA ll
BA CENT H 68 nst a
NC R J
A A p1 9
O L Li

6
1
.?

:
5 N
S N . So5t8. oi a r 1 01
Re :16
.

BANC
January 1968

Figure 9 . Banco Central Seismoscope record of

the January 4 , 1968 earthquake .

197
 S
I
W
I
N
SW
T
2 :N
Q

с
л
у
о
u
č
А

FUNC SEMI
January 1972 January 1972
ES

A
E

N
N
SO

-
5
5
5

ESSO UNAN
January 1972 January 1972

Figure 10. Seismoscope records for January 1972

FUNC ( top left ) , SEMI ( top right ) ,
ESSO ( bottom left ) , UNAN (bottom right) .

198
 Symbol Name Coordinates Instrumentation

PROC Concrete
Prestressed
Procon °23
86
'O 'W °11'18
"N12 672
S
, .N.
Seismoscope
Plant

ESSO Refineria
ESSO
M
, anagua °19'18
86
"W °08'42
N"12 A.M.
Accelerograph
2
-
,S
290
40
R
Period
.75
s.671
S
Seismoscope
, .N.
s
.50
Period
673
Seismoscope
. .N.
,S

SEMI Seminario
Nacional °18'31
86
"W °08'35
"N.12 574
S
, .N.
Seismoscope

MATA Modelo
Matadero °18'08
"W86 0 ° 9'31
"N12 561
S
, .N.
Seismosco pe

BANC Banco
Central
Nicaragua
de °16'23
"W86 °08'56
"N12 A
-2.N.
S R
40
Accelerograph
,201
S otano
,2 .N.
558
Seismoscope
S
,P.N.
575
5 iso
Seismoscope
10
577
P
,S iso
.N.
Seismoscope

HERO Retiro
El
Hospital 1 ° 6'45
W"86 °07'58
"N12 576
S
, .N.
Seismoscope

UNAN Universidad
Nacional
Autonoma °16'18
"W86 °06'18
"N12 2
204
S.N.
Accelerograph
-,A40
R

661
Univers
,R ecinto
Nicaragua
de 555
Seismoscope
,S.N.
Dario
Ruben
ario

IGNA Institute
Geografico
Nacional °14'55
"W86 °08'52
"N12 ,S.N.
669
Seismoscope

FUNC Funeraria
Catolica
La 1
'86
°3 W °07
'12 N 579
S
, .N.
Seismosco pe

ENAG Escuela
Nacional
Agricultura °09'48
"W86 °08'42
N"12 670
S
, .N.
Seismoscope
G
yranaderia

NOTES
: nominal
a
have
seismoscopes
All
1.
0.75
plant
.p
s
Esso
the
at
673
S.N.
except
,weriod
has
hich
period
.a
s
0.50
of

installed
S
Accelerograph
2.
,w
202
been
had
.N.
ofhich
had
Central
Banco
floor
15th
the
on
removed
been
repairs
for
December
the
before
earthquake
,1972
.23

Table
.
3 SITES
-M
STRONG
INSTRUMENT
NOTION
,DICARAGUA
ANAGUA
1972
ECEMBER
 *

is
0 01
27
01
27

NO DOS
67 . Man
a t
2/122
PROC ΜΑΤΑ ENAG
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.23
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202
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4.SEISMOSCOPE
MTable
RESULTS
AND
CHARACTERISTICS
,DNINSTRUMENTAL
1972
ECEMBER
ICARAGUA
ANAGUA
exceeded the seismoscope recording range , these records are conservatively
interpreted as being only slightly off scale .
The predominant east -west motion recorded in previous earthquakes and
during the aftershock of March 31 , 1973 was not as pronounced in the records
obtained from the December 23 earthquake , except for the small -amplitude motion
at Procon Prestressed Concrete Plant (PROC ) , which seems to have a predominant
east -west polarity .

The four ground stations where recording plates were dislodged from the
seismoscopes are located in the southeast part of the network , but no conclusions
can be drawn from this observation .

Only two seismoscope records (Figure 13) were obtained from the March 31 ,
1973 aftershock . The motion was predominantly east - west at UNAN and barely
perceptible at ESSO .

Conclusions . The number of strong -motion instruments in Nicaragua should be

increased immediately . The earthquakes of January 1968 , January 1972 , and
December 23 , 1972 all produced a few strong -motion records , but these were
not sufficient to provide engineers or scientists enough information concerning
the performance of buildings and other structures . The number of strong -motion
instrument installations has grown rapidly in the last 10 years , but each new
destructive earthquake quickly proves that no one area has an adequate distri
bution of instruments . Because of a dense instrument network , the San Fernando
earthquake of February 9 , 1971 was well recorded (240 accelerograph records and
144 seismoscope records) ; yet no records were obtained from many areas of major
damage .
The importance of a periodic maintenance or service visit to each strong
motion instrument at intervals of less than 3 months has been documented in the
past (Maley , 1971 ) . This was borne out at Managua by the failure of two accel
erographs owing to discharged batteries . Accelerographs may record only one
destructive earthquake during a period of 20 years but must be maintained in
operating order during that entire time .
Acknowledgments . The authors acknowledge the cooperation of Ing. Humberto
Porta , Director of the Institute Geografico Nacional, in making available the
accelerograms and seismoscope records for study . The authors thank Mr . Leroy
Anstead , IAGS Representative , Nicaragua for his assistance in recovering the
records during the week following the earthquake .

References.
Brown , R . D . , Jr ., P . L . Ward , and George Plafker (1973) . " Geologic and Seis
mologic Aspects of the Managua , Nicaragua , Earthquakes of December 23 ,
1972 , " Professional Paper 838 , U . S . Department of Interior , Geologic
Survey.
Cloud , W . K . and D . E . Hudson (1961). " A Simplified Instrument for Recording
Strong-Motion Earthquakes ," Buil. Seism . Soc . Am . , 51. pp . 159- 174.

203
204
23
UN 12-
Refineria AN 31-

19/13

ESSO UNAN

1
31
, 973
Mar. ,1
31973
Mar.

earthquak
1 973
,31
March
for
records
Seismosco
13.
Figure e
pe
r
UNAN
l
ESSO ight
nd
).(,aeft
Cluff , L . S . and G . A . Carver ( 1973 ) . "Geological Observations, " Earthquake
Engineering Research Institute Reconaissance Report , Managua , Nicaragua,
Earthquake of December 23 , 1972 , pp . 5 - 20 .
Halverson , H . T . ( 1964 ) . " The Strong -Motion Accelerograph , " Technical Bulletin
13 , Teledyne Industries , Inc . , UED Earth Sciences Division , Pasadena ,
California .

Halverson , H . T . ( 1970 ) . " The SMA - 1 Strong-Motion Accelerograph , " Fourth

Symposium Earthquake Engineering, Roorke , India November 14 - 16 , 1970 ,
pp . 45 -50 .
Maley , R . P . ( 1971 ) . " A Statistical Summary of Accelerograph Performance
During the Earthquake of February 9 , 1971 , " Strong- Motion Instrumental
Data on the San Fernando Earthquake of February 9 , 1971, D , E , Hudson ,
Editor Earthquake Technology , and Seismological Field Survey , National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , U . S . Department of Commerce ,
pp . 54 -71 .
Perez , V . ( 1973) . " Time- Dependent Spectral Analysis of Four Managua Earth
quake Records , " appearing in this publication .

205
 TIME - DEPENDENT SPECTRAL ANALYSIS OF FOUR
MANAGUA EARTHQUAKE RECORDS
by

Virgilio Perez
U . S . Geological Survey
San Francisco , Ca .

Abstract. Spectral analysis as a function of time is presented for the Managua

earthquake of December 23 , 1972 and one of its immediate aftershocks , Compari
son of these earthquakes is also made with spectra of the aftershock of March 31 ,
1973 and the earthquake of January 4 , 1968 . Time -duration analysis of the spec
tral response is also presented for these records .

Introduction . Details of the history of the present Nicaraguan strong -motion

network are given in a paper by Knudson et al (1973 ) and in a paper in this
publication , also by Knudson . Pertinent instrumental data and details of the
earthquakes included in these papers will not be covered in this presentation ,

Four accelerograms were chosen for spectral analysis : the ESSO Refinery
record of December 23 , 1972 , the major aftershock at the ESSO Refinery that
occurred about 40 minutes after the main event , the aftershock of March 31 ,
1973 recorded at the Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Nicaragua ( U . N . A . N . ) , and
the Banco Central de Nicaragua basement record of January 4 , 1968 . This last
accelerogram is included for comparison with the 1972 - 1973 sequence of records .
Maximum relative velocity response spectra were calculated for all three
mutually orthogonal accelerogram components of the four records analyzed in
this paper . Since in engineering application it is convenient to use the pseudo
velocity (PSV ) and the pseudo absolute acceleration (PSA ) , which are good
approximations for velocity response and absolute acceleration response ,
respectively (Hudson , 1962) , the relative displacement (RD ) , the PSV and the
PSA were plotted versus period on tripartite logarithmic paper .
Important detailed information may be obtained by studying the response
spectrum as a function of time (Perez , 1973 ; Trifunac , 1971 ; Hays et al , 1973 ) .
In this analysis a simple harmonic oscillator acts as a narrow band filter which
amplifies the input frequencies centered around the natural period of the
oscillator with a 1 / 2 delay of the response . Consequently , any given response
can be related to the specific ground acceleration that induced the motion . The
velocity response envelope contains all information pertinent to the maximum
response and lends itself to easier analysis . A three dimensional drawing of
this relative velocity response envelope spectrum (VRES ) is shown in Figure 1 .
The top part of the figure shows the peaks and valleys of the VRES as they vary
in time , and the bottom part of the drawing shows a projection of this figure
onto a flat contour map of various levels of this response . This same contour
map appears later in Figure 4a . In all cases a 5 percent critical damping
value , pertinent from the structural engineering point of view , was chosen for
the calculations.

206
 MANAGUA , 12 /23/ 72 , SOUTH
I
N
I
M

MUDA II
en

UD
NN
SU

S
t
a
rM
lVo
W
A sA O
vI
i
v

S
OND
- TIME- SEC
SECPER
ONID2OD
S

Figure 1 . Three-dimensional projection of the velocity response envelope spectrum

(VRES ) and its corresponding contour map representing various levels of response
for the Managua earthquake of 12/23 /72, ESSO Refinery accelerogram , south direction .

The following method was used to calculate the VRES as a function of time.
The oscillator response was computed for: 42 natural undamped periods. The
periods selected were : from 0 . 2 to 1 .5 seconds at intervals of 0 . 05 seconds ;
from 1 .5 to 2 .0 seconds at every 0 . 1 seconds ; and from 2 . 0 to 4 ,0 seconds at
every 0 .2 seconds. This scheme was chosen to obtain an equitable density distri
bution at the higher frequency end of the spectrum . Note Figure 1 . For each
period the response envelope was approximated by connecting the absolute value
of all the peaks of the response curve. The envelope curve was then interpolated
at equal intervals of 0 . 1 seconds over the length of the record analyzed .
These 42 periods , with their respective VRES calculated at equal time inter
vals , generate a rectangular grid of spectral values . For visual ease , contours
of equal amplitude can be produced by plotting interpolated values from the
grid, giving a topographic map of the VRES amplitude values as a function of
time and period . An example of this mapping is shown in Figures 4a and 4b ,
with each amplitude range identified by different shading. The maximum relative
velocity response spectrum is plotted to the right of each contour map . The
topographic map shows the peaks and valleys of the VRES as a function of time
and period , while the maximum velocity response spectrum shows the silhouette
of the peaks. The input acceleration is plotted at the bottom of the contour
map to show the relationship between acceleration and the VRES as they vary in
time .
From a structural engineering point of view , it is useful to study not only
the peak response and time of occurrence , but also the time duration above a

207
given level of the response . An example of this time duration spectrum concept
is shown in Figures 6a , 6b and 6c . This spectrum is defined as the cumulative
total time duration that the VRES equaled or exceeded a given level for the
entire acceleration record . An important corollary to this concept expresses the
total time duration of different amplitude levels of the VRES in terms of the num
ber of cycles that occurred for a particular level . Due to the filtering proper
ties of the simple harmonic oscillator , the period of the velocity response of a
given oscillator is approximately equal to the natural period of the oscillator .
Therefore , by dividing the duration by the period of the oscillator , a family of
straight lines indicating the number of cycles for a given velocity response level
can be generated . An example of these families of straight lines is also shown
in Figure 6 .

To evaluate the significance of various response levels , a criteria for

threshold structural damage would be needed . Such an estimation of the capacity
of various classes of structures to safely respond to ground acceleration has
been made by Matthiesen and Rojahn ( 1972 ) . This study indicates that for
structures designed according to the current design practice , initiation of
general yielding in terms of shear and bending distortions is a function of
building period and type of structure . Their spectra indicate no simple relation
between start of general yielding and level of response, although initial building
damage can occur for velocities greater than 20 cm/ sec for some types of buildings .

Spectral analysis of the main shock ; December 23 , 1972 , 06 :29 : 42,5 GCT . The main
shock of December 23 , 1972 had a Richter magnitude of 6.2 and a maximum accelera
tion of 0.39 g . At the time of the earthquake there were in Managua a 17 - story
building ( Banco de America ) , one 15 - story building ( Banco Central de Nicaragua ) ,
about five buildings in the 7 to 9 - story range , several dozen buildings in the 3
to 6 -story range , and many buildings in the 1 to 2 - story range . A great majority
of these buildings sustained significant structural damage . Examples of this
extensive building damage can be seen in a paper by Meehan et al ( 1973 ) ,

The computed maximum relative velocity response spectra and tripartite plots
of RD , PSV and PSA spectra for the main shock are shown in Figures 2 and 3. Since
the zero damped velocity response spectrum is approximately the same as the Fourier
amplitude spectrum ( Hudson , 1962 ) , the predominant frequency content of these
accelerograms can be inferred from the zero damped velocity curve . The south
component ( Figure 2a ) shows predominant periods of about 0.5 , 1.1 and 1,7
seconds ; the east component had predominant periods in the range of 0.3 to 1.0
seconds , at 1.3 seconds and to a lesser degree in the period range 1,7 to 2.7
seconds ; the vertical component shows high velocity response for periods of 0.15
and 1.2 seconds . In terms of spectral magnitude , the response is comparable to
the El Centro, May 18 , 1940 accelerogram (Alford et al, 1951) and the Pacoima Dam
accelerogram , February 9 , 1971 ( Trifunac and Hudson , 1971 ) .

The VRES for the south direction ( Figure 4a ) shows that maximum response
occurred for a period of about 0.4 seconds soon after maximum ground accelera
tion . In contrast , the VRES in the east direction ( Figure 4b ) and in the
vertical direction ( Figure 5 ) indicate that high response is not always induced
by maximum ground acceleration . This illustrates how the VRES technique may be
used to study the relation between ground acceleration and the response to that
acceleration .

208
 RESPONSE
/VELOCITY
250 . 0 VELOCITY RESPONSE SPECTRA
ESSO REFINERY MANAGUA . NICARAGUA , 12123172

-SCMEC
SOUTH COMPONENT
0 . 2 . 5 . 10 PERCENT CRITICAL DAMPING
200 . 0 SEISMIC ENGINEERING I USGS

150 . 0

100 . 0

50 . 0

.5 1. 0 1. 5 2.0 2.5 3. 0 3. 5 4 .0
UNDAMPEONATURAL PERIOD - SECONDS
/SC-VELOCITY
RESPONSE

200 . 0 VELOCITY RESPONSE SPECTRA

MEC

ESSO REFINERY MANAGUA . NICARAGUA , 12123172

EAST COMPONENT
0 . 2 . 5 . 10 PERCENT CRITICAL DAMPING
SEISMIC ENGINEERINGIUSCS
150 . 0

0 0

500

.5 1. 0 1. 5 2.0 2 .5 3. 0 3. 5 4 . 0
UNDAMPED NATURAL PERIOD - SECONDS
RESPONSE
S/-CVELOCITY

120 . 0 VELOCITY RESPONSE SPECTRA

ESSO REFINERY MANAGUA , NICARAGUA , 12123172
MEC

VERTICAL COMPONENT
n
0 . 2 . 5 . 10 PERCENT CRITICAL DAMPING
SEISMIC ENGINEERING IUSCS
80 . 0

60

AU

20 . 0

.5 1. 0 1.5 2. 0 2. 5 3. 0 3. 5 4.0
UNDAMPEONATURAL PERIOD - SECONDS

Figure 2 . Maximum relative velocity response spectra for the Managua earthquake
of December 23, 1972 , ESSO Refinery accelerogram .

209
 RESPONSE SPECTRA
MANAGUA , MA IN SHOCK , 12123 / 7 2 RESPONSE SPECTRA
MANAGUA , MAIN SHOCK , 12123172
SOUTH COMPONENT D
ION EAST COMPONENT ISP

DIS
0 , 2 , 5 , N PERCENT CRITICAL DAMPING
O10 0 , 2L,ERSEISMIC
5AT, 10 PERCENT CRITICAL LADAMPING

PLA
1000 .0 LAERASEISMICT I CEM
fiy ENGINEERING / USGS

CEM
1000.0 E XO ENGINEERING USGS ENT
ACC - G XO

ENT
C E 1 .

CM-
SAC
n
1-0 .000 YN 10 .000
X

400 . 0 400 .0
VELOCITY
S-C/RESPONSE

VELOCITY
S-C/RESPONSE

N
200 .0
MEC

MEC
100 . 0
100 .0 100 .0
40 . 0

0 .0
0
11
10 . 0

10
0.
1
.00

2 .0

.25 . 25
.05 1. 2 10 20 .05 10 20
UNDAMPED NATURAL PERIOD - SECONDS UNDAMPED.2 NATURAL PERIOD - SECONDS
RESPONSE SPECTRA
MANAGUA , MAIN SHOCK , 12123172
VERTICAL COMPONENT
DIS

0 , 2 , SEISMIC
5 ,ON10 PERCENT CRITICAL DAMPING Figure 3. Relative displacem ent, accel
pseu
PLS

ATI ENGINEERING USGS

CEM

1000 .0 ER
EL doeration
-velocity and pseudo absolute
ENT
CM-

ACC
M

1-0 .000 response spectra for the23, 1972,

IX

400 . 0
Managua
VELOCITY

earthquak of December
S-C/RESPONSE

200 . 0
e
Esso Refinery accelerogram .
1.000
MEC

100 .00
100 .0
40 . 0

20 . 0
100

2 .0

.05 .1 2
UNDAMPED NATURAL PERIOD 10 DS 20
2 4 - SECON

210
 MANAGUA , 12/23/72 , SOUTH
UNITS - CM /SEC
U o -20; 20-40: 140-60: 60-80; 80+
UNDAMPED

.07
NATURAL
ECONDS
-SPERIOD

i
G/1-ACCELERATION

12
TIME - SECONDS
bt 16 18 20 22 24 0 VELOCITY RESPONSE
50
- CM /SEC
100
0

unshommationmmm

MANAGUA , 12 /23/72 , EAST

UNITS = CM /SEC
O 0-20; 20-40; 40-60; 604
UNDAMPED
S-NATURAL
ECONDS
PERIOD

27
G/1-ACCELERATION

10 TIME -12SECONDS14 16 18 20 22 24 0 50
VELOCITY RESPONSE - CM /SEC
100
0

Who

Figure 4 . Relative velocity response envelope spectra (VRES ) as a function of

time, 5 percent critical damping for the Managua earthquake of December 23, 1972,
ESSO Refinery , horizontal components .

211
 MANAGUA , 12/ 23/ 72 , VERTICAL
UNITS = CM /SEC
O 0-10; 10-20; 20-30; 30-40;
4 . 0

UNDAMPED
NATURAL
-SECONDS
PERIOD

1. 0
G/1-ACCELERATION

6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 0 20 40 60
TIME - SECONDS VELOCITY RESPONSE - CM /SEC
0

Figure 5 . Relative velocity response envelope spectrum (VRES) as a function of

time, 5 percent critical damping for the Managua earthquake of December 23 , 1972 ,
ESSO Refinery, vertical component.

Time duration spectra of the response envelope are shown in Figure 6 . In

the horizontal directions, levels of 40 to 60 cm / sec lasted between 4 and 8
cycles for many periods of less than one second . Although there has been no
direct correlation between duration of response and building damage , one would
suspect that these high levels of response would cause damage . Levels of 20 to
40 cm / sec lasted between 8 to 16 cycles and are within a threshold of damage as
indicated by Matthiesen and Rojahn (ibid ) . The severe damage to small buildings
experienced in Managua could be inferred from these two levels of response ,
although type of construction and building age must have also played a major
part in the damage caused by the earthquake .
The vertical component (Figure 5 ) was drawn using contour levels at every
10 cm / sec increments , whereas the horizontal components were drawn with incre
ments of 20 cm / sec of response . This provides more detail of the VRES behavior
in the small amplitude vertical direction . High levels of response occurred at
periods of 0 . 15 seconds , as seen in Figure 2c , but are completely missed by the
VRES and the time duration plots , since these two spectra were calculated using
an initial period of 0 . 2 seconds . Levels of response of 20 to 30 cm / sec for
periods less than one second lasted less than one cycle and two to four cycles
for periods between 1.0 and 3. 0 seconds .
Since high levels of response occasionally occur for periods less than 0 . 2
seconds (see Figure 2c ) , the following is an explanation of why a 0 . 2 second
period and not a shorter period was chosen as the initial starting period , One

212
 MANAGUA , 12/23/72 , SOUTH MANAGUA , 12/23/72 , EAST

UNITS = CM/SEC UNITS = CM /SEC

UNDAMPED
UNDAMPED

NATURAL
- ECONDS
NATURAL
-SECONDS

20-40 ; 40-60 ; 60-80; 80+

PERIOD
20-40 ; 40-60 ; 60+
PERIOD

4.0 4.0
c1 ycle

S
es

cycle
cl

b
cy

3.0 3.0

les
4 cy

Səz
es
cl
cy
2.0 2.0
es
8 cyc
l les
cyc

1.0 1.0
16 cycles 16 cycles

7 14 7 14

TIME DURATION SECONDS TIME DURATION SECONDS

MANAGUA , 12/23/72 , VERTICAL

Figure 6. Time duration spectra of the
UNITS = CM/SEC response envelope , 5 percent critical
UNDAMPED

dampling for the Managua earthquake of

NATURAL
-SECONDS

30-40 ; 40+ December 23 , 1972 , ESSO Refinery

PERIOD

10-20 ; 20-30 ;
es
cycle

4.0 accelerogram .
cl
2cy

es
cl
cy
4

3.0

les
cyc
2.0

es
1.0 16 cycl

12 18

TIME DURATION SECONDS

213
of the first considerations in choosing the interpolation increment for the
response envelope depends on the smallest period being analyzed . The response
of the oscillator normally has a period equal to the period of the oscillator .
That is , the response of a 0 . 1 oscillator will have a period of about 0 . 1
seconds. An interpolation of less than 0 . 1 seconds would be indicated for a
good representation of this response envelope. But this shorter interpolation
increment would increase the rectangular grid needed for plotting subroutines -
of the contour maps . This increases both the computer storage capacity and the
cost of computer time needed for this type of analysis . Since the maximum
response spectra covers the period range of 0 . 1 to 0 . 2 seconds , predominant
frequencies , if any , can give an idea of the response behavior . For example ,
Figure 20 shows that the predominant period is 0 . 15 seconds but that the response
is quite low for periods of 0 . 1 seconds . This sheds no light on the history of
the response for oscillators with periods less than 0 . 2 seconds , but does give
maximum response for that period range .
The spectral analysis of the ESSO Refinery accelerogram seems to correlate
well with damage observed . This is indicated by the duration response levels
within damage range for small buildings .
Spectral analysis of the major aftershock : December 23 , 1972 , 07 : 19 : 40 . 0 GCT .
Spectral analysis was performed on all three acceleration components of this
magnitude 5 .5 aftershock . The maximum velocity response spectra , and tripartite
plots of RD , PSV and PSA spectra , are shown in Figures 7 and 8 . The horizontal
components (Figures 7a and 7b ) show predominant periods of about 0 . 4 , 1 . 0 and
1 . 7 seconds . The amplitudes in the south and east directions are less but still
comparable to the main shock . The vertical component has predominant periods
of 0 . 2 and 1 . 1 seconds and its amplitudes are about one- half that of the main
shock .

The VRES calculated for the south , east and vertical components of the
major aftershock are shown in Figures 9 and 10 respectively . Maximum response
was induced by maximum acceleration in the south direction (Figure 9a ) but not
in the east (Figure 9b ) or vertical directions (Figure 10 ) . The south component
has three cycles of relatively high ground acceleration with a periodicity of
about 0 . 4 seconds beginning about 1 . 4 seconds after the start of the after
shock . This acceleration induced maximum response near 0 . 4 seconds with rapid
attenuation both above and below this period . In the east direction , maximum
acceleration induced velocities of 40 to 60 cm / sec at approximately the 1 . 8
second period , but it was 3 . 2 seconds into the record when a relatively well
defined acceleration pulse induced maximum response above the 60 cm / sec level .
It should be noted that the first half cycle of this pulse has a period of about
1 . 8 seconds . This response attenuates very slowly and goes under the 20 to 40
cm / sec level about ten seconds later .
Figure 11 shows the time duration for the three components of the major
aftershock . It would be difficult to estimate the damage caused by this shock .
As can be seen in Figures lla and 1lb , high levels of response above 40 cm / sec
lasted less than two cycles for almost all periods . The vertical direction
(Figure 11c ) shows low levels of response over a period range of 0 . 9 to 1 . 6 sec
onds. The conditions of small buildings after the main shock undoubtedly played

214
 VELOCITY
S/-CRESPONSE
120 . 0 VELOCITY RESPONSE SPECTRA
MANAGUA , MAJOR AFTERSHOCK . 12123172

MEC
SOUTH COMPONENT
100 . 0
0 . 2 . 5 .10 PERCENT CRITICAL DAMPING
SEISMIC ENGINEERINGIUSGS

600

40 . 0

20 .

5 1 . 0 1. 5 2. 0 2. 5 3. 0 3. 5 4. 0
UNDAMPEO NATURAL PERIOD - SECONDS
VELOCITY
S/-CRESPONSE

160 . 0 VELOCITY RESPONSE SPECTRA

MANAGUA ,MAJOR AFTERSHOCK , 12123172
ilEC

EAST COMPONENT
0 . 2 . 5 . 10 PERCENT CRITICAL DAMPING
SEISMIC ENGINEERINGIUSCS
120 .
100 . 0

80.00

20. 0

.5 1 . 0 1 . 5 2 . 0 2. 5 3. 0 3. 5 4 . 0
0

UND AMPED NATURAL PERIOD - SECONDS

S/-CRESPONSE
VELOCITY

50 . 0 VELOCITY RESPONSE SPECTRA

MEC

MANAGUA ,MAJOR AFTERSHOCK , 12123 / 7 2

VERTICAL COMPONENT
0 . 2 . 5 . 10 PERCENT CRITICAL DAMPING
SEISMIC ENGINEERINGUSCS

30 .

20

10

. 5 1 .0 1. 5 2 . 0 2 . 5 3 . 0 3. 5
UNDAMPED NATURAL PERIOD - SECONDS

Figure 7 . Maximum relative velocity response spectra for the Managua major
aftershock of December 23, 1972 , ESSO Refinery accelerogram .

215
 RESPONSE SPECTRA RESPONSE SPECTRA
MANAGUA , MAJOR AFTERSHOCK , 12123172 MANAGUA ,MAJOR AFTERSHOCK , 12123 / 12
SOUTH COMPONENT EAST COMPONENT

DI
DIS
0 . 2 .SEISMIC
5 .ON10 PERCENT CRITICAL DAMPING 0 , 2 . SEISMIC
5 , 10 PERCENT CRITICAL DAMPING

SP
ON
I

PLA

LA
LE ERAT

TI
ENGINEERING / USGS
MIX X ENGINEERING USGS

CE
1000.0 NĂK

CEM

RA
1000. 0

ME
LE
ET

NT
CM-
C

CN-
CE
400.0 AC

AC
10 .000

-
644 400 . 0
/SVELOCITY
RESPONSE

RESPONSE
/SVELOCITY

000
OT'
200 .0 200 . 0

00

000
-CMEC

-CMEC
01

1
100 .0 100 . 0
00 . 0

00' 01
00
40 . 0 40. 0
1
20 . 0 20 . 0
.010

10
.0

100
.25 .05 . 1 .2 .4 12 . 25 .05
10
UNDAMPED NATURAL PERIOD - SECONDS
20
UNDAM 2 . 4 - SECON
.4 AL PERIOD
.1 PED.2 NATUR 10
DS
20

RESPONSE SPECTRA
MANAGUA ,MAJOR AFTERSHOCK , 12123172
VERTICAL COMPONENT
DIS

N PERCENT CRITICAL DAMPING

0 , 2 , 5TI, O10
PLA

SEISMIC
A ENGINEERING USGS
CEM

1000. 0 R
ELE Figure 8. Relative displacement, pseudo
N

ENT

C
CM-

KA C
velocity and pseudo absolute accelera
N

10 .000
400 .0
tion response spectra for the Managua
RESPONSE
VELOCITY
-CMISEC

200 . 0 0
major aftershock of December 23 , 1972,
100. 0
1 .00
ESSO Refinery accelerogram .
0.0
.0
40 . 0

20. 0
1
00

.25 .05 . .2 NATURAL

4 1 PERIOD
2 4 - SECONDS
10 20
UNDAMPED

216
 MANAGUA , MAJOR AFTERSHOCK , 12/23/72 , SOUTH
UNITS - CM/SEC

0-20 ; 20-40; W 40+

4.0 4,0
SUNDAMPED
NATURAL
- ECONDS
PERIOD

a 3.0
3.0

2.0 2.0

1.0 1.0
ACCELERATION

0
2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 0 20 40 60
TIME - SECONDS VELOCITY RESPONSE - CM/SEC
-G/10

Moslemasman

MANAGUA , MAJOR AFTERSHOCK , 12/23/72 , EAST

UNITS - CM/SEC

0-20; 20-40 ; 40-60 ; 60+

4.0 4.0
UNDAMPED
-NATURAL
ECONDS
SPERIOD

3.0 b 3.0

2.0 2.0

1.0 1.0
ACCELERATION

0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 0 50 100
TIME - SECONDS VELOCITY RESPONSE - CM/SEC
-GA0

0
Muhamhnammnamummum

-3

Figure 9. Relative velocity response envelope spectra ( VRES ) as a function of

time , 5 percent critical damping for the Managua major aftershock of December
23 , 1972 , ESSO Refinery , horizontal components .

217
 MANAGUA , MAJOR AFTERSHOCK , 12 23 /72 VERTICAL
UNITS - CM /SEC

O 0-10; 10 +
4 . 0

UNDAMPED
-NATURAL
ECONDS
SPERIOD
3 .0
3 .0

2 0
ACCELERATION

13 14 15 16 0 10 20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
TIME - SECONDS VELOCITY RESPONSE - CM /SEC
-G/10

o Syrawa lombahan mun

Figure 10 . Relative velocity response envelope spectrum (VRES ) as a function of

time, 5 percent critical damping for the Managua major aftershock of December
23, 1972 , ESSO Refinery , vertical component .

a large role in the susceptibility to damage by lower velocity levels . For

periods of two seconds or less , the response of 20 -40 cm / sec existed for most
periods lasting four cycles or less and could have caused further damage to
already weakened structures with shorter natural period characteristics.
Although the maximum horizontal acceleration and maximum response for the
main shock and this aftershock are comparable in amplitude , a comparison of the
time duration of both the low and high levels of response shows there are some
differences . These differences could be explained by the fewer high accelera
tion peaks in the aftershock record , thus allowing the response to attenuate
more rapidly.
Spectral analysis of the Managua aftershock , March 31 , 1973, 20 : 13 GMT. Velocity
response spectra and tripartite plots of RD , PSV and PSA spectra of the March 31
aftershock are shown in Figures 12 and 13. The north - south component shows a
predominant period of 0 . 2 seconds (Figure 12a ); the east-west component shows a
predominant period of 0 .4 seconds (Figure 12b ); the vertical component has pre
dominant periods of 0 . 15 and 0 .4 seconds (Figure 12c ) , The response spectra is
comparable in magnitude to the spectra of the ESSO Refinery aftershock of
December 23 except that dominant periods are restricted to a narrow band between
0 . 1 to 0 .4 seconds, whereas the ESSO Refinery aftershock has predominant periods
distributed over nearly 2 seconds .
The VRES, Figures 14 and 15 , show that maximum response was induced by maxi
mun acceleration in all three directions . The east -west component had levels of
response greater than 20 cm / sec in only the first 3. 3 seconds of the accelerogram .

218
 MANAGUA , MAJOR AFTERSHOCK , 12/23/72 , SOUTH MANAGUA , MAJOR AFTERSHOCK , 12/23/72 , EAST

UNITS = CM/SEC UNITS = CM/SEC

UNDAMPED
NATURAL
- ECONDS
-NATURAL

60+

PERIOD
20-40 ; 40-60;
ECONDS

20-40 ; 40+
DAMPED
PERIOD

4,0 4.0

cI ycle
SUN

les
а

c2 yc
, e
cl

3.0 3.0
cI y

es
cl
cy
s

4
c le
2 cy
2.0 2.0

les
le s 8 cyc
4 cyc
1.0 1.0
8 cycles

2 4 6 4 8 12 14

TIME DURATION SECONDS TIME DURATION SECONDS

MANAGUA , MAJOR AFTERSHOCK , 12/23/72 , VERTICAL

UNITS = CM /SEC Figure 11. Time duration spectra of

the response envelope , 5 percent cri
UNDAMPED

tical damping for the Managua major

NATURAL

10+
-SECONDS

aftershock of December 23 , 1972 , ESSO

PERIOD

4.0
Refinery accelerogram .
e

3.0
l
cyc

es
cl
cy
2

2.0
les
4 cyc

s
1.0 8 cycle

2 4 6 8

TIME DURATION - SECONDS

219
 VELOC
S/-CRESPO ITY
MEC NSE
VELOCITY RESPONSE SPECTRA
MANAGUA , U . N . A . N . , 3 / 31 / 73
N - S COMPONENT
0 . 2 , 5 , 10 PERCENT CRITICAL DAMPING
SEISMIC ENGINEERING TUSGS

.5 1. 0 1. 5 2. 0 2. 5 3.0 3. 5 4. 0
UNDAMPED NATURAL PERIOD - SECONDS
S/-CRESPONSE
VELOCITY

200 . 0 VELOCITY RESPONSE SPECTRA

MEC

MANAGUA , U . N . A . N . , 3731173
E - W COMPONENT
0 . 2 . 5 , 10 PERCENT CRITICAL DAMPING
SEISMIC ENGINEERING USGS
150 . 0

0 0 . 0

50 . 0

0 .5 1. 0 1 . 5 2 . 0 2 . 5 3. 0 3.5 4.0
UNDAMPED NATURAL PERIOD - SECONDS
VELOCITY
RESPONSE

VELOCITY RESPONSE SPECTRA

/S-CMEC

MANAGUA , U . N . A . N . , 3 / 31173
0

VERTICAL COMPONENT
0 , 2 , 5 , 10 PERCENT CRITICAL DAMPING
0

SEISMIC ENGINEERING / USGS

0
0
0
0
0
0

.5 1. 0 1. 5 2. 0 2. 5 3. 0 3. 5 4.0
UNDAMPED NATURAL PERIOD - SECONDS

Figure 12 . Maximum relative velocity response spectra for the Managua aftershock
of March 31, 1973, U .N . A . N . accelerogram .

220
 RESPONSE
MANAGUA , U . N . A SPECTRA
RESPONSE SPECTRA
. N . , 3 /D31/73 MANAGUAE - ,W U .COMPONENT
N . A . N . , 3 / 31173
N - S COMPONENT IS

DIS
ION
N PERCENT CRITICAL PLADAMPING
0 . 2 . SEISMIC
5T.IO10 0 , 2 , 5 , 10 PERCENT CRITICAL DAMPING

PLA
RAT
CE SEISMIC
XX ENGINEERING USGS
ENGINEERING / USGS

CEM
ELE
1000 .0 RA MEN C 1000 .0
LE

ENT
ACC
T- M

CM-
CCE

-G
A 0 10 .000
11 .000
400 .0 400 .0 X
RESPONSE

/VELOCITY
/VELOCITY

RESPONSE
200 . 0 200 .0
0
S-CMEC

S-CMEC
.100
100 . 0 100 . 0
100 . 0

0
00
40 .0 40 .0
20 . 0 20 .0
10 . 0

10 . 0

10.
0
2 .0

. 05 2 10 20 . 25 .05 .1 .2 .4 1 2 4 10 20
UNDAMPED. 2 NATURAL
.4
PERIOD - SECONDS UNDAMPED NATURAL PERIOD - SECONDS
RESPONSE
MANAGUA , U . N . A SPECTRA
. N . , 3 / 31173
N VERTICAL COMPONENT
DIS

O
0 . 2 E.RSEISMIC
A5T. 10 PERCENT CRITICAL DAMPING
I
PLA

ENGINEERING / USGS
CEM

1000. 0 CEL
Figure 13. Relative absolute accelera
velocity and pseudo displacement,
ENT

AC pseudo
CM-

-G
10 .000
400 .01A X
SRESPONSE
/VELOCITY

tion response spectra for the Managua

200 . 0 aftershock
accelerogramof. March 31, 1973, U.N.A.N.
-CMEC

100 . 0
100
.0
40 . 0
20 . 0
.010

. 25 05 4 10 20
1 .2
UNDAMPED 2
NATURAL1 PERIOD - SECONDS

221
 MANAGUA , U.N.A.N , 3/31/73 , E - W
UNITS = CM /SEC
0-10; 10-20; 20-30 ; 30-40 ; 40-50
50-60: 60-70 70-80 80-90 : 90+
4.0 4.0

SUNDAMPED
NATURAL
a
- ECONDS

3.0 3.0
PER
TOD

2.0 2.0

1.0 10
ACCELERATION

0 0
5 6 8 9 10 12 0 50 100

7
0
3

2 VELOCITY RESPONSE - CM /SEC

TIME SECONDS
-G:10

m www
Mu

MANAGUA , U.N.A.N. , 3,31 /73 , N.S

UNITS = CM /SEC

0-10, 10 20; 11120

20-30 , 30+
4.0 4.0
UNDAMPED

b
NATURAL
.SECONDS
PERIOD

3.0 30

2.0 2.0

10 1.0
ACCELERATION

0
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 120 20 40
TIME SECONDS VELOCITY RESPONSE CM SEC
-G/10

warmenmmmm
underwun

Figure 14. Relative velocity response envelope spectra ( VRES ) as a function of

time , 5 percent critical damping for the Managua aftershock of March 31 , 1973 ,
U.N.A.N. accelerogram , horizontal components .

222
 MANAGUA U.N.A.N. , 3/31/73 , VERTICAL
UNITS = CM /SEC

O 0-10 -10-20: \ '20+

4.0 4.0

UNDAMPED SECONDS
3.0 3.0
NATURAL
PERIOD

2.0
2.0

1.0 1.0
ACCELERATION

0 0
2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 11 12 0 10 20 30
TIME - SECONDS VELOCITY RESPONSE - CM /SEC
-G/10

mann

Figure 15. Relative velocity response envelope spectrum ( VRES ) as a function of

time , 5 percent critical damping for the Managua aftershock of March 31 , 1973 ,
U.N.A.N. accelerogram , vertical component.

The north - south and vertical components had this same level during the first two
seconds . Response attenuation occurs much faster than in the two ESSO Refinery
accelerograms .

The 10-20 m / sec VRES level exhibits a periodic behavior for periods greater
than two seconds in the east -west and vertical directions (Figures 14a and 15 ) .
This periodicity is a result of the approximation of the envelope of the response .
As mentioned previously , the response is approximated by linearly connecting the
points of absolute values of the peaks . For the longer periods , high frequency
content in the response may cause the resulting envelope to be of higher frequen
cies and not of the period being analyzed . This modified " envelope" represents
closely the actual response and not the true envelope . For example , Figure 14a
shows a periodicity of about 2 seconds for the 4 - second period . This 2 - second
periodicity is equal to the half cycle of the 4 - second period . A better approxi
mation to the envelope of the response would be one that filters out frequencies
appreciably higher than the one being studied , without altering either the phase
or the magnitude of the response of a given oscillator . That refinement has not
been developed in the VRES analysis presented in this paper .

The time duration spectra , Figure 16 , shows high response duration for
periods of about 0.2 to 0.4 seconds in all directions . The east -west component
shows levels of 20-30 cm / sec lasting up to eight cycles for a period of 0.4 sec
onds . The effect of the response envelope approximation on the lower response
levels for the longer periods is to reduce the time duration by a factor of two

223
 MANAGUA , U.N.A.N. , 3/31/73 , N -S MANAGUA , U.N.A.N. , 3/31/73 , E - W
UNITS = CM /SEC UNITS = CM /SEC
10-20 ; 20-30 ; 30-40 ; 40 50 ;

UNDAMPED
UNDAMPED

50-60 ; -60-70 ; 70-80 ;

NATURAL
30+ 80-90 ;
NATURAL

10 -20 ; 20-30 ;

- ECONDS
-SECONDS

90+

PERIOD
PERIOD

4.0 4.0

e
cl
a

cy
b

3.0 3.0
es
e
cl
cl

2 cy
cy
1

2.0 2.0

les
2 cyc les
4 cyc
1.0 s 1.0
4 cycle
8 cycles
8 cycles 16 cycles

0
2 2 4

TIME DURATION - SECONDS TIME DURATION - SECONDS

MANAGUA , U.N.A.N. , 3/31/73 , VERTICAL

UNITS CM /SEC
Figure 16. Time duration spectra of the
UNDAMPED

20+ response envelope , 5 percent critical

NATURAL

10-20 ;
- ECONDS
PERIOD

damping for the Managua aftershock of

4.0
March 31 , 1973 , U.N.A.N. accelerogram .
S

e
ycl
Ic

3.0

2.0
les
2 cyc

s
1.0 4 cycle .

8 cycles

TIME DURATION - SECONDS

224
at most in this particular case . For example , the 10-20 cm / sec level last
appears at the 8 - second mark in the east - west direction ( Figure 14a ) for the
4 - second period oscillator . Therefore , the duration at this level would be no
more than 8 seconds , or the equivalent of a two - cycle duration . The time dura
tion spectra , Figure 16b , shows this duration to be a little over one cycle .

The U.N.A.N. accelerogram contained large acceleration pulses . The effect

of these pulses in terms of maximum response or in terms of time duration of
various levels of response is not comparable to the main shock of December 23 ,
1972 , which had maximum acceleration pulses about two - thirds of the U.N.A.N.
accelerogram .

As illustrated in a previous paper by Perez ( 1973 ) , high accelerations do

not necessarily have great effect on the response when they are relatively non
sinusoidal and of short duration . Large pulses of short duration introduce high
frequency content in the response , but they become significant only if they are
in phase with the motion of the oscillator . If these high frequencies are out
of phase , they tend to induce destructive interference and , therefore , they may
even diminish the amplitude of the response . A more detailed spectral analysis
as a function of time for each individual response would be necessary to help
understand why these high accelerations that appear in the U.N.A.N. record do
not induce greater amplitudes in the response spectra or a longer time duration
of the response .

Spectral analysis of the Managua earthquake of January 4 , 1968 , 10 : 03: 56.5 GCT.
The January 4 , 1968 accelerogram from the basement of the Banco Central de
Nicaragua was the first important record obtained from the present strong -motion
network . This earthquake had a Richter magnitude of 4.5 and a maximum accelera
tion of 0.13 g . Response spectra plus time - dependent spectral analysis of this
accelerogram are being presented here as background to the earthquake of December
23 , 1972 and its aftershocks .

Maximum velocity spectra and tripartite plots of RD , PSV and PSA are shown
in Figures 17 and 18. The N 84.5 W component has predominant periods of 0.2 and
0.4 seconds ; the S 0.5.5 W component has predominant periods of 0.2 , 0.35 and 1.7
seconds ; the vertical component has predominant periods of 0.3 , 0.6 and 1.2 sec
onds . The horizontal and vertical components have spectral amplitudes approxi
mately one - fourth and one - eighth , respectively , of those of the main shock of
December 23 .

Plots of VRES for all three components are shown in Figures 19 and 20 .
Maximum response is related to maximum acceleration in the horizontal directions
but not so in the vertical direction . Since the spectral amplitudes are rela
tively small , increments of 5 cm/ sec were used to obtain a more detailed behavior
of the VRES . Even at these low amplitude levels, the time- duration spectra for
the horizontal components (Figures 21a and 21b ) exhibit about five cycles dura
tion for amplitude levels 10-15 cm/ sec for periods of about 0,4 seconds . The
vertical component had levels of response less than 10-15 cm/ sec for only a few
periods . Although one would probably infer that damage did not result from these
levels of response and their respective time durations , certain areas of Managua
experienced severe damage . In a preliminary report , Algermissen and Brown ( 1968 )

225
 /SVELOCITY
RESPONSE
50 . VELOCITY RESPONSE SPECTRA

-CMEC
MANAGUA , BANCO CENTRAL , BSMT . 1 / 4 / 68
N 84 . 5 W COMPONENT
0 , 2 , 5 , 10 PERCENT CRITICAL DAMPING
SEISMIC ENGINEERING

0 .

20 .

10 .

.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

UNDAMPED NATURAL PERIOD - SECONDS
3. 0 3. 5 4.0
RESPONSE
/SVELOCITY

40 . 0 VELOCITY RESPONSE SPECTRA

-CMEC

MANAGUA , BANCO CENTRAL , BSMT, 11 4 / 68

S 05 . 5 W COMPONENT
0 , 2 , 5 , 10 PERCENT CRITICAL DAMPING
SEISMIC ENGINEERING

15 .

.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2. 5 3.0 3. 5 4. 0

UNDAMPED NATURAL PERIOD - SECONOS
RESPONSE
/SVELOCITY

14 . 0 VELOCITY RESPONSE SPECTRA

-CMEC

MANAGUA , BANCO CENTRAL ,BSMT, 174/68

VERTICAL COMPONENT
0 . 2 . 5 , 10 PERCENT CRITICAL DAMPING
SEISMIC ENGINEERING

.. 5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3. 0 3. 5 4.0

UNDAMPED NATURAL PERIOD - SECONOS

Figure 17 . Maximum relative velocity response spectra for the Managua earthquake
of January 4, 1968, Banco Central de Nicaragua, basement.

226
 RESPONSE SPECTRA RESPONSE SPECTRA
MANACUA , BANCO CENTRAL, BSMT.
D 1 / 4 / 68 MANAGUA . BANCO CENTRAL ,BSMT, 1 / 4 / 68
N 84 . 5 W COMPONENT
I DIS
S 05 . 5 W COMPONENT
CRITICALSPLDAMPING
ION
0 . 2 . SEISMIC
5 . 10 PERCENT ACE 0 , 2 . 5 I,ON10 PERCENT CRITICAL PLDAMPING
RAT
ENGINEERING USGS ENGINEERING USGS ACE
1000 . 0 ELE MEN 1000 .0 ERSEISMIC
AT MEN C
C
AV T - CB 1000. X 10 .X000
CC EL T- M
(AC

-G
10 .000 -
400 . 0 400 .0

/VELOCITY
RESPONSE
N
RESPONSE
/VELOCITY

200.0 200 . 0
000

S-CMEC
00
S-CMEC

1.0
100 . 0 100 . 0

100
.0

0.
0
40 . 0 40 .0
20 .0 20 . 0
0. 1
10 . 0
10.
0

1
0. 0
FO

20

1 .0

25 . 25 .05
. 05UND AMPED. 2 1 2 10 20 1 2 .4 1 210 20
NATURAL PERIOD - SECONDS UNDAMPED NATURAL PERIOD - SECONDS
RESPONSE SPECTRA
BANCO CENTRAL
MANAGUA ,VERTICAL , BSMT. 1 / 4 /68
COMPONENT
ION

5 , 10 PERCENT
0 . 2 . SEISMIC CRITICAL NDAMPING
ISP
RAT

ENGINEERING USGS
LAC

A
ELE

1000 .0 VI
EME

pseudo displacement,
velocity18.andRelative
Figure pseudo
ACC

NT
CI-
-G

400 .0 10 .000 absolute accelera

tion responseof spectra the Managua
for, 1968,
RESPONSE
S/-CVELOCITY

200 . 0
sett earthquake January 4 Banco
Central de Nicaragua , basement .
MEC

100 .0
x1
00.0

40 . 0
20 .0
10 .0
10.
0

2 .0
1 .0

1. 2
.05UNDAMPED 10 20
NATURAL PERIOD - SECONDS

227
 MANAGUA , BANCO CENTRAL , BSMT , 1/4/68 , N 845 W
UNITS - CM /SEC

05. $ 10, , 10-15, 15-20, 20+

4.0 4.0

UNDAMPED
NATURAL
-SECONDS
PERIOD a
3.0 3.0

2.0 2.0

ber
1.0 1.0
Do
gs
ACCELERATION

0
2 3 5 6 7 8 10 11 12 0 10 20 30
TIME - SECONDS VELOCITY RESPONSE - CM /SEC
-G/10

0
hom

MANAGUA , BANCO CENTRAL , BSMT , 1/4/68 , S 05.5 W

UNITS - CM/SEC

0-5; 5-10: 1110-15; 15+

4.0 4.0
UNDAMPED
SNATURAL
- ECONDS
PEROD

3.0 3.0

b
2.0 2.0

1.0 10
DES
ACCELERATION

0 0
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 0 10 20
TIME - SECONDS VELOCITY RESPONSE - CM /SEC
.G/10

Mammaren

Figure 19. Relative velocity response envelope spectra ( VRES ) as a function of

time , 5 percent critical damping for the Managua earthquake of January 4 , 1968 ,
Banco Central de Nicaragua , basement , horizontal components .

228
 MANAGUA , BANCO CENTRAL , BSMT . 1/4/68 , VERTICAL
UNITS - CM /SEC

0.5; 5+
4.0 4.0

UNDAMPED
NATURAL
- ECONDS
SPERIOD

3.0 3.0

2.0 2.0

1.0 1.0
ACCELERATON

0
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 1 12 0 5 10
TIME - SECONDS VELOCITY RESPONSE - CM SEC
-G/10

0 cam mur
Maharana
hurtel phim

Figure 20. Relative velocity response envelope spectrum ( VRES ) as a function of

time , 5 percent critical damping for the Managua earthquake of January 4 , 1968 ,
Banco Central de Nicaragua , basement , vertical component .

reported light damage throughout the city , with serious damage concentrated in
the Colonia Centroamericana and the Colonia 14 de Noviembre areas . Their study
indicated that the epicenter of the shock was located in the vicinity of the
Colonia Centroamericana - Colegio Teresiano region . Geologic conditions may have
also contributed to the damage . They reported that the heavily damaged areas
were underlain to depths of more than a hundred meters by water - borne and air
borne volcanic debris . Banco Central de Nicaragua is located about 4.5 kilo
meters from the Colonia Centroamericana region . Attenuation of ground accelera
tion over such distance in an earthquake of this magnitude is to be expected .
The light damage in the vicinity of the accelerograph site falls within acceptable
expectations as inferred from spectral analysis .

Conclusions. Maximum response spectra for all four Managua records indicate main
predominant frequency content in the period range of 0.2 to 0.5 seconds . Other
less prominent amplitudes occur at approximate periods of 1.0 and 1.7 seconds .
The frequency content of these four accelerograms indicates that damage to small
buildings would be expected . This correlates well with the damage to sma 11
buildings experienced in Managua during these seismic events ,

Time spectral analysis of the four records for the Managua earthquakes show
that maximum relative velocity response for 5 percent critical damping is not
necessarily caused by maximum acceleration . Each record must be studied for its
particular relationship between maximum response and maximum acceleration .

229
 MANAGUA , 1/4/68 , N 84.5 W MANAGUA , 1/4/68 , S 05.5 W
BANCO CENTRAL , BASEMENT BANCO CENTRAL , BASEMENT
UNITS = CM /SEC UNITS = CM /SEC

UNDAMPED
UNDAMPED

NATURAL
NATURAL

5 -10 ; 10-15 ;

- ECONDS
5-10 ; 10-15 ; 15-20 ; 20+ 15 +
- ECONDS

PERIOD
PERIOD

4.0 4.0

: e
cI ycl
S
S

a b

e
cl

es
cI y

cl
3.0 30

cy
2
s
cle
2 cy les
4 cyc
2.0 2.0

les
4 cyc
es
8 cycl
1.0 1.0
8 cycles
Home 16 cycles

0 0
2 4 6 0 2 4 6 8 10

TIME DURATION - SECONDS TIME DURATION - SECONDS

MANAGUA , 1/4/68 , VERTICAL

BANCO CENTRAL , BASEMENT

UNITS = CM /SEC Figure 21. Time duration spectra of the

response envelope , 5 percent critical
UNDAMPED
NATURAL

damping for the Managua earthquake of

- ECONDS

5+
PERIOD

4.0 January 4 , 1968 , Banco Central de

Nicaragua , basement accelerogram .
S

3.0
le
c
cI y

2.0
les
2 cyc

1.0 s
4 cycle

0
2

TIME DURATION - SECONDS

230
Time duration spectra of the response envelope of the December 23 , 1972 main
shock indicate that in the horizontal directions , levels of 40 to 60 cm / sec
lasted between 4 and 8 cycles for many periods of less than one second . For
this same period range , levels of 20 to 40 cm / sec lasted between 8 and 16 cycles .
Studies by Matthiesen and Rojahn (1972) indicate that some of these levels are
within threshold damage of certain types of buildings . Maximum response spectra
and time duration spectra do correlate well with damage observed in Managua .
Acknowledgments . I am indebted to R . P . Maley and G . Converse for their critical
reading of this manuscript and their most helpful suggestions .
References .

Alford , J . L . , G . W . Housner and R . R . Martel ( 1951 ) . " Spectral Analysis of Strong

Motion Earthquakes, " California Institute of Technology , Pasadena, California .
Algermissen , S. T. and R . D. Brown (1968). " Summary Statement on Managua Earthquake
of 4 January 1968, " Preliminary Report.
Hudson , D . E . (1962) . " Some Problems in the Application of Spectrum Techniques to
Strong -Motion Earthquake Analysis ," Bull. Seism . Soc . Am . , 52 , pp . 417 -430 .

Hays, C . F . , T . J . Bennet and M . D . Brumley ( 1973) . " Time Dependent Spectral Analysis
of Ground Motion , " Environmental Research Corporation , Las Vegas , Nevada ,
Knudson , C . F . , V . Perez and R . B . Matthiesen (1973 ) . " Strong -Motion Instrumental
Records Managua Earthquake of 23 December 1972 , " to be published in the Bull.
Seism . Soc . Am . , Special Edition on the Managua Earthquake.
Knudson , C . F . (1973) . " Accelerograph and Seismoscope Records from Managua ,
Nicaragua Earthquake , " appearing in this publication ,
Lander , J . F . (1968) . " Seismological Notes - January and February 1968 , N Bull .
Seism . Soc. Am . , 58 , p . 1705 .
Meehan , J . F . , H . J . Degenkolb , D . F . Moran and K . V . Steinbrugge (1973) . " Engineering
Aspects , " Earthquake Engineering Research Institute Reconnaissance Report ,
pp . 27 - 214 .
Perez , V . ( 1973) . " Velocity Response Envelope Spectrum as a Function of Time
for the Pacojma Dam , San Fernando Earthquake of Feb . 9 , 1971, " Bull. Seism .
Soc . Am . , 63 , pp . 299 - 313 .
Matthiesen , R . B . and C . Rojahn ( 1972) . " Techniques for Seismic Zoning - Structural
Considerations , " Proceedings of the International Conference on Microzonation
for Safer Construction Research and Applications , Sponsored by NSF , UNESCO ,
Univ . of Wash . , ASCE and AAM , Seattle , Wash , Vol II , pp . 929 - 942 .
Trifunac , M . D . (1971 ) . " Response Envelope Spectrum and Interpretation of Strong
Earthquake Ground Motion , " Bull . Seism . Soc . Am . , 61 , pp . 343- 356 .
Trifunac , M . D . and D . E . Hudson (1971) . " Analysis of the Pacoima Dam Accelerogram
San Fernando , California , Earthquake of 1971 , " Bull . Seism . Am . , pp . 1393 - 1411 .

231
 SOIL CONDITIONS AND LOCAL SOIL EFFECTS DURING THE
MANAGUA EARTHQUAKE OF DECEMBER 23 , 1972
by

Julio E . Valera
Dames & Moore
San Francisco , California

INTRODUCTION

The earthquake of December 23 , 1972 caused widespread destruction to the city

of Managua , Nicaragua . Although the earthquake was only of moderate size with
a Richter Magnitude of 5 . 6 and a duration of strong shaking of approximately
six seconds , it resulted in substantial loss of life (approximately 11 ,000
people were killed ) and extensive damage to most of the buildings situated
within the city of Managua . This has been attributed to the combined effects
of the earthquake having a shallow focus , 5 kilometers below the city , and
buildings constructed with little or no earthquake resistance .

Recent studies have shown that the intensity of ground shaking and their da
maging effects on structures may be greatly influenced by the characteristics
of the local soil conditions (Seed et al . 1970 ) . However , personal observa
tions of the damage within the city of Managua indicates that the local soil
conditions did not play an important role in the damage distribution .

At the time of the earthquake there was no readily available information des
cribing the general subsurface soil conditions in the city of Managua . The
main purpose of this paper is to describe the soil conditions at various key
locations within the city . The soil data presented were compiled from founda
tion investigation reports which the author obtained from the local soils en
gineering firm of Laboratorio Nicaraguense De Materiales , S . A . ( LAMSA ) while
he was in Managua as a member of the Earthquake Engineering Research Institute
investigation team following the earthquake .

From a soils engineering point of view , the Managua earthquake did not produce
any spectacular damage such as the extensive liquefaction which occurred in
the city of Niigata , Japan during the earthquake of June , 1964 or the massive
landslides which took place in Turnaigan Heights during the Alaskan earthquake
of 1964 . However , it is of interest to present some of the field observations
of soils -related damage which occurred during the Managua earthquake . These
observations are described in the latter portion of this report .

GENERAL CONDITIONS IN THE MANAGUA AREA

The city of Managua is situated a few miles east of the western margin of the

232
Nicaraguan Depression , a broad shallow graben trending northwest across western
Nicaragua , on the southern shore of Lake Managua . The city is built on a re
latively flat alluvial plain which slopes gently towards the lake . The allu
vium underlying the city is thought to be several thousands of feet thick and
consist of thick units formed by volcanic ash - laden mud flows and thinner beds
deposited by streams . Interspersed throughout the sequence are layers of
coarse and fine volcanic ash , cinders and pumice formed during eruptions of
nearby volcanoes . The materials range from poorly to well consolidated and
are generally of low density and high porosity . A typical sequence of the
near - surface deposits of Managua is shown in the soil profile from the west
side of the city , presented in Figure 1. Most of the near - surface materials
deposited in Managua in recent times probably originated from the Masaya Vol
cano , located about 30 kilometers southwest of the city .

LOCAL SOIL CONDITIONS

Foundation investigations performed at various locations throughout the city

of Managua provide us with the best available information on the subsurface
soil conditions in Managua . In Figure 2 the locations of the sites for which
soil data are presented herein are indicated . The particular structures cor
responding to these locations are tabulated on Table 1 . Also shown on this
table is the date at which each investigation was performed .

For all the sites tabulated in Table 1 , the field exploratory program consisted
of borings made using rotary - wash equipment . In some cases hand - excavated open
pits were also dug to obtain undisturbed samples of the in -situ soils for lab
oratory testing and to better identify the various strata encountered . Dis
turbed samples were taken in the borings using the Standard Penetration Test
split -spoon sampler . The number of blows per foot required to drive the sam
pler were recorded . When the material encountered was very hard , the hole was
advanced by coring the material using a tungsten rock bit .

For the majority of the foundation investigations carried out the laboratory
testing program consisted only of sieve analysis and Atterberg Limits classi
fication tests. A more sophisticated testing program including unconfined
compression tests on the undisturbed samples and evaluation of the moisture
content , unit weight , void ratio , degree of saturation and specific gravity
of the materials was only performed in a few instances .

From a static load bearing capacity standpoint , the soils underlying the city
of Managua are very stable. In their undisturbed state these soils can stand
in near -vertical slopes to heights of 15 meters ( 50 feet ) or more. All of
the major buildings which have been constructed are founded on either mat or
spreag footing foundations with an average allowable soil pressure of 3 to 4
kg /cm (6000 to 8000 pounds per square foot ) . The types of foundation employed
and the allowable soil pressures used for the various buildings are tabulated
on Table 2 .

233
 113 — Topsoil with included pottery .

T117 — Mudflow . Thickens lakeward . WO

116 - old soil . Disappears lakeward.

15 - Mudflow .
14 a - Old 'soil. Elsewhere up to 1meter thick
$ 14 — Fine white pumice .
w+ eters

13 — Coarse white þumice.

4 71b ;
M

Front - 12 — Mudflow used as building stone.

11 Cinders.
100000000000
Mudflow
58. 9 ,99 - Thrée cinder layers .
Mudflow = Footprint bed .
Cinders .
: : : 5 -

Buff . yellow and gray volcanic

dust , sand and gravels .
Water -laid and cross - bedded .
Composed of basaltic and
pumiceous fragments .

Figure 1 - General Soil Profile

234
 LAKE
MANAGU A

ELEVATION
-39
METERS

17 RAIL
PACIF IC AN
ROADRAGU
NICA 47 015
Coll
dele
S
310NN
centret 614
AM
DANERICAN
HIGHWAY

16 2
XOLOTLAN
AIRPORT
Calle Co
lon
100
99

LAKE
VISCAPA
LAKE 66
OSCA
ASOS
41

235
12

WAY
13

LION
CAN
DAN AVERI
Z

ra
na
do

WALES
SCALE

-2
Figur e investigations
foundation
location
showing
Managua
of
Map
 TABLE 1

LOCATION OF SOILS INVESTIGATIONS

Location No. Description Date

1 Banco de America de Nicaragua December , 1964

2 Banco Central de Nicaragua June , 1962

3 Baltodano Building August , 1972

4 Ruben Dario National Theater September , 1965

5 Sanitary Sewer - Pumping Station 1 June , 1972

6 La Prensa Building October , 1970

7 Infisa Building July , 1970

8 Propiedad Horizontal Building February , 1968

9 Intercontinental Hotel May , 1967

10 ENALUF Building October , 1969

11 Seguro La Protectora September , 1969

12 Colegio " Pureza de Maria " August , 1970

13 Colegio " La Immaculada " February , 1968

14 Nabisco Cristal February , 1971

15 Sanitary Sewer - Pumping Station 3 June , 1972

16 Esso Refinery December , 1970

17 Sanitary Sewer - Miramonte Sub June , 1972

station

236
 TABLE 2

SUMMARY OF FOUNDATION INVESTIGATIONS

Location Maximum Depth Depth to Water Depth to Type of Allowable Soil

2
No. Explored ( ft ) Table ( ft ) Cantera ( ft ) Foundation Pressure kg / cm

1 126 61 7 Mat or foot- 2.6 to 3

ings

1
2 38 N.E. 3 Footings 4

3 23 N.E. 6 to 15 Footings 6

2
4

121 13 71 Footings to 2.3

1.2 to 2.32
2
5 40 6 N.E. Mat or foot- 2.0 to 3.52
3.5
ings

6 28 N.E. 4 to 9 4.5
Footings

7 24 N.E. N.E. Footings 3.5 to 6.5

8 24 N.E. Footings
요

3.5 to 4

9 67 N.E. Footings 10
?

51 N.E. 4
의

42 Footings
?

11 30 N.E. 12 Footings 8
묘

12 26 N.E. 12 to 22 Footings 3 to 5
?

43 N.E. N.E. Footings 3 to 4

3

14 40 N.E. 10 to 27 Footings 2 to 6.5

4

58 17 N.E.
5

Mat or foot- 3 to 3.5

ings

16 75 31 N.E. Footings 2

17 30 N.E. N.E. Mat 1.62

IN.E. Water Table Not Encountered

?Effect of Submergence Considered

237
Representative boring logs of the subsurface soil conditions at each of the
17 sites shown in Figure 2 are presented on Figures 3 through 14 . Also
shown on the boring logs are the results of the laboratory tests and the blow
count data obtained in the field where available . The soils have been classi
fied according to either the AASHO or the Unified Soil Classification System .
Charts describing these two soil classification systems are presented in Fig
ures 15 and 16 . The maximum depth explored and the depth at which the water
table was encountered at each location are given in Table 2 . In general it
can be said that the various soil types underlying the city of Managua are
very similar and consist mainly of volcanic deposits of cohesionless silts ,
sand and gravels ranging from loose to well - consolidated and having various
degrees of cementation . These materials occur in well -defined layers vary
ing in thickness from a few centimeters to several meters . At any one site
the degree of compaction and the thickness of the layers are quite variable and
in most cases it is very difficult to discover any regular pattern in the sub
surface soil profile from one location to the next .
It is of interest to compare the depth to rock - like material at the various lo
cations investigated . In most of the borings a rock - like material locally re
ferred to as " cantera" or volcanic sandstone , but which is in reality a volcanic
tuff agglomerate , was encountered. An examination of the boring logs presented
shows that the thickness and degree of compaction of this material are quite
variable . The depth to the first cantera stratum encountered at each of the
sites is given in Table 2 . This material is closer to the surface in the cen
tral city area .
Since the phenomena of liquefaction can only occur in saturated soils it is of
interest to obtain an estimate of the depth to the groundwater table in the
city of Managua . The water table was encountered in only 5 of the 17 locations
investigated . In the center of the city the water level was at a depth of 19
meters (61 feet) below the ground surface . Close to the lake the water table
was at a depth of approximately 3 meters ( 10 feet ) . An unpublished map of the
groundwater levels in the Managua area prepared by the engineering firm of
Hazen and Sawyer in 1964 and reproduced by Brown ( 1968 ) shows that the phreatic
surface is located at a depth which varies from 10 to 30 meters ( 33 to 98 feet )
below the ground surface within the city , and that it slopes northward towards
the lake somewhat more gently than the ground surface . Thus the groundwater
level in the Managua area is at a considerable depth below the ground surface
except in the northernmost portion of the city which is adjacent to the lake .
Due to the fact that a severe drought condition had existed for a period of
several months prior to the earthquake , it is conceivable that at the time of
the earthquake the groundwater levels were even at greater depths than those
indicated above .

LOCAL SOIL EFFECTS

Although the damage caused by the Managua earthquake of December 23 , 1972 was

238
 CLASSIFICATION
COUNT
DATA
BLOW
SPT
ATTERBERG SIEVE

AASHO
ANALYSIS

SOIL
LIMITS
(% ) % FINER

PLASTIC
BORING 4
LIQUID
LIMIT
LIMIT

#200
#10
#4
FILL

LIGHT TO DARK GRAY CANTERA WITH SAND LENSES

| N . P . N . P . 90 80 23 A-2-4

tttttt
20

LLO
N . P . N . P . 8960 A -1

0
N . P . N . P . 89 A - l -b
N .P . N.P. A -1 -b
FEET

N .P . N . P . 9 LIGHT BROWN CEMENTED SILT ( TALPETATE )

N . P .IN . P . | A - 1-b
DARK GRAY CANTERA
DEPTHIN

WHITE PUMICE ROCK

N . P . N . P . 95 8840

LIGHT TO DARK GRAY CANTERA

(WATER LEVEL )
i!.

70 LIGHT BROWN CEMENTED SILT ( TALPETATE )

HOHOHOHOHOHOHOHOHOHO
HHHHHHHIRINIR

LIGHT GRAY CANTERA

80
0 ; ;;;;;;;;;;
:HI

120
LIGHT BROWN CEMENTED SILT (TALPETATE )

130

BANCO DE AMERICA DE NICARAGUA

Figure 3 - Log of Boring

239
 CLASSIFICATIO
OFSATURATION

?/CCOMPRESSION
DEGREE

UNCONFINED
SPECIFIC

COUNT
MOISTURE
GRAVITY

/C, GM3 Y
KDENSIT
CONTENT

DATA
BLOW
SPT
ATTERBERG SIEVE

,KMG
WET

AASHO
RATIO

SOIL
LIMITS ANALYSIS

VOID

,%
(% ) % FINER

PLASTIC
LIQUID
OPEN PIT 3
LIMIT

IIWIT

(% )
#200
#10
#4
COARSE SAND ; DENSE AND PARTIALLY
N .P N .P CEMENTED
GRAY CANTERA ALTERNATING WITH LENSES
N P. N .P 17
OF COARSE DENSE SAND

N .P N .P 0 .75 44 141.70 9 . 1
(GRADING HARD AND WELL CEMENTED )
N . P. N . P 1 0 . 88 33 18 1, 514 .6
10

N .PN. P

15 EN P
. N. P + 46 + 18 -1 . 5216 . 2
FEET

N .P . N . P .
N .P . N .P BLACK COARSE SAND (DENSE)
DEPTHIN

25 N . P . N . P ! YELLOWISH - BROWN CEMENTED SILT (TALPETATE )

(VERY DENSE )
N .P . N .P
YELLOWISH WHITE PUMICE (LOOSE )
N .P . N .P 50 (GRADING DENSE )
N .P . N .P 28
CLAYEY SILTY SAND (VERY DENSE )
N .P . N . P 15 (GRADING WITH LENSE OF BLACK COARSE SAND
AT 32 FEET)
BROWN SILTY FINE SAND (DENSE )
35 44 + 4 + - 84 + 43

N . P . N .P 32 3 ALTERNATING LAYERS OF CALCAREOUS

CONGLOMERATE AND DENSE CEMENTED GRAVELLY
40 .PN.P 42 SAND
N .P . N . P
N .P . N . P 421
45

BANCO CENTRAL DE NICARAGUA

Figure 4 - Log of Boring

240
 SATURATION

CLASSIFICATI
COMPRESSION
UNCONFINED
DEGREE
SPECIFIC
GRAVITY

DENSITY

COUNT
MOISTURE

DATA
BLOW
CONTENT
N

SPT
/,KGM21
OF

WET
JATTERBERG SIEVE

AASHO
RATIO

/K, GM

SOIL
VOID

C
LIMITS ANALYSIS

,%
(% ) % FINER

PLASTIC
LIQUID

LIMIT
LIMIT

(% )
BORING 2

#200
#10
0
59 1889 #4 86 68 12 A - 7-51 STIFF CLAY OF LOW PLASTICITY

1
58 19 100 99 78 41 A - 7-51
N.P. N.P. 98 96 62 A-4 STRATIFIED SANDSTONE ; VOLCANIC IN ORGIN
N.P. N.P.100 92 36 250 A - 4 ( CANTERA )
10
138
N.P. N.P. 97 87 28 112 A -2-7
116
20
N.P. N.P. 96 87 28 A - 2-7 (GRADING HARD )
340

30 100 CORED THROUGH PORTION OF THE ROCK USING

AX TUNGSTEN BIT
FEET

N.P. N.P. 98 69 19 A-l - b

E 40
DEPTH

N.P. N.P. 91 74 20 A - l-b

50
180

N.P. N.P. 91 78 19 160 A - l -b

60
175 A - l - b
N.P. N.P. 90 72 16 195

70

80

INTERCONTINENTAL HOTEL
Figure 5 - Log of Boring

241
 CLASSIFICATI
?/CK,COMPRESSIO
SATURATI
DEGREE

UNCONFINED
SPECIFIC
GRAVITY

C/DENSITY
%,CONTENRE

COUNT
MOISTU T

DATA
BLOW
OF

SPT
ATTERBERG SIEVE

,KWET
GM

AASHO
RATIO

MG
LIMITS ANALYSIS

SOIL
VOID
(% ) % FINER

PLASTIC
BORING 2
LIQUID
LIMIT

TIWIT

(% )
2# 00
1# 0
#4
ELEVATION 74 . 20 METERS
75 66 36 27 A -4 TOP SOIL

LIGHT BROWN SILT ( TALPETATE )

| 356 92 86 48 .53 30 A -4

100
59
10 (GRADING GRAY)

N . P . N . P . 97 93 43 .74 A - 4

15
DEPTH
FEET

N . P . N . P . 95 88 362 ,47 A -4
IN

20
N . P . N .P . 92 | 79 | 14 2 .44 A - l - bl
LIGHT BROWN GRAVELLY SAND
N . P . N . P . 91 | 82 372 . 49 A -4 DARK BROWN SILT
DARK BROWN SILTY SAND WITH PUMICE

37

N . P . N . P . 94 83 1 23 2 . 50 29 A - 2 - 4

35

N . P . N . P . 90 | 81 19 2 . 54 A - 2
93

150 CEMENTED GRAVELLY SAND (CANTERA )

N.P. N.P. 86 71 236.46 230

300
50

55

ENALUF
Figure 6 - Log of Boring

242
 CLASSIFIC
COUNT
DATA
BLOW

UNIFIED
SPT
ATTERBERG SIEVE

SOIL
LIMITS ANALYSIS
(%) % FINER

PLASTIC
LIQUID
BORING I

LIMIT

LIMIT

#200
1#0
#4
OL LIGHT BROWN SILT (ORGANIC )

2
13 95 89 56 2
SC DARK BROWN SANDY CLAY
49 8 9275 43 6
5
16 SM GRAY SILTY SAND ( CANTERA )

49 7 9786 39 36
10
FEET

(GRADING WELL GRADED )

N.P. N.P. 9073 11 70

2 15
(GRADING POORLY GRADED )
DEPTH

N.P. N.P. 98 85 11 70
20
N.P. N.P. 93 75 20 SM
226

25

30
CLASSIFICATION

EDIFICIO BALTODANO
COUNT
BLOW
DATA
SPT

ATTERBERG SIEVE
AASHO
SOIL

LIMITS ANALYSIS
(% ) % FINER
PLASTIC
LIQUID

BORING 1
LIMIT
LIMIT

#200
#10

0 GRAVELLY SAND WITH SILT ( LIGHT BROWN )

3
13
2 CLAYEY SILTY SAND
5 4
DEPTH

5
FEET
IN

10 GRAY CEMENTED SILT ( TALPETATE )

20
12

REDDISH BROWN CLAYEY SILT

15

28 BLACK SILTY SAND

20
61
(GRADING LIGHT GRAY )
70
100
25

INFISA

Figure 7 Log of Boring

243
 CLASSIFICATION
SATURATION

CCOMPRESSION
DEGREE

UNCONFINED
DENSITY

COUNT
MOISTURE
SPECIFIC
GRAVITY

DATA
,%CONTENT

BLOW
/,KGM2
OF

SPT
,KGM3
ATTERBERG STEVE

/CWET

AASHO
RATIO
LIMITS ANALYSIS

SOIL
VOID
(% ) % FINER

PLASTIC
LIQUID BORING |
LIMIT
LIMIT

(% )
#10
#4
ELEVATION 42 . 1 METERS
N . P . N .P . 68 A -l-b DEBRIS FILL AND GRANULAR MATERIAL
) Ả-1 - b (LOOSE )
N . P . N . P . 86 65
N . P . N . P . 90 A -2-4 (WATER LEVEL , 8 - 20 -65)
SAND AND FINE GRAVEL (LOOSE TO WELL
N .P. N .P . 92 16 26 1 100 30 1 . 8 0 . 6 12 A - 1 - b CEMENTED )

N .P . N . P. 74 40 A - 1 - b

N . P . N . P . 97 | 88 20 A - 2 - 4
N .P . N . P . 89 72 A -1-b
- (MEDIUM DENSE TO DENSE & COMPACT )
F

N . P . N .P . 94 75 A -l-b

N .P . N . P . 94 84 21 A - 2 -4 :
55
N . P. N .P . 95 83 28 135 A - 2
12 (GRADING WITH SILT LENSE)
FEET

N . P . N . P . 95 4C A - 4 ( 0
N . P . N . P . 37
IN

300
A - 1-b
240
DEPTH

N . P . N .P . 76 65 44 A - l - b
(GRADING WITH SILT LENSE )
N . P . N . P 8981 150 A - 4 (03:
N .P . N . P 91 79 45 .
A - 1 -b
70
300
CANTERA (HARD TO VERY HARD )
CORED REMAINDER OF HOLE USING TUNGSTEN
MTED TO SAMPLE USING STANDARD
N . P . N . P 97 | 81 A - l -b PENETRATION SAMPLER EVERY 5 FEET , HOWEVE
80 OBTAINED COMPLETE REFUSAL EACH TIME
N.P. N.P. 80 64 20 192 A - 1 - b

90

120

130

TEATRO NACIONAL RUBEN DARIO

Figure 8 - Log of Boring

244
 CLASSIFICATION
SATURATION

/CCOMPRESSION
DEGREE

UNCONFINED
SPECIFIC

CDENSITY
GRAVITY

COUNT
MOISTURE
CONTENT

DATA
BLOW
/K, GMS
WET

SPT
OF
SIEVE

,KGM
ATTERBERG

RATIO

AASHO
ANALYSIS

VOID
LIMITS

SOIL
PLASTIC
% FINER

.
LIQUID

LIMIT
BORING

LIMIT

2)(
#200
#10
0
13 BROWN SAND WITH TOPSOIL (PILL )

89
29 5 77 32 61 - 2
5 30
24.34.92
30 LIGHT BROWN SANDY SILT
45 7 79 34 23.28.65
10
FEET

CEMENTED SAND - CANTERA

155
15 (POORLY TO WELL CEMENTED )
DEPTHIN

27 88 68 25

25
20
20 1 75 67 31 135
(GRADING WITH GRAVEL )
25 200
13

N.P. N.P. 77

30

LA PROCTECTORA
CLASSIFICATION
SATURATION

COMPRESSION
UNCONFINED
DEGREE

CDENSITY
SPECIFIC
GRAVITY

MOISTURE

COUNT
UNIFIED
CONTENT

BLOW
DATA
GMS
/,KDRY
OF

SIEVE
/C,KGM

ATTERBERG
SOIL
RATIO
VOID

LIMITS ANALYSIS
7 FINER
PLASTIC
LIQUID

LIMIT

BORING B-9
IINIT

#200
1# 0
14

0 ELEVATION 52.14 METERS

ML MOTTLED BROWN AND GRAY SANDY SILT WITH
3.2 80 5 ROOTS
6 МН DARK BROWN SILT WITH SOME SAND OCCASIONAL
18.71 77 GRAVEL
10
6 ( INCREASING GRAVEL CONTENT )
40 SM GRAY VOLCANIC SILTY SAND WITH GRAVEL
20 MH DARK BROWN SILT WITH GRAVEL
23.3 95 10 ( INCREASING SAND CONTENT)
ML DARK BROWN SANDY SILT WITH LAYERS OF
12.89 14 BROWN SILTY FINE SAND AND OCCASIONAL
30 GRAVEL
( INCREASING GRAVEL CONTENT )
(WATER LEVEL )
(GRADING DARK BROWNISH GRAY IN COLOR )
$6.7 69 17 (DECREASING SAND CONTENT)
40
FEET

40 ( INCREASING SAND AND GRAVEL CONTENT )

SM DARK GRAYISH BROWN SILTY FINE TO MEDIUM
SAND WITH SOME GRAVEL
DEPTHIN

2.50
33
SW DARK GRAYISH BROWN FINE TO COARSE SAND
60 WITH GRAVEL
( INCREASING GRAVEL CONTENT )
35
70 (DECREASING GRAVEL CONTENT )
55
• NOTE : USING DAMES 6 MOORE SAMPLER
80
ESSO REFINERY

Figure 9 - Log of Boring

245
 CLASSIFICATION
COUNT
BLOW
DATA
SPT
ATTERBERG SIEVE

AASHO
SOIL
LIMITS ANALYSIS
% FINER

PLASTIC
LIQUID
BORING 3

LIMIT
LIMIT

#200
1#0
0 DEBRIS FILL
15 DARK BROWN SANDY SILT WITH CLAY
15
12 (GRADING YELLOW AND LESS CLAY )
5
4
FEET 11
(GRADING WITH PUMICE )
23
GRAY CEMENTED SAND (CANTEPA )
DEPTHIN

300

27 YELLOW BROWN SANDY SILT

20 (GRADING TO GRAY SAND WITH LENSES OF SILT )
60
60
25
PROPIEDAD CLASSIFICATION HORIZONTAL
COUNT
DATA
BLOW
SPT

ATTERBERG SIEVE
AASHO
SOIL

LIMITS ANALYSIS
(%) > FINER
PLASTIC
LIQUID

BORING 3
LIMIT
LIMIT

#200
1#0

0 ELEVATION 98.25 METERS

49 17 10096 60 8 |A -7-5 TOP SOIL
GRAY CEMENTED SILT ( TALPETATE )
38 7 9691 47 25 A- 4
5
35 10 98 93 38 7 A -4 BROWN SILT

10 N.P. N.P. 9687 20 A - 2-4 BROWN SILTY SAND

25
30 5 9788 25 A - 2-4
30
15 WHITE PUMICE
N.P. N.P. 9183 23 50 JA- 2-4

29 3 9687 29 60 (GRADING WITH SAND )

20
BLACK FINE HORMIGON
14

N.P. N.P. 8464 50 A - l - b

PEET

58 BROWN SILT
2 25
DEPTH

35 9995 47 A -4
N

30 80 (GRADING TO GRAY SILTY SAND )

28 2 9689 35 150 [A -2-4
(GPADING TO BROWN SILT )
35
29 2 9689 36 A- 4

40 N.P. N.P. 9894 31 85 1A -2-4

N.P. N.P. 9384 14 300 A - 1 - b GRAVELLY SAND

45
COLEGIO LA IMMACULADA

Figure 10 Log of Boring

246
 CLASSIFICATION
COUNT
BLOW
DATA
SPT
ATTERBERG SIEVE

AASHO
LIMITS ANALYSIS

SOIL
% FINER

PLASTIC
LIQUID
BORING 3

LIMIT
LIMIT

#200
1#0
0
GRAVELLY SAND AND CLAY (FILL )
35 96 82 30 12 A - 2-4
8
5 CLAYTY SILT
45 698 92 52 5 A- 5

10 GRAVELLY SAND ( CANTERA )

28 0 86 73 18 31 A -l- b
FEET

CLAYEY SILT
50 86 50 9 A- 5
15
DEPTHIN

31 2 95 31 28 A - 2-4 (GRADING WITH SAND AND GRAVEL )

20 50 4 94 50 A-s
42 6 96 88 53 23
28 A 2- -4 CEMENTED SAND (CANTERA )

25 31 2 95 84 31 83
240

30

LA PRENSA
CLASSIFICATION
COUNT
DATA
BLOW
SPT

ATTERBERG SIEVE
AASHO

LIMITS ANALYSIS
SOIL

% FINER
PLASTIC
LIQUID

BORING S - 2
LIMIT
LIMIT

#200
1#0

0
38 12 81 73 33 16 A - 2-6 DARK BROWN SILTY CLAY
8
94

5 42 13 84 39 B A - 2-7 LIGHT BROWN SILTY SAND

20 A - 1 -b DARK GRAY SAND
70

N.P. N.P.187 14 27
10
FEET
PEET
IN

62
100
LIGHT BROWN SILT
DEPTH

22

50 8 97 71 A-5

20 (GRADING WITH PUMICE )

8

37 94 87 46 31
114 CANTERA
330
25 | A 2- -4
32 5 99 79 29

30

PUREZA DE MARIA

Figure 11 Log of Boring

247
 CLASSIFICATION
SATURATION

/CCOMPRESSION
DEGREE

DENSITY
UNCONFINED
SPECIFIC
GRAVITY

MOISTURE

COUNT
CONTENT

UNIFIED
/K, GMS

DATA
BLOW
SPT
OF

WET
ATTERBERG SIEVE

,KGM

SOIL
C
RATIO
ANALYSIS

VOID
LIMITS

,
Y FINER

PLASTIC
LIQUID

LIMIT
BORING 46

LIMIT

1200
410
0 ELEVATION 48.75 METERS
46 21 97 93 60 21 9 CL BPOWN CLAY
SM BROWN SILTY SAND

10
37 1 93 84 40 18
5
12 ML BROWN SANDY SILT
37 3 96 91 53 30 11
10
FEET

(GRADING DARK BROWN )

43 4 97 93 65 41 13
NI

15
DEPTH

15
SW BROWN SAND
N.P. N.P. 95 86 39
20
23

N.P. JN.P. 39 78 34 33 28
25
38 ML GRAY PUMICE
N.P. N.P. 85 80 60
30 SB 33 SC BROWN CLAYEY SAND
SANITARY SEWER - MIRAMONTE SUBSTATION

CLASSIFICATION
SATURATION

/CCOMPRESSION
UNCONFINED
DEGREE

GMS Y
SPECIFIC

/CK,DENSIT
GRAVITY

COUNT
,MOISTURE

DATA
UNIFIED
BLOW
CONTENT
WET

SPT
OF

ATTERBERG SIEVE
,KGM

SOIL
RATIO
VOID

LIMITS ANALYSIS
FINER
PLASTIC
LIQUID

BORING 48
LIMIT
Twi

200
#10

0 ELEVATION 39.95 METERS

4 21 10 SW GPAY SAND WITH DEBRIS 1 FOOT
N.P , N.P. 92 78
48
122
5

(GRADINGLEVEL
(WATER POORLY
) CEMENTED )
N.P. NP100 98 6 33 32

10 N.P. N.P 95 77 19 23 42

15
N.P. N.P 92 78 15 25 27
FEET

50
20
DEPTH

N.P. N.P. 97 83 22 26 SW ( GRADING TO BROWN SAND WITH PUMICE )

25 42
N.P. N.P. 100 86 30 41

30 40 (GRADING TO GRAVELLY SAND )

N.P. N.P. 84 63 11 33 SW

35 29 (ALTERNATING LAYERS OF BROWN SAND AND

N.P. N.P. 79 60 17 63 BROWN SAND WITH PUMICE )

50
40 N.P. N.P. 81 37 18

SANITARY SEWER - PUMPING STATION I

Figure 12 - Log of Boring

248
 CLASSIFICATION
COUNT
DATA
BLOW
ATTERBERG SIEVE

SPT
AASHO
LIMITS ANALYSIS

SOIL
(% ) % FINER

PLASTIC
BORING 4
LIQUID

LIMIT
IIW17

#200
#10
#4
ELEVATION 95 . 67 METERS (ASSUMED )
21 100 100 99 A - 7- 5 DARK BROWN CLAY
(GRADING LIGHT BROWN )
53 | 23 | 100 99 92 10
| 58 | 23 100 97 69 10

N . P . N . P . 87 61 | 16 A - 1 -b GRAY SAND
iso

(GRADING BROWN )
å å û ù
FEET

N . P . N .P . 95 74 12 . .
IN

N. P. N .P . 91 77 32
LIGHT BROWN SILTY SAND
DEPTH

A - 2 - 4

A - l-b (GRADING BLACK AND WITH CASCAJO )

N . P . N . P . 79 61 | 20 | 36
CEMENTED SAND ( CANTERA )

N . P . N . P . 85 6823
| 23 62

NABISCO - CRISTAL

Figure 13 - Log of Boring

249
 COMPRES
SATURAT

CLASSIFICA
DEGREE

UNCONFINED
SPECIFIC
GRAVITY

COUNT
KDENSITY
MOISTURE

UNIFIED
DATA
CONTENT

,KGMS
BLOW
SPT
OF

/C
GM3

SOIL
,WET
ATTERBERG SIEVE

RATIO
VOID

/C
LIMITS ANALYSIS

,%
(%) % FINER

PLASTIC
LIQUID

LIMIT

(%)
LIMIT
BORING 45

1200
#10
#4
0 ELEVATION 45.20 METERS
12 CL BROWN CLAY OF LOW COMPRESSIBLITY
36 15 100 97 75 21 19

8
24 8 100 91 58 18
5
67 SM GRAY SILTY SAND

N.P. N.P. 92 80 26 40 70 (GRADING WITH WHITE SAND GRAINS )

10
90

N.P. N.P. 90 77 26 27 80
15
30 3 100 83 31 31 ( WATER LEVEL )

N.P. N.P. 88 75 22 44 60
20
98 (GRADING COARSE )
FEET

55
25
N.P. N.P. 69 56 15 24
65
NT
DEPTH

30 121
SM

35 N.P. W.P + 61 50 13 . 18 ( CRADING VERY DENSE )

105

40 (GRADING BROWN IN COLOR )

N.P. N.P. 66 50 14 25 45

45 (GRADING WELL GRADED AND WITH SOME

N.P. N.P. 72 61 36 32 137 GRAVEL )

50
36 13 10060 8 56 SW
300 SM

55

26 5 51 35 10 34
60

SANITARY SEWER - PUMPING STATION 3

Figure 14 - Log of Boring

250
 Character of
Per Cent Passing Fraction Passing Group
Group Sub U.S. Sieve No. No. 40 Sieve Index Soil Description
group No.
Liquid Plasticity
10 40 200 Limit Index

A- 1 50 m2 25 max 6 max 0 Well- graded gravel or sand; may

include tines
A -l-a SO max 50 max 15 max 6 ciax 0 Largely gravel but can include sand
and fines
A-1 -b 50 max 25 max 6 max 0 Gravelly sand or graded sand ; may
include fincs
A -2* 35 max O to 4 Sands and gravcis with excessive
fincs
A - 2-4 35 max 40 max 10 max 0 Sands, gravcis with low- piasticity silt
fines
A-2-5 35 max 41 min 10 max 0 Sands, gravels with elastic silt fines
A - 2-6 35 max 40 max 11 min 4 max Sands, gravels with clay tines
A - 2-7 35 max 41 min 11 min. 4 max Sands, gravels with highly plasticclay
fines
A-3 51 min 19 max Nonplastic 0 Fine sands
A -4 36 min 40 max 10 max 8 max Low -compressibiliiy silts
A-S 36 min 41 min 10 max 12 max High -compressibility silts, micaceous
silts
A -6 36 inin 40 max 11 min 16 m2x Low -to -medium -compressibility clays
A-7 36 min 41 min 11 min 20 max High -compressibility clays
A - 7-5 36 min 41 min 11 mint 20 max High-coripressibility silly clavs
A - 7-6 36 min 41 min 11 mint 20 niax High-compressibility, high -volume
charge clays
A -8 Pcal, highly organic soils

• Group A - 2 includes all soils having 35 per cent or less passing a No.200 sieve that cannot be classed as A- l or A-3.
* Plasticity index of A-3-5 subgroup is equal to or less than LL - 30 . Plasticity index of A - 7-6 subgroup is greater than LL- 30 .

Figure 15 - Aasho soil classification system

251
 TO

FRACTION

classification
UT

equivalent
DESCRIPTION MAJOR DIVISIONS

COARSE
GRAVELS

MATERIAL
- RAINED
GW WELL - GRACED GRAVELS OR GRAVEL - SANO

OF
LARGER

NO.200
COARSE

LARGER
JAJIS

SIEVE
MIXURES , LITTLE OR NO FINES

used
37IS
osize
THAN
HALF
MORE
TMAN

MORE
SITE
TMAN
CLEAN GRAVELS

may
visual

.!SHALF
THAN
SOILS
t"sbe
IS
POORLY - GRAOLO GRAVELS OR GRAVEL - SANO ( 110cle or no lines )

he

OF
GP

,for
MIXTURES , LITTLE OR NO FINES

G
t
Care
SILTY GRAVILS , GRAVEL - SANO- SILT

leve
GRAVELS WITH

.4size
MIXTURES

smallest
FINES

the
no
sto
FRACTION

.2sleve
( appreciable amount

about
GC CLAYCY GRAVELS , GRAVEL - SAND - CLAY

alre
of lines )

the
COARSE

00
MIXTURES

no
is
SMALLER

particle
4SIVE

visible
SW

WELL - GRACEO SANDS OR GRAVELLY SAXOS ,

OF
SIZE

naked
THAN
SANDS
UITLE OR NO FINES

O.
CLEAN SANOS

MORE
HALF
THAN

the
IS
( 11utle or no fines )

to
ey
.
SP POORLY - GRADED SANDS OR GRAVELLY SANDS ,
LITTLE OR NO FINES
SM SILTY SANOS , SAND- SILT MIXTURES SANOS WITH FINES
( appreciable amount
SC of fines )
CLAVEY SANDS , SAND- CLAY MIXTURES

TAORGANIC SILTS AND VERY FINE SANDS ,

SMALLER
MATERIAL
ML ROCK FLOUR , SILTY OR CLAYEY FINE

SICVE
SANDS OR CLAYEY SILIS WITH SUGMT

TMAN
SIZE
THAN
MORE
PLASTICITY

.200
HALF
-GRAINED

NO
OF
IS
SOILS
SILPS AND CLAYS

FINE
INORGANIC CLAYS OF LOW TO MEDIUM LIQUIO LIMIT LESS THAN 50
CL PLASTICITY , GRAVELLY CLAYS , SANDY
CLAYS , SIUVY CLAYS, LEAN CLAYS

OL ORGANIC SILIS AND ORGANIC SILI - CLAYS

OF LOW PLASTICITY
INORGANIC SILTS , MICACEOUS OR
DIATOMACEOUS FINE SANOY OR SILTY
SOILS , ELASTIC SILIS
SILTS AND CLAYS
CH INORGANIC CLAYS OF HIGM'PLASTICITY , LIQUID LIMIT GREATER THAN 50
FAT CLAYS
он ORGANIC CLAYS CF MEDIUM TO HIGH
PLASTICITY , ORGANIC SILTS
PT PEAT AND OTHER HIGHLY ORGANIC SOILS HIGHLY ORGANIC SOILS

Figure 16 - Unified soil classification system

252
quite extensive , very little of the damage can be directly attributed to the
local soil conditions . From a soils engineering standpoint there were no spec
tacular effects such as the extensive liquefaction or the massive landslides
that have occurred during previous earthquakes . This may be due to one or
more of the following factors :

2. The water table within most of the damage area is at a

considerable depth below the ground surface .

2. The subsurface soils are very porous , quite permeable ,

and in most cases have some degree of cementation .

3. The near - surface materials were extremely dry due to a

drought that had existed for several months preceding
the earthquake .

น. The earthquake had a short duration of strong shaking .

Personal observation of the damage to the major structures located within the
city did not indicate any type of foundation failure which could be directly
attributed to the local soil conditions . The only soils - related damage which
occurred consisted of :

1. Landslides and local slumping ;

2. Local subsidence ; and ,

3. Retaining wall failures .

LANDSLIDES AND LOCAL SLUMPING

The major portion of the landslides that took place during the earthquake deve
loped on the steep slopes forming the walls of the two calderas in the vicinity
of the city of Managua , Laguna Tiscapa and Laguna Asososca . Roads and struc
tures situated close to the edge of the two calderas suffered considerable dam
age as can be seen on Figures 17 , 18 , and 19. This included the Presidential
Palace which was situated on the northern rim of Laguna Tiscapa and which was
very badly damaged .

The city of Managua obtains its water supply solely from Laguna Asososca . The
intake structure for the water supply system is situated at the bottom of a
steep slope where a number of rockfalls and debris slides occurred . Had the
slides been more extensive , it is very probable that the entire water supply
of the city of Managua would have been destroyed at a time when it was most
needed .

Small slides and minor slumping also occurred along the highway to the west of

253
Figure 17 - Ground Cracks Along Edge of Laguna Tiscapa

Figure 18 - Damage to Structures Situated on Edge of Laguna Asososca

254
Figure 19 - Landslide Along Edge of Laguna Asososca

Figure 20 - Localized Slope Failure

255
Figure 21 - Slumping of Sides of Figure 22 - Small Slide Along Edge
Ditch of Roadway

256
the city and along steep banks including roadcuts and the sides of gullies and
ditches as may be seen from Figures 20 , 21 and 22 .

LOCAL SUBSIDENCE

Settlements which occurred as a direct result of the earthquake were minor and
were mostly limited to man -made fills . At the Esso Refinery , which is located
approximately 5 kilometers ( 3 miles ) west of the city and where the only strong
motion record of the earthquake was obtained , the damage was relatively minor .
There was some settlement of the tank pads of several of the large diameter
welded steel tanks similiar to that shown in Figure 23 . The greatest settle
ment of any of the tanks was on the order of 1 to lža inches . However , there
was no instance where the structural integrity of the tank was affected in any
way . Conversations with the plant manager at the refinery indicate that most
of the tanks were empty or half - filled at the time of the earthquake . This
may be one reason why the damage was small . The plant manager also stated that
there was no damage to any of the buried or above -ground pipelines within the
refinery .

Within the city itself there were a few isolated instances of settlement . At
the Banco Central there was evidence of minor fill settlement along the drive
way leading down to the basement (Figure 24 ) . Along the water ' s edge , on what
was originally the city dump, there is also some indication of settlement of
the debris fill (Figure 25 ) . It can be seen from Figure 25 that although the
soil behind the concrete retaining wall has settled , the wall does not appear
to have undergone any movement . There is some doubt as to whether this settle
ment had occurred prior to the earthquake or whether it developed during the
earthquake. On Figure 26 a large cavity which developed in one of the city ' s
streets due to local settlement of the road subgrade is shown .
The most significant settlement resulting from the earthquake took place in the
vicinity of the Teatro Nacional Ruben Dario . The soils investigation performed
at this site indicates that the top 17g to 3 meters (5 to 10 feet ) of soil con
sists of a loose debris fill which is underlain by loose to medium dense sands
and fine gravel. The water table at the site is at a depth of approximately
3 . 5 meters ( 12 feet ) . In Figures 27 through 29 the settlement of the soil
surrounding the structure is clearly visible. Although the settlement was
in the order of several feet in some places , it did not result in any signifi
cant damage to the structure itself since it is founded on the denser soils
underlying the upper loose materials . In Figure 31 settlement of the fill
supporting the abutment of a walkway bridge leading to the Teatro Nacional
has caused the bridge abutment to become separated from the bridge .

RETAINING WALL FAILURE

Most of the retaining walls in the city of Managua are constructed of blocks of

257
Figure 23 - Settlement of Tank Pad at Esso Refinery

Figure 24 - Settlement of Fill at Banco Central

258
Figure 25 - Settlement of Debris Fill Along Edge of Lake Managua

Figure 26 - Local Soil Failure Due to Settlement of Road Subgrade

259
Figure 27 - Settlement of Fill Adjacent to Teatro Nacional Ruben Dario

Figure 28 - Local Soil Failure Due to Settlement of Fill - Teatro Nacional

Ruben Dario

260
Figure 29 - Ground Cracks Due to Fill Figure 30 - Outward Movement of Can
Settlement - Teatro Nac tilever Retaining Wall -
ional Ruben Dario Teatro Nacional Ruben Dario

261
Figure 31 - Separation of Abutment from Bridge Walkway Due to Abutment Fill
Settlement

Figure 32 - Partial Collapse of Gravity Retaining Wall

262
Figure 33 - Complete Collapse of Free - Standing Wall

Figure 34 - Partial Failure of Retaining Wall by Moving Out at the Toe

263
concrete or cantera mortared together without any steel reinforcement to provide
bending movement resistance . As a result of this , many retaining walls col
lapsed during the earthquake . Typical examples are presented in Figure 30 and
Figures 32 through 34 . In Figure 34 a reinforced concrete retaining wall which
partially failed by moving out at the toe is shown . A cantilevered retaining
wall at the Teatro Nacional Ruben Dario which moved outward several inches is
shown on Figure 30 .

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The soil data presented in this report were provided by the soils consulting
firm of Laboratorio Nicaraguense De Materiales , S . A . ( LAMSA ) in the form of
foundation investigation reports . Although all the personnel of this firm
were most helpful , special thanks is due to Ingeriero Gilberto Cuadra Solor
zano and Ingeniero Cesar Aviles Haslam , without whose generous assistance this
report may not have been possible .

REFERENCES

1. Brown , R . D . ( 1968) " Nicaragua Earthquake of January 4 , 1968 " , Project Re

port, Nicaragua Investigations (IR ) NI- 1 .
Seed , H . B . , Idriss , I . M . and Dezfulian , H . ( 1970 ) " Relationships Between
Soil Conditions and Building Damage in the Caracas Earthquake of July 29 ,
1967 " , Earthquake Engineering Research Center , Report No . EERC 70 - 2 , Uni
versity of California , Berkeley .

264
 A STUDY OF SEISMIC DAMAGE PATTERNS BY PHOTOINTERPRETATION

MANAGUA , NICARAGUA
23 DECEMBER , 1972

by

Leroy E . Anstead
DMA , IAGS Nicaragua Project
Managua , Nicaragua

A COLLABORATIVE EFFORT OF :

INSTITUTO GEOGRAFICO NACIONAL DE NICARAGUA

SERVICIO GEODESICO INTERAMERICANO , PROYECTO NICARAGUA

FORWARD : The results of this report may not be construed to be an

ascessment of total damage suffered by structures in the 1972 Managua earth
quake. The total content is predicated on the dramatic effect of the seism
upon all types of structures indescriminantly recorded by a trained photo
interpreter using a severe criteria . It is felt that this work , studied in
conjunction with other field investigations , will lend a better understanding
of the seism in the overall final analysis of this event .

I. INTRODUCTION :

The city of Managua, Nicaragua was severely damaged by seismic

activity at 0030 hrs on 23 December 1972 ; two heavy shocks occurred during a
fourteen second period which was estimated at 6 . 25 Richter . Heavy damage was
sustained through the center of the city and fires subsequently broke out , ad
ding to the peril . A Nicaraguan Airforce Otter with a Zeiss RMK 15 - 23 aerial
camera was airborn over the area with Instituto Geografico Nacional personnel
aboard shortly after daylight . The whole city was photographed at 1 : 10 , 000
scale , and most heavily damaged areas at 1: 5 , 000 scale, all 60% standard
stereo coverage . The true extent of the damage was not immediately apprecia
ted from the aerial view ; however subsequent ground investigations required
an intent at photointerpretation to better understand the total situation .

265
 II . GENERAL :

Prior to the ' event ' of 23 December , the Instituto Geografico Na

cional was involved in Remote Sensing studies in collaboration with the Inter
American Geodetic Survey ; this endeavor in the use of aerial imagery in scien
tific applications gave the interest and impetus to make this particular
study possible . The photointerpreter necessarily had to adopt a very severe
criteria for conducting the study ; however , it is felt that such impartial
treatment lent more veracity to the results .

III . OBERVATIONS :

A. Preparation .

With copies of both the 1 : 10,000 and 1 : 5,000 scale 9" x 9 " stereo
coverage provided by the Instituto Geografico Nacional , the photointerpreter
confected a ' working ' mosaic on celotex , using every odd photograph in each
series , even numbered photographs in the series were kept apart for use in
stereo comparison . Both scale mosaics were covered with clear plastic to
form an overlay for annotation of results . Using a 2x pocket stereoscope the
photointerpreter reviewed a 1 : 5,000 scale line of photos crossing the most
heavily damaged portion of the city to enable him to confect a criteria for
interpreting damaged buildings ( the photointerpreter had visited the area a
number of times and therefore required a criteria which would not be preju
diced by prior knowledge ) .

B: Criteria .

After study a suitable criteria was compounded of the following :

1 . Only major ' collapse ' damage to structures to be delineated .

2. Probable or ' possible ' damage to be ignored .
3. Structures known to be damaged but not demonstrating visible
effects on the aerial photographs , to be ignored .
A.
Structures must demonstrate collapse clearly or be accom
panied by debris thrown into the street , alleyways or open
areas .
5. ' Skewing ' must be interpreted only contiguous to street
alignment .
6. Buildings open to the sky , and possible confused with new
construction , ignored .
7. Possible confusion between rubble and possible trash piles
or construction materials , ignored .

Such a criteria is rigid and much deliberation is required in many

cases before a structure can be chosen or rejected . The photointerpreter tried
to adopt a mental attitude of being ' far removed ' from the scene ( Washington
D.C. , New York or the Canal Zone) which helped considerably in the decision
making process .

266
 C . Method .
Working on the 1 : 5 , 000 scale mosaic , the photointerpreter reviewed each
city block and marked the actual extent of collapsed structures to include rub
ble lying in the streets . The marking was done with a nylon tipped pen
containing plastic ink , which adhered quite well to the overlay . With the
criteria adopted , it was found that interpretation of damage was quite easy on
the 1 : 5 , 000 scale photographs ; even subtle such expressions as cracks in pave
ment and shifting of roof tiles was very evident in certain areas of the city .
Due to the smoke pall near the lake , however , it was difficult and almost im
possible to distinguish damage . Working from the center of the city out , in
both directions, a pattern to the damage began to emerge , which was fasinating
in light of ground investigations being carried out. The photointerpreter
then shifted to the 1 : 10 , 000 scale photography, which covered the whole urban ,
commercial and industrial areas of Managua . Study on this scale was more dif
ficult , as many features were not as evident because the images were smaller by
half . Without referring to the previously completed 1 : 5 , 000 scale work , the
interpreter worked independently to ascertain whether the same type pattern
would emerge . While the subsequent pattern was not as dense in number and
variation of damaged buildings , it did compare favorably with the larger scale
and lent a better overall interpretation of the comparative variations in
pattern density .

D . Results .
The collapse damage pattern manifested itself in two broad lanes of heav
ily damaged buildings of high density , separated by a stretch wherein heavy
damage was expressed in a loose random pattern . These patterns emerged within
the builtup commercial district and the accompanying wall to wall residential
areas around it. Heavy random pattern damage was also noted in a broad swath
into the residential and industrial district to the east of central Managua ,
reducing in intensity progressively away from the city . All the patterns were
oriented axially in a northeast - southwest direction , which corresponds with the
orientation of surface expressions (fissures ) located by geologists in the field .
Type of construction placed an important part in the pattern which emerged ,
where substantially built urbanizations were encountered within the emergent
lanes , little or no damage could be discerned ; Ciudad Jardin (an AID funded
low - cost housing development) stood as an island within the damage pattern ,
Bolonia ( a relatively well -to - do neighborhood) also suffered apparently little
damage . Areas of small wooden shacks withstood the effects of the seism with
no visible harm . The western portion of the city demonstrated fewer visible
effects of the disaster , as was corroborated in the field . The completed
damage mosaic was compared to the field geologists map of surface fissures and
the pattern then began to take on significance ; the western lane was clearly
bordered by the 1931 fault trace and a line of fissures running from the Refor
matorio de Menores (Bolonia ) to the lakefront near the Cathedral, the random
pattern lane was bordered between the latter and the Tiscapa Fault trace , the
eastern lane of heavy damage was located between the Tiscapa Fault and a second
ary trace some 400 meters to the east , which graduates into random pattern
type damage for several kilometers farther to the east in residential areas .
Random pattern damage is also noted for approximately one kilometer to the west

267
of the 1931 Fault trace, however contained nearer the lakefront . (See copy of
photomosaic , Appendix I ) The emergent density of pattern would lead one to
believe that the major movements occurred in the commercial center of Managua ,
a fact which seems to be supported by subsidence surveys now concluded by the
Instituto Geografico Nacional at this writing .

Aftershock surveillance also places the epicenter or ' foci ' in approximately
the same area , however only on the trace of the Tiscapa Fault at depth .
Though difficult to ascertain , the apparant intensity of the seismic activity
reduced in amplitude and area toward the southwestern extremes of the fault
traces ; this was corroborated by subsequent field checks .

IV . CONCLUSIONS :

Aerial photography has a number of applications connected with

seismic activity , if taken immediately after the disaster . Great care is re
quired in interpreting the data , the results of which must be cautiously ex
amined in the light of field investigations . It is a well known fact that a
photograph captures much real detail and is handier than a map if handled by
a knowledgeable person ; however the photograph can be brought to yield the
answers to many perplexing questions if the detail can be brought into special
focus with the surroundings . This particular study is focused only upon the
general effects of the seismic movement on structures and that relationship
to the geologic expression with conclusions as follows :

A. Surface Expressions of Fault - line Activity .

A quick review of aerial photographs of a disaster area can in
dicate the location of possible fault - line expressions by the variation in dam
age patterns , making it perhaps easier for the field geologist to find and
follow these expressions on the terrain .

B. Intensity of Movement in Seismic Activity .

The damage patterns found within Managua after the earthquake
infer that severe movement occurred on two blocks separated by a third block
which remained relatively stable ; this could be interpreted that each block
containing the most heavily damaged buildings moved independently of each oth
er within a time frame of a few seconds . (Two sharp shocks were in actuality
felt by persons living within the affected zone , with a few seconds delay be
tween the two ; a check of the accelerograph record from the refinery also
shows a brief break and change in wave pattern during the initial shock , in
ferring a second shock within the total record . The first portion of the re
cord demonstrates high frequency vertical movement and low frequency horizon
tal movements which break into a pattern of lower amplitude vertical and
higher amplitude horizontal waves ; this break suggests two movements either
on the same line or on two different planes of activity . People interviewed
in the western part of the city indicate that the second of the two shocks
felt stronger , those in the eastern part of town indicate that the first was
more strongly felt ; a factor of time, distance and intensity also seems to in
dicate two separate movements in different areas. ) A very careful study of

268
all the information of subsidence, lateral movement , depositions of witnesses
and other geological , seismological and engineering investigations may unravel
this peculiar possibility .
C . Magnitude of Movement in Seismic Activity .
The area affected by seismic movement is easily outlined by the
dramatic expression in collapse features ; the density in which these features
occur are good indicators of the extent of which movement was exercised in its
varying intensities ; this natural zoning effect is a very important factor to
consider in enforced zoning of a city within the complexities of reconstruction
codes . If time and latitude had permitted , this same aerial photography
could have been used for surveys of more importance to the engineering and
scientific endeavor . A field damage survey by trained photointerpreters ,
color - coding damage (percentages) with types of structures, would bring con
struction practices of Central America sharply into focus and give more
strength to the arguments for more vigorous enforcement of building codes and
inspection of construction practices .

NOTE : Any area of known seismic activity can expect a reoccurrence of that
activity in the future; it is hoped that the results of present investiga
tions will reduce the magnitude of such future disasters .

V. POSTSCRIPT .
This work was completed and published in Spanish for the 2nd
Symposium on Remote Sensing , held in Panama on 2 April. Subsequent field in
vestigations have revealed data which add further interest to this Damage
Pattern Survey .
A. A map of water line and water main breaks was compiled by the Aguado
ra de Managua . The pattern which emerged is very much the same as the pattern
produced in this Damage Pattern study , both in density and location .

B . On aerial photographs , the Instituto Geografico Nacional recovered

all possible ground on paving cracking produced by the 23 December quake .
This was reproduced as a photomap in June 1973 . This representation of
ground behavior gives additional support to the Damage Pattern Survey to the
extent of area affected .

C. An isoseismic map of Managua compiled by Catastro y Recursos Naturales ,

show density / intensity patterns similar to that produced in the Damage Pat
tern Survey .

269
 IL
S

270
,NICARAGUA
MANAGUA
DICIEMBRE
23DE
1972

ESCALA
MOSAICO
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ESCALA
FOTOGRAFIA
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APPENDIX
.Scale
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Photointerpretive
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Jardin
isCiudad
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pper
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little
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ear
 MICROZONATION CRITERIA AND SEISMIC RESPONSE STUDIES
FOR THE CITY OF MANAGUA

by
Ezio Faccioli* , Enrique Santoyo V . * * and José L . León T .* *

1. INTRODUCTION
The geologic feature of the December 23, 1972 , Managua earthquakes that has so far
attracted most attention is the activity of the faults across the city area and its immediate
surroundings1,2, 3 . Interpretations of these faults in relation with the local tectonic setting of
Managua and,-more generally , with the structure of Western Nicaragua have been made
available2,4 . The pattern of surface cracks has been mapped in great detail by the different
investigators with only minor discrepancies.
Fig. 1 illustrates a fault map prepared by F . Mooser and R . Riva Palacio2 , as a result
of extensive field work and analysis of aerial photographs taken before and after the earth
quake. Although the pattern of severe building damage appeared to be quite random through
out the centre of the city, strips of intensive destruction were detectable along portions of
Tiscapa and Chico Pelón fault traces.

All available evidence seems to prove that the seismic performance of Managua subsoil
has been generally good. However , the possibility of local amplification effects has been
suggested 1,2, especially where softer surface layers are found . On the other hand , to the
authors'knowledge, detailed analyses of the properties of foundation soils and quantitative
evaluation of their seismic response are still lacking . This problem was given serious consid
eration early this year , when the Ministry of Public Works of México (SOP ) established the
goals of a geotechnical field programme* * * to be carried out in Managua during the next
several months. Thorough information on the geotechnical properties of the Managua subsoil
was regarded as an indispensable basis for a correct assessment of seismic risk and for the
formulation of appropriate earthquake- resistant design criterias.
The findings of the geotechnical programme are summarized in the first part of this
paper. A surface geologic zonation and a subsoil zonation based on standard penetration
resistance are presented . The second part contains a short description of in -situ shear wave
velocity data and of dynamic soil properties determined in the laboratory on some repre
sentative samples. Finally , in the third part are presented the results of seismic free-field
response studies at a few selected locations in the city area.

* UNESCO Soil Dynamics Project, Institute of Engineering, National University of Mexico

* *
Institute of Engineering, National University of Mexico
* * * This programme constitutes part of a broader technical assistance plan for the reconstruction of
Managua offered by SOP to the Government of Nicaragua

271
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272
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2. FOUNDATION SOILS IN THE MANAGUA AREA

According to the geologic study of Reference 2 five superficial formations are

found in the Managua area, namely :

I. Alluvial deposits, extending over the lowest parts of the city .

II. Alluvial fans. This zone consists of dense deposits originating from Las Sierras
formation .
III. Volcanic rocks of the Miraflores ridge.
IV . Lava , ashes and piroclasts originating from the Masaya Caldera.
V . Ash deposits from the Tiscapa crater and extending over its immediate
surroundings .

The first four zones are shown in Fig. 1. It should be recognized that all above
geologic formations are to some extent covered by recent ash deposits, mostly from the
Masaya Caldera. Alluvial deposits, which consist of the loosest soils existing in this area,
are seen to predominate in the city proper .
In order to obtain a clearer quantitative knowledge of the composition of the sub
soil, it was decided to collect all existing information on soil borings and to perform
standard penetration tests (SPT) at a number of sites where no data were available . Fig . 2
gives the localization of the borings. Boring data (all from SPT), come from four different
sources: LAMSA and NICASOLUM (private geotechnical firms of Managua ), MOP (Ministry
of Public Works of Nicaragua) and GHI ( a private Mexican firm , subcontracted by SOP).
GHI data are of particular importance for this study. They were all obtained after the
earthquake and include 16 SPT borings (letters from A to P ) and four continuous drillings
(D1 to 14) with und isturbed sampling using a Dennison type core barrel. Average depth
for SPT was of 15 m , with a maximum of 34 m at site P . Depth of undisturbed borings
ranged from 12 to 24 m .
Careful analysis of SPT data suggested that foundation soils in the explored area may
be grouped into three categories, namely :

1) N < 10 : loose superficial soils

2) 10 < N < 50 : medium to dense soils
3) N > 50 : hard, very compact soils
where N is the number of blows/ ft in the SPT .

Loose superficial soils (alluvium ) mostly consist of silty sands and in some spots of
clays and fill. Intermediate and hard soils comprise tuffs (cantera), medium dense sands,
pumices, gravel and conglomerate (hormigón ), all of volcanic origin . There also are thin
layers of compact silty sands ( talpetate). The transition from intermediate to hard soils
is usually well defined whereas from loose to medium soils it is more irregular and gradual.
A few representative SPT results are illustrated in Fig . 3 .
Two E - W and one N - S stratigraphic profiles were elaborated adopting the above
classification . These are shown in Figs. 4 , 5 and 6 . The E - W profile of Fig . 4 , which
crosses the whole city centre close to the lakeshore , shows that thickness of loose deposits

273
 Lake Managua

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274
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Fig . 3. Typical Standard Penetration Test results

275
 Road
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276
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277
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278
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is largest in the vicinity of Rubén Darío Theatre. On the other hand, no soft layer is
found along the E - W profile of Fig . 5 , immediately south of Lake Tiscapa . As expected ,
there is a general, but nonuniform , tendency for the thick ness of the loose deposits to
decrease away from the lakeshore. The thickness distribution of the relevant soil groups
is best appreciated by drawing contour lines for the depth of the loose deposits (N < 10 )
and of the boundary between intermediate and hard soil (N > 50) . The two sets of
contour lines are shown in Figs. 7 and 8 , respectively . The surface boundaries of the
loose deposits are not significantly different from those of zone I in Mooser's regionaliza
tion (Fig . 1). Moreover, all thickest spots of loose material are located in the area where
destruction was heaviest . It appears problematic , however, to try to establish closer
correlations between the distribution of alluvium thickness and the areal pattern ofbuilding
damage. This difficulty can be attributed to different factors, such as:
a ) building damage was nonuniform throughout the most severely shaken portion of
the city. An exception is represented by areas where older “ taquezal” (construction
of dried mud and rocks with vertical posts tied together by thin horizontal wooden
strips) buildings predominated , but intensity of destruction in such cases seems to
be due to the poor quality of the construction rather than to local soil effects.

b )modern and taller buildings were sparsely scattered throughout the city and the
quality of their design and construction was quite variable . Properly designed
structures, even extremely close to the main fault (less than 2 km ) and located
in the area of loosest deposits such as the Rubén Darío Theatre, withstood the
earthquake with only minor damage whereas other modern buildings located several
kilometers away but with obvious design faults, such as the Monjas Teresianas
school on the road to Masaya, suffered very severe damage or even partial collapse .
c )most of the loose surface deposits are located in the epicentral area and therefore
their seismic response was probably nonlinear. This would imply a decrease of
surface amplification effects and an increase in the fundamental period of oscillation
of the upper layers.
d ) there was concentrated damage astride some portions of the major faults .
From the data so far discussed , it may be generally concluded that with all likeli
hood there occurred local intensity peaks associated with the presence of loose surface
deposits but their effects have been widely variable , depending on the particular building
and site considered .

3. SOIL DYNAMICS DATA

Shear wave velocity measurements were carried out at the four reference sites listed
in Table 1 .
Table 1 . Sites of S -wave velocity measurements
Name Identification Maximum depth explored (m )
ESSO Refinery SWM 1 33
Hotel Balmoral SWM2
Rubén Darío Theatre SWM3
Colonia Centroamérica SWM4

279
 Lake
Managua

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 Reasons for choosing the above sites are as follows. The only strong motion
accelerograms of the December 23 earthquakes were obtained at the ESSO Refinery, at a
distance of about 4 .0 km west of the Tiscapa fault. The Hotel Balmoral site was regarded
as representative of average soil conditions in downtown Managua, whereas at the site of
Rubén Darío Theatre (near the lakeshore) one finds some of the softest surface deposits
existing in the city area. Finally , the Colonia Centroamérica location was assumed to be of
interest because of localized spots of damage occurring both in the 1972 and the 1968 earth
quakes.

Measurements were performed by means of a down -hole technique using the impact of
a sledge hammer against a wooden table as energy source . A table of 200 x 25 x 5 cm
with an over-weight of 200 kg, placed at a distance of 150 to 250 cm from the borehole, was
employed. SH -wave arrivals at depth were detected by a 3 -component, 7 .5 Hz borehole
seismometer. A detailed description of the measurements can be found in Reference 7 .
S -wave borings at SWM2, SWM3, SWM4 were located at a few meters distance from borings
D3, G and 0 of Fig . 2 , whereas the hole of SWM I was located at 50 m from boring P and
about 200 m from the strong-motion accelerograph site . Due to the extreme care used in
their performance, all measurements are believed to provide reliable values of the shear velocity
Vs at the four sites. These data , together with average unit weights of the soils determined in
the laboratory, are given in Fig . 9 . Also shown are the shear moduli obtained by the relation
G . = p v? ( 1)
where p is the mass density. G . values are considered to be representative of “ initial” strain
amplitudes of the order of 10 % to 10 5 . The layer thickness values, H , given in Fig. 9 were
determined from the break points of the S -wave travel time graphs and are in reasonably
good correlation with SPT data . Since the increase of vs with depth is very slow below the
first fifteen meters or so , one cannot speak of a “bedrock ” proper in marked seismic contrast
with overlying soils. For this reason the depths of bedrock -soil interfaces were assigned on a
basis of pure computational convenience. Bedrock values for vs were also chosen arbitrarily
and are seen to be only slightly greater than those of the layer immediately above . Due to
the subsoil characteristics, the arbitrariness of these choices is known not to affect significantly
the seismic surface response calculations.

A number of undisturbed soil samples were extracted from boring D3 (corresponding to

SWM2) , at depths ranging from near surface to about 15 m . Dynamic laboratory tests using
a Drnevich resonant column apparatus were carried out on a number of such samples, in order
to assess the variation of the shear modulus G as a function of the shear strain amplitude y .
Two representative series of data are illustrated in Fig . 10 . M - 2 data were obtained from a
very loose sample of volcanic , slightly silty sand extracted from a depth of about 4.0 m and
correspondingly tested with a confining pressure oc = 0 .6 kg/cm2. In this case it was
impossible to obtain an und isturbed specimen from the core barrel sample and the test was
performed on a specimen recompacted to the desired density. M -3 data correspond to a
considerably more compact , und isturbed specimen obtained from a sample taken at a depth
of about 10 m and tested with a confining pressure of 1.156 kg/ cm2. The trend of the data
appears to be quite consistent and clear ;however, G . values obtained in the laboratory at strain
amplitudes of the order of 106 were considerably lower than those yielded by Eq . (1 ) .

For the one-dimensional wave propagation model used in the present study, the stress
strain nonlinear behaviour of the soil in simple shear is described by a Ramberg -Osgood
hysteretic law . This law is expressed by the equations

282
 H = 24 .00 m H = 6.00 Y = 1500 Vs =280
yo = 1600 kg/ m3
Go= 1200
y = 10 - 6 a = 0 .00007 p = 3
ly
Vs = 270 m /sec
Go = 1190 kg/cm2 H = 5 .00 Y = 1600 vs = 480
Go= 3760
Y;= 3x10 -6 a =0.00031 p =3
H = 26 . 00 m
Yo = 1700 kg /m3 H =33.00 Y = 1750 vş=580
Vs = 400 m /sec Go = 6000
Go = 2772 kg /cm2
Y; = 3x10-6 a = 0.00031 r =3
UVUVINNIINNNIINNITT
Vs = 550 m /sec Y = 1750 kg/m3 Vs = 600 Yn = 1850
ESSO REFINERY (SWMI) HO TE L BA LM OR AL (SWM2)

H = 4.00 = 1600 vs = 222

GO - 805
H = 12.00 Y = 1550 vs = 208
7. = 10 -6 a = 0 .00007 r=3
Go = 685
Y,= 10 –6 a=0.00007 rp ==33 H = 6 .00 Yo = 1700 Vs = 375
Go= 2435
H = 5 .00 Y = 1600 vs =232
Go = 880
Y,= 3x10 -6 a =0.00031 r =3
Y , = 3x10 a = 0 .00031 r =3

H = 33 .00 7 - 1750 vş =400 H = 30.00 70 = 1750 vs=570

Go= 2855 Go = 5800

7,53x10 -6 Q = 0.00031 rS
=3 7, = 3x10 -6 Q = 0.00031 r=3

77777777777777777777 . ZITINIMIIIIIIIIINTI ,
Vs = 550 y = 1850 Vs = 600 Yo = 1850
RUBEN DARIO THEATRE (SWM3) COLONIA CENTROAMERICA (SWM4)

Fig . 9 . Stratigraphies and soil parameters at four reference sites

283
 1.4 3

‫ܘܘ‬
log z
1.2
G o M-2 2
Go • M-3 log z : -3.503+
1.0
+3 109 17 y
o

0.8
b
o M -2
• M- 3
0.6

0.4 log2 = -4.158 + 3 log

-1
ii

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1
10-5 10-4 10-3 2 3
logy
Deformation ,

Fig.10 . Variation of shear modulus vs. Fig.11 . Best fitting of shear moduli
strain amplitude of two repre data for nonlinear model of
sentative soil samples soil response

Υ T
( skeleton curve ) (2)
7
у -a ( )
and

7 - Yo T To
( hysteresis loops) (3)
27 2 Ty + ( 2 )

where :

T shear stress of soil

ry - small - amplitude reference strain

Ty G. Yy = small - amplitude reference stress

a, r =
nonlinearity parameters
7,70 coordinates of point where loading reversal occurs.

If the quantities
that

1/4

т G Υ Υ
= (4 ) and z = -- (5 )
G. Y ry

284
are calculated from the experimental data, the information of Fig. 10 can be conveniently
replotted as shown in Fig . 11. Here, each set of data clearly defines a straight line whose
parameters are log a and r. Due to computational reasons, however, only odd integer values of
r can be used in Eqs. ( 2 ) and ( 3 )89. Therefore the straight lines of Fig . 11 do not represent
direct best fittings of experimental data. Rather, after assigning to r the closest odd integer
value to the slope defined by a given data set, log a is determined by a least square fitting.
It may be worth mentioning that the nonlinear Ramberg-Osgood description has been
successfully employed by various investigators in seismic soil response studies.9, 10, 11

4. SOIL RESPONSE STUDIES

The characteristics of surface ground shaking produced in the city area by the December
23 , 1972 earthquakes must have undoubtedly been quite complex. The close distance from the
assumed center of energy releasel, the relative displacements along the faults and the interaction
among the different components of motion were among themain factors contributing to this
complexity. Unfortunately , only one strong-motion record of the main event (Mg = 6 .25 at
0 .629 .42 GCT according to Matthiesen and Knudson ) is available , in addition to a number of
seismoscope records whose interpretation poses serious problems. In the absence of sufficient
instrumental data and of more conclusive studies on the seismic source mechanism , it appears at
this stage somewhat unwarranted to attempt wave propagation analyses in two or three dimen
sions, aiming at a comprehensive quantitative picture of ground motions in the region of highest
intensity .
On the other hand , one-dimensional soil response analysis at a few representative sites
are much easier and more economical to perform and, if carried out with realistic soil descrip
tions, have been shown in several cases to provide a crude but useful preliminary evaluation of
the local ground motion characteristics. The restriction of vertical wave incidence, implicit in
the one-dimensionalmodel, may not be too critical in this case. In fact, the assumed depth
of the main energy release (between 5 and 10 km ) is larger than both the diameter of the heavily
shaken downtown area and of the distance between the analyzed sites and the surface trace of
themain fault (with the exception of SWM4) .
. : . For the purposes of the present study only the N - S acceleration component of the
ESSO Refinery record was used . The strong portion of this component contains a sequence of
peaks with a highermean value than the E -W component. Bymeans of a mathematicalmodel
based on a " deconvolution ” technique13 , the surface record was utilized as input for calculating
the " bedrock " accelerogram at the depth of 50 m . This model allows for a linear viscoelastic
material description with so -called proportional damping expressed by two coefficients a and B
(Wilson 's method ) and radiation damping at the bedrock -soil interface. Due to the relatively
slow variation of dynamic soil parameters with depth , radiation damping in this case predomi
nates and even significant changes in the a and ß values do not have drastic effects on the result.
After several tests, a = 0 and ß = 0 .0002 were selected . The original surface component and
the “ deconvolved ” record are shown in Fig . 12. Only the first 10 seconds of the latter were
calculated since this interval contains the most significant part of the motion . It will be recalled
that if the soil medium were represented by a perfectly elastic half-space, surface amplitudes
would be exactly twice those of the signal at depth and no change of shape would occur. In
the present case the amplification ranges tipically between 1.5 and 3 and some change in shape
and frequency content takes place. The base accelerogram thus obtained at SWM1 was then
used as seismic input for the one-dimensional soil systems at SWM2, SWM3 and SWM4. The

285
 12/23/72 N -S COMPONENT (ESSO REFINERY) .

+ 2 . 0
1)(6/ 0
.ACC

hapa hapa na tinatang

-2 .0

2 .0 4.0 C 660 8 8 .0
.0 10. 0 12. 0 14 .0

TIME (SEC . )

DECONVOLVED N - S COMPONENT (DEPTH = 50 M . )

+ 2 .0
.ACC )(G/10

- 2 . 0

Fig . 12 . Original N - S acceleration record at ESSO Refinery and " deconvolved "
bedrock signal

286
SWM1 base motion was multiplied by an arbitrarily chosen scale factor of two at SWM2 and
SWM3, in order to account for decreased distance from the epicenter . No change in the
frequency content was introduced .
The surface soil response at the selected sites was calculated by a step -by-step time
integration procedure which incorporates the hysteretic soil behaviour discussed previously ' .
Some representative values of the calculated responses are listed in Table 2 .
Table 2 . Representative values of calculated surface responses
Max, acceleration Max, undamped spectral accel- Max, undamped spectral velocity
Site eration and corresp . period and corresp . period
(m /sec ) Sa ( m /sec2) T (sec ) Sv ( m /sec ) T ( sec)
Original record 3 .30 36 .55 0 . 18 2 . 16 0 .36
SWM2 3.81 41. 00 0 . 30 1 .95 0 . 30
SWM3 2 .97 24 .30 0 . 10 1.85 0.60 , 1.05
SWM4 2 .32 15 .63 0 .25 0 .70 0 .30

It will be readily noticed that, in spite of the large scale factor for the excitation
adopted at SWM2 and SWM3, only in one case does the peak acceleration exceed that of
the original record . As a matter of fact, the surface accelerogram computed at SWM2 (not
shown here) resembles very closely the original record and this is not surprising in view of
the similarity between the stratigraphies at the two sites. This may also provide an indication
on the reliability of the computational schemes adopted .

Undamped pseudovelocity response spectra calculated at the four sites are shown in
Fig .13 in a four-way logarithmic plot, whereas the corresponding pseudoacceleration response
spectra are illustrated in Fig . 14 in a linear plot. Some basic features of these spectra appear
to be worth of comment. All of them exhibit remarkably high values for periods less than
0 . 5 seconds and this confirms the strong destructive potential of the considered earthquake
towards the lower and more rigid structures.

Comparing the SWM1 and SWM2 spectra , corresponding to sites with very similar and
relatively compact subsoil characteristics, it may be inferred that the ESSO Refinery spectrum
is representative of firm soil conditions prevailing in the area . On the other hand , the
presence of a softer superficial layer is clearly reflected by the shape of the SWM3 spectrum .
Here the ordinates for the lower periods are reduced with respect to the previous sites but are
noticeably higher in the 0 .5 to 1. 2 sec range. These “ softer” spectral characteristics may have
non-negligible consequences on the dynamic behaviour of taller buildings. In the SWM3 case
the soil nonlinearity effects certainly play an important role both in reducing amplification
factors and in widening the frequency range of interest . Within the limits of the present
analysis, the SWM3 spectrum can be assumed to be representative of typical soil conditions
near the shore of Lake Managua. No special comments will be made on the SWM4 spectrum
since it faithfully reproduces the characteristics of SWM1 on a reduced scale . SWM4 is the
site where firm subsoil if found closer to the surface.

5. CONCLUSIONS
A zonation of the foundation soils occurring in the Managua area, based on standard
penetration resistance, has been illustrated . Due to its simplicity and adherence to existing

287
 ent
5 em
lac
sp
Di ,m

0
-5
0
Sve

10
m /sec
1

0.
5
0.5
10
5

5
0.

0.1

0.
1
Original record , SWMI
0.
SWM2 5
0.
0.05 01
1
0.

SWM3 Ac
ce
-0

le
.0

SWM 4
05

ra
05

0.

ti se
on c2
,m /
-0
.0

-0
00

.0
5

01
1
00
0.

0.01
0.0 0.1 0.5 5 10
T , sec

Fig . 13. Undamped pseudovelocity response spectra at four reference sites

288
 40

Sa ,
m /sec2

30

Original record , SWMI

SWM2

SWM3

20

10
1

2 3
T , sec

Fig . 14 . Undamped pseudoacceleration response spectra at three reference sites

289
professional practice , it should prove of direct interest for foundation design criteria to be
adopted in the reconstruction of the city . Dynamic soil properties determined both from
in-situ measurements and laboratory tests are subsequently discussed . The possibility of
establishing quantitative correlations between standard penetration test data and dynamic soil
properties such as the low -amplitude shear modulus Go should be investigated . This could
prove quite useful and economical in solving soil interaction problems associated with the
construction of important structures .

One -dimensional free-field nonlinear response analyses carried out at three different sites
suggest that two different spectra could be conveniently adopted for design purposes : one for
firm soil conditions , closely incorporating the characteristics of the response spectrum computed
from the ESSO Refinery record , and one for the softer deposits predominating near the shore
of Lake Managua. As a matter of fact, two types of spectra with comparable characteristics
are also prescribed in the building code proposal prepared by SOPs . Computed responses
indicate that peak accelerations in the city area did not significantly exceed those of the ESSO
Refinery record .

REFERENCES

1. BROWN , R. D. , WARD , P. L. and PLAFKER , G. , Geologic and Seismologic Aspects of

the Managua, Nicaragua , Earthquakes of December 23 , 1972. U. S. G. S. Professional
Paper 838 , 1973 .

2. MOOSER , F. and RIVA PALACIO , R. , Informe Geológico del Macrosismo del 23 de

Diciembre de 1972 en la Ciudad de Managua, Nicaragua. Report, Institute of Engineering,
National University of Mexico , Aug. 1973 .

3. CLUFF , L. S. and CARVER , G. A. , Geological Observations, Conf. on the Managua

Earthquake , San Francisco , 29-30 , Nov. 1973 .

4. TOCHER , D. , Tectonic Setting for the 1972 Managua Earthquake , to be published in

Ingeniería Sísmica ( Journal of the Mexican Society of Earthquake Engineering ), 1973 .

5. Reglamento de Diseño Estructural para Managua ( Primer borrador ). Requisitos de Segu

ridad y Servicio para las Estructuras, Cap . 8 ( Sismos ) y Cap . 11 ( Cimentaciones ). Ministry
of Public Works (SOP), Mexico City , May 1973 .

6. SHIMA , E. , YANAGISAWA , M. , and ALLAM , M. , Experimental Study on Generation

Bull. Earthq . Res. Inst. , Vol 46 ( 1968 ) , 517-528 .
and Propagation of S -Waves: IV .

7. SANTOYO , E. , Estudio del Subsuelo de la Ciudad de Managua , Nicaragua. Report, Insti

tute of Engineering, National University of Mexico , Sept. 1973 .

8. JENNINGS , P. C. , Response of Simple Yielding Structures to Earthquake Excitations,

Ph . D. Thesis , California Institute of Technology, 1963 .

9. CERVANTES , R. , ESTEVA , L. and ALDUNCIN , G. , Riesgo Sísmico en Formaciones

Estratificadas, Report, Institute of Engineering, National University of Mexico , March
1973 .

290
10. FACCIOLI, E ., ESTEVA , L . and CERVANTES , R . , Probabilistic Analysis of Nonlinear
Seismic Response of Stratified Soil Deposits, 5th. World Conference on Earthquake
Engineering, Rome, June 25 -29, 1973.
11. CONSTANTOPOULOS, I. V ., ROESSET, J . M . and CHRISTIAN , J. T ., A Comparison of
Linear and Exact Nonlinear Analyses of Soil Amplification , 5th . World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering, Rome, June 25 -29, 1973 .
12. MATTHIESEN , R . B . and KNUDSON , C . F ., Strong Motion Instrument Data from the
Managua Earthquake of 23 Dec 72 , Preliminary Report , 1973.

13. RUKOS, E . A ., Earthquake Analysis of Interacting Ground-Structure Systems, Report

No. UC SESM 71-9 , Struct. Engin . Lab ., University of California , Berkeley, May 1971.

291
 USE OF MANAGUA EARTHQUAKE AFTERSHOCK DATA TO
ESTIMATE MAIN SHOCK RESPONSE SPECTRA

by
Walter W . Hays
Environmental Research Corporation
Las Vegas , Nevada 89109
and
Kenneth W . King
United States Geological Survey
Las Vegas, Nevada 89109

Abstract. Aftershocks ranging in Mi magnitude from approximately 0 . 5 to

about four were recorded on a seismic net deployed in January 1973, follow
ing the December 23 , 1972 , Managua earthquake. The broad - band L - 7
velocity system , used successfully for several years in the AEC ' s engineer
ing seismology program and in the San Fernando aftershock monitoring
program , was deployed at 18 different locations over a 14 - day period to
record the aftershock sequence . These locations were selected so as to
obtain data which could be incorporated in soil amplification and structural
response research studies. One recording station was common to the Esso
Refinery plant, the site where a main shock strong motion accelerogram was
recorded. Aftershock data measured simultaneously at the Esso station and
other sites of interest ( e . g . , Banco Central) were used to calculate relative
site frequency dependent transfer functions. These transfer functions were
used to extrapolate the observed main shock spectrum in order to obtain
response spectrum estimates at sites which did not record the main shock .
The results obtained provide evidence that significant variability in the
ground motion occurred within a relatively small geographical area.

Introduction . The objective of this paper is to describe a technique for

estimating main shock response spectra .

Following the December 23, 1972 , Managua earthquake, a large scale

engineering seismology data acquisition program was implemented by the
Special Projects Party of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra
tion (NOAA ). Professor C . M . Duke (UCLA ) coordinated the program .
National Science Foundation provided funding. The broad -band L - 7 velocity
system was deployed. This system has been used successfully for several
years in the Atomic Energy Commission ' s engineering seismology program
at Nevada Test Site . It was also successfully deployed in the 1971 San
Fernando earthquake aftershock monitoring program ( Duke et al. , 1972 ;
Environmental Research Corporation , 1972 ; and Bayer and King, 1972 ) .
Eighteen different recording sites in Managua were selected (Figure la ,
b ). These locations were selected so as to record aftershock data which
could be utilized in soil amplification and structural response research
studies (King, 1973) . One aftershock station (A02) was located at the Esso

292
 Refinery plant, the site which re
corded the main shock strong motion
accelerogram . Other stations were
located at Banco Central (A03) and
Banco de America , two high rise
ar LANE mandoua *
LAKE MANAGUA structures. Five stations (A02, A03 ,
All, A12, A13 ) were located at or
A07
near recording stations which pro
404
A03
A13 duced seismoscope records of the
CA08
A0211 BA09
main shock groundmotion,
YA10 AFTERSHOCK
LOCATIONS Response spectra derived from
a. GROUND STATIONS themain shock accelerogram re
corded at station A02 are shown in
PALACE OF WSTICE
BANK OF AMERICA
BANK CENTRAL RECORDING STATIONS
MI CH1, CH2 CH2, CM
Figure 2 .
E
Description of Procedure for
IU
b. BUILDING STATIONS
Į ! Estimating Main Shock Spectra . A
technique for estimatingmain shock
response spectra at sites which did
not record the event was reported
by Murphy et al. , (1971). This
Figure 1: L - 7 Instrument Locations, technique utilizes aftershock
Managua Aftershock Monitoring measurements as a basis for
Program . de riving relative site transfer

N / S COMPONENT ION ENCOMPONENT

E /W COMPONENT

SPL VI
ON 10 . RAT 10 I T
ACE
TI LE
ERA CCE
MEN
DI

EL A .B A

C.m
T
SP

ACC
VELOCITY
S,C/SPECTRAL
VELOCITY

LA
S,C/SPECTRAL

,
CE
ME
NT

MEC
Cm
MEC

100
U

.0
U

SPECTRAL DAMPING VALUES : SPECTRAL DAMPING VALUES

0 , 2, 10 , 20% 0 , 2 , 10 , AND 20 %
6
.3 2
ERC
0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0 5 10 20 5.0 10.0 20.0 50.0 100 .0
ERC
0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0 10 .0 20.0 50.0 100.0
PERIOD. SECONDS PERIOD . SECONDS

Figure 2 : Managua Earthquake Response Spectra, Esso Refinery

(Station A02 ).

293
functions . These functions are then used to modify existing strong motion
main shock spectra in a deterministic manner to obtain spectral estimates
at the site of interest . Accurate estimates of the main shock ground motion
can be obtained by this procedure .

The basic principles of the spectral estimation technique are described

below . If we have a closely spaced array of seismic stations which record
a number of earthquakes from a given epicentral region , the ground motion
spectrum , A (w ) , at each station for a particular earthquake is given by

A ;
( w ) = T .. (W ) S .. (w ) (1 )
ij ij

Here Tij (w ) denotes the transfer function which incorporates transmission

path and local site effects between the source region and station j . This
function may be a function of the magnitude of the earthquake ( i ) if the
medium responds in a nonlinear fashion. Similarly , Sij(w represents the
earthquake source function . This function will , in general , be a function
of the observation point due to the asymmetrical radiation pattern associated
with a fault plane dislocation mechanism . However , if the observation
points are closely spaced , the aximuthal dependence may be neglected .
This simplification leads to

(2)
Aj ) = Tij (w ) S;(O )

By choosing a reference station ( denoted by subscript zero ) , spectral ratios

between stations may be calculated on an event - by - event basis . This leads
to

w)
ij (3 )
A. ( w ) T. (6 )
10 io

where the source function for a particular earthquake is assumed to be the

same for all the stations in the array . If all the stations in the instrument
array are closely spaced relative to the epicentral distance , the ratios in
equation ( 3 ) will correspond approximately to the effects produced by the
differences in local geology at the individual sites . If the response of the
local site geology is not significantly nonlinear , the spectral ratio for a
given station pair will be essentially the same for all the events . In this
case , average spectral ratios , which correspond to the relative site trans -
fer functions , can be calculated . These transfer functions can be used to
relate the response spectrum at the various stations to the response
spectrum of the reference station . Thus , the average relative site transfer
function is calculated from
n
A.. (W)
ij
A (4 )
Τ ,(ω) = EΣ Α .ω(@
io
i= 1

294
where n denotes the size of the aftershock data sample . Then , the main
shock response spectrum is estimated by

Am ;(W) = T;(@) Amor ) (5 )

Ō

Example of Main Shock Spectral Estimate , San Fernando Earthquake . An

example of the applicability of the technique for estimating main shock
response spectra is depicted by data for the Bank of California and Holiday
Inn . Both stations recorded the 1971 San Fernando earthquake and a number
of aftershocks. Using a selected subset of the total aftershock data sample ,
an average spectral ratio for these two sites was calculated ( Figure 3 ).
This relative site transfer function was then applied to the 5 % damped
average horizontal response spectrum derived from the main shock accel
erogram recorded at Holiday Inn to obtain an estimate of the corresponding
main shock response spectrum for Bank of California . The spectral esti -
mate has an uncertainty of 50 % , independent of period. Comparison of the
estimated spectrum and the actual 5 % damped response spectrum derived
from the Bank of California main shock accelerogram shows that the esti
mated spectrum is slightly overestimated between 0 . 3 - 3 . 0 second periods ;
otherwise the agreement is excellent. The lack of agreement is acceptable
relative to the 50 % uncertainty.
The quality of the agreement indicates that the relative difference in
response between the two sites is essentially the same for the main shock
and the aftershocks. Thus , nonlinear effects do not appear to have been
significant at these motion levels . This result illustrates that aftershock
data can legitimately be used to estimate main shock spectra at sites
which did not actually record the main shock .

Main Shock Spectral Estimates , Managua Earthquake . The procedure

described above was followed to estimate 2 % damped horizontal component
response spectra for stations A03 , A05 , A07 and A08 . (Figure 4 ). Station
A02 was the reference station. Average transfer functions were derived in
each case using simultaneous aftershock recordings. Each estimated
spectrum has an uncertainty of 50 % independent of period.
The estimated main shock horizontal response spectrum for station
A03 (Banco Central) differs significantly from that of station A02 (Esso
Refinery ). The difference is greatest between periods of 0 . 3 - 2 . 0 seconds
with the spectral estimate for A03 ranging from about 1 . 5 to almost 4 times
greater than for station A02. This difference is reasonably consistent with
the seismoscope measurements when one considers the 50 % uncertainty in
the mean spectral estimate .

Variability of Ground Motion . A number of researchers (Murphy et al. ,

1971; Bennett, 1973 ) have shown that the ground motion amplitude and
spectral composition can vary significantly over small geographic areas.
This variability often correlates with damage patterns. The interaction
of the local site geology with the various seismic waves has been identified
as a primary cause of the variability .

295
 NORTH
7FFI
BANK OF CALIFORNIA TIMT VAN OWEN ST . HOLIDAY INN
ITIT
ALLUVIUM

ROCK TTTTTTT
SPECTRAL

3 .0
RATIO

TTTTT
BANK OF CALIFORNIA
HOLIDAY INN

‫للللللل‬10 . 0
PERIOD IN SECONDS
200 . 0
200.0 -

TUTTTTT
— DERIVED FROM SM RECORDING
VELOCITY
RELATIVE

100 . 0
/SPSEUDO

. .. .. .. ESTIMATED MAIN SHOCK SPECTRUM

-CMEC

TTT
ТТІ

... .
. .... .
. . ... .. .

ERC
O 0, 1 1. 0 10 . 0
PERIOD IN SECONDS

Figure 3 : Example of 5 % Damped, Horizontal Response Spectrum

Prediction , San Fernando Earthquake.

296
 DIS VE
DIS E

PLA
REL
1000

19 )
1000 0

PLA
TTTTTTTT

LA

CEM
ATI
CEM
TI

09
ENT
2 % DAMPED 2 % DANPED

INNT

C(E
V

E
ATI ON

ION
DO OLUT ELER

RAT
JIS

SEC

ACC E
VELOCITY CI

T
PSEU ABS C ACC

OLU
ELE
ABS O
D
PSEU
RELATIVE
RELATIVE
VELOCITY
90

PSEUOO
PSEUDO

100 0 100 0

100
100

001 100 M 100

PERIOD IN SECONDS PER100 N SECONDS

DIS
PLA
REL
10000

CEM

100 )
ATI

ENT
VE

C(H
0)
F2 % DAMPED.

RELATIVE
VELOCITY
ION

PSEUDO
E AT
UDO LUT LER

SEC
-CH
PSE ABSO ACCE
1000
A07

A03

A02
A05
A08 A
O 01 100
PERIOD IN SECONDS
2

3 4 5
KILOMETERS

DISP
OTS

REL
GRA

PLA

LACE
10000 10000
ATI
TTI

CEM

MENT
CODT

100
VE
EN
VE

CM(
2 % DANPED 100 2 % DAMPED
E
ION

N
TIO
SEC

RAT
RELATIVE CH

E RA
ACC E

UDO LUT ELE

T
ELE
SEC

OLU
ABS O
PSEUDO CI

PSE ABSO ACC

UD
VELOCITY

PSE
le

100 02
PSEUDO

VELOCITY
RELATIVE

1000 100 0

100
001

100

10 1
0 TO
PERIOD IN SECONDS PERIOD IN SECONDS

Figure 4 : Estimated 2 % Damped Managua Earthquake Horizontal Response

Spectra , for Stations A03 , A05 , A07 , A08 .

297
 The variability of ground motion in Managua is illustrated schematically ,
by Figures 5 and 6. Figure 5 shows velocity time histories recorded
simultaneously from an aftershock at a number of stations . Significant
differences in waveform character and frequency content are obvious .
Variability of the spectral composition is shown in Figure 6 , using the esti
mated 2 % main shock response spectra discussed earlier . Spectral differ
ences reach a maximum of 7-8 in the intermediate period range . These
estimates must be treated as preliminary since much of the data have not
been analyzed ; however , the trends shown here will probably prove to be
reasonably correct ,

Summary . Aftershock data were recorded on an extensive seismic array

deployed following the 1972 Managua earthquake . These data have provided
unique research opportunities . Estimates of main shock response spectra
were made for a number of sites which did not record the main shock , using
a recently developed technique . This technique uses aftershock data and can
be applied independent of a knowledge of the site geologic configuration .
Application of the technique provided reasonable estimates of the main shock
ground motion and showed that the Managua earthquake ground motion varied
significantly over a small geographic area .

1000.0
2% DAMPED
A07
A04.
A03
RELATIVE

•A02
VELOCITY

• A05 0
PSEUDO

A08 4 KILOMETERS
/S-CEC
M

10
A07

0.
100.0

0
LAKE FRONT
Martan SP
RE LA
LA CE
TI ME
A04 VE DI NT (cm) ?
CLUB MANAGUA - psin

10
N
IO

A03 .0
T
TE

RA

3
DO
LU

LE

BANCO CENTRAL-timento awwwwwwwwwsumer sammen 10.0

EU
SO

CE
PS
AB

AC

(9
)

A05
NEAR AMERICAN Wmmand
farmemmieron
EMBASSY
-10 SECONDS
A02 36
ESSO REFINERY Warden man www wymiary 1.
Herman lang naman www.im 1 1 ULERC
0.01 T0.0
PERIOD ( SECONDS)
A08 BUTLDING
ASOSOSCA mhauhan wawa NATURAL 1-2 STORY 3-7 STORY 7 STORIES
PERIOD
opel

Figure 5 : Example of Variability in Figure 6 : Preliminary Estimate of

Ground Velocity Recorded from One Variability in Main Shock Response
Aftershock , Spectra , Managua Earthquake .

298
 REFERENCES

Bayer , K . C . and K . W . King, 1972, Recorded and Processed Seismic

Data from the 1971 San Fernando Earthquake and Aftershocks by the
Nevada Special Projects Party , U . S . Department of Commerce
Publication , NOAA TR ERL 235 - ESL 20 .

Bennett, T . J . , 1973 , A Microzonation Study of the City of Las Vegas,

(Abstract), 68th Annual Meeting of the Seismological Society of
America , May 16 - 19 , Golden , Colorado , p . 21.
Duke , C . M . , W . W . Hays , J . R . Murphy and L . J . O 'Brien , 1972,
Effects of Site Conditions on Ground Motions (Abstract ) , National
Conference on Earthquake Engineering , Los Angeles, California .

Environmental Research Corporation , 1972, San Fernando Aftershock

Sequence Site Effect Studies; Summary Report Prepared for University
of California , Los Angeles .
King , K . W . , 1973 , ESL Nicaragua Earthquake Engineering Report, Input
to a Report being Written by Jerry Morell, San Francisco ,

Murphy , J . R . , R . D . Lynch and L . J . O ' Brien , 1971, Predicted San

Fernando Earthquake Spectra , Glendale Area , NVO - 1163 - TM -30,
Report to USAEC (Available from NTIS , U . S . Department of
Commerce; Springfield , Virginia ) .

299
 PRELIMINARY GROUND MOTION CALCULATION AND SITE EFFECTS AT BANCO CENTRAL

by

J . A . Johnson
University of California ,
Los Angeles
and

T . Yee
University of California ,
Los Angeles

and

C . M . Duke
University of California ,
Los Angeles

Abstract . The Fourier Modulus and time history of motion at the Banco Central
in the main shock have been computed from the Esso Refinery accelerogram ,
using simultaneous aftershock recordings at the two locations . A study was
also conducted to determine the subsurface transfer function at the bank ,
using an equivalent source function obtained from aftershock data and a pre
liminary subsurface model . The results are preliminary pending the outcome
of further analysis .

Introduction . Aftershock ground motion measurements were conducted by a USGS

Las Vegas team in Managua at sites of engineering importance having a variety
of geologic conditions . Eight L - 7 seismographs , in operation between Jan . 18
and Jan . 31 , 1973 , were placed in several arrays at a total of 18 locations
and recorded 38 significant events (ERL , 1973) . Locations and magnitudes of
the aftershocks were determined through an independent array by another USGS
group from Menlo Park (Brown et al ., 1973) .
Two of the L - 7 sites, the Esso Refinery and the Banco Central, Figure 1 ,
were chosen to make a preliminary study of the effects of the geologic site
conditions at the Banco Central . These data were also used with the Esso
main shock accelerogram (Matthiesen et al . , 1973) to calculate the ground
motion (time history ) at the bank during the Dec . 23, 1972 quake . The 1972
main shock had not been recorded at the Banco Central, which is a site of
special engineering interest due to the presence nearby of several buildings
that had been designed for earthquake resistance .
System Model . The approach used was to apply the theory of linear systems
(Duke and Hradilek , 1973) . Work was done in the frequency domain and the
results were converted back into the time domain where appropriate for time
history representation . The generalized system model is shown in Figure 2 .
All quantities shown by symbols are complex Fourier spectra . Thus, E , I ,

300
 LAKE MANAGUA

4 AFTERSHOCK 0620
EPICENTER

MAIN SHOCK
ENERGY, 'CENTER

BANCO N
CENTRALO

ht
ESSO /

LAGUNA DE S LAGUNA
ASOSOSCA TISCAPA

st AFTERSHOCK 0934
EPICENTER I KM
KM

Figure 1. - Index Map .

BANCO
ESSO CENTRAL GROUND SURFACE

I KM X E XBC
QUATERARY
다.

PLANE
FAULT
Wa
c
TERTIARY WE

Figure 2. -System Model .

301
and G represent , respectively , the spectra of motion one kilometer out from
the earthquake energy center , in the Tertiary just below the interface , and
at the ground surface . The quantities W and X represent respectively the
crustal transfer function between the top of Tertiary materials and the
surface . ' hus

G = E W X (1)

1G | - Ellw | 1x1
E ||wl|xl ( Fourier moduli ) (2)

represent the linear system equations for the free field ground motion at any
site in question . This motion is assumed to be due to body waves generated
at the energy center and modulated by the two transfer functions .

The Fast Fourier Transform algorithm was used in the computation of all
spectra . The horizontal components in the north and east directions were
utilized , to correspond respectively with the Banco Central's minor and major
building axes .

The bed rock transfer functions were computed using the expression for
damped spherical spreading ,

w ( r-l )

W = 1 e 2VQ
( 3)

where r is the distance in kilometers from the energy center to the Tertiary
Quaternary interface below the site , w is frequency in radians per second ,
V is the average shear wave velocity in km./sec . over distance r , and Q is
the specific attenuation .

A preliminary subsurface model was used to compute the exploration sub

surface transfer functions , XEXPL , (Duke et al . , 1971 ) , using the formulation
of Haskell ( 1960 ) modified to incorporate damping of the frequency independent
Q form . The model used under Banco Central consists of shear waves propaga
ting vertically through 1000 meters of Quaternary sediments and volcanic
materials , ( McBirney 1965 , and Swain 1966 ) . See Table 1 for the model and
Figure 3 for the exploration transfer function .

Instrumental Site Transfer Function for Banco Central . An effort was made to
incorporate recorded data into the determination of the subsurface transfer
function , giving what will be called the instrumental transfer function , XINST .
To obtain this function , one must first obtain an estimate of a source function
based on simultaneous surface recordings . This was done by using aftershock
0620 , Table 2 , recorded at two sites , going back to the source from each site
using Eq . ( 1 ) , and averaging the resulting source functions to obtain EAVG .
The equation for the instrumentally obtained transfer function is then

G
(4)
INST
EAVGW

302
 Table 1

Subsurface Model

Shear
Layer Thickness , Velocity , Density , Damping
ft . ft./sec . lb./cu . ft . 1/20
1

50 800 100
2 50 1200 112
3 100 1580 113
4 100 1960 114
5 100 2340 116
6 200 2720 118 0.02
7 200 3100 120
8 200 3480 122
9 500 3860 124
10 500 4240 124
11 500 4620 124
12 800 5000 124

Table 2

Earthquake Data

Richter Focal Latitude

Magnitude Depth Longitude

Earthquake 4.6 < 10 km . 5 km . SE of

Jan. 4, 1968 Banco Central

Main Shock 5.6 6 km . N12 ° 09.60 '

Dec. 23 , 1972 W86 ° 15,00

Aftershock 1.4 10.9 km , N12 ° 11.891

Jan. 21 , 1973 W86 ° 13.16 '
0620 GCT

Aftershock 1.4 2.6 km . N12 ° 07.04 "

Jan. 21 , 1973 W86 ° 16.891
0934 GCT

Energy center location based on aftershock pattern , fault trace and

isoseismal map .

303
 10

AMPLIFICATION
8

20 40 60

FREQUENCY , RAD./SEC .

Figure 3. - Exploration Subsurface Transfer Function .

AMPLIFICATION

20

16

12

Mi
l

20 40 60

FREQUENCY, RAD./ SEC .

Figure 4. - Instrumental Subsurface Transfer Function .

304
 Equation ( 4 ) can be strengthened by averaging XINST for both horizontal
directions. The results of this calculation are shown in Figure 4 .
Main Shock Motion at Banco Central . The ground motion at the Banco Central ,
for the main shock , was calculated using the accelerogram at the Esso
Refinery and simultaneous recorded aftershock motions 0934 , Table 2 , at the
refinery and the bank . The linear system equation for this computation is

GABC ( MBC WAE (5)

GMBC - GAE (WME " ABC /
where the subscripts

M = main shock
aftershock
E = Esso Refinery
BC = Banco Central .

Calculations were carried out in the frequency domain , Figure 5 . For com
parison the modulus of acceleration measured at Banco Central during the 1968
earthquake is shown in Figure 6 . The 1968 record is a basement measurement ,
whereas the calculated 1972 main shock motion uses essentially free field
data .
Figure 7 shows 15 seconds of the time domain representation of the
computed Banco Central motion , corresponding with the modulus plot of Fig . 5 .
Due to noise in the aftershock records , the calculated accelerograms continue
for some time at the level shown for the 12 to 15 second range .

Discussion . The exploration subsurface transfer function was established

with a very minimum amount of data . Therefore only the very general shape of
the curve (Fig . 3 ) can be compared with the instrumentally obtained subsurface
transfer function (Fig . 4 ) . The relative shapes of the two do compare in a
general way , but the magnitudes of the instrumental amplifications are much
larger . This may be due to the dominant influence of the low - strain - level
aftershocks in the instrumental calculation .

The most striking difference between the calculated 1972 modulus (Fig .
5 ) and the modulus of the 1968 record (Fig . 6 ) is their relative amplitudes .
( The computation of the 1972 modulus was obtained by using distances from the
energy center rather than distances from the closest point on the causative
fault . ) This difference is to be expected due to the differences in the
magnitudes and travel path distances of the two earthquakes , Table 2 . Moduli
of the 1972 Esso record are intermediate between the moduli of the two Banco
Central records.
The peak acceleration value at Esso compares with the calculated spectral
acceleration from the seismo scope at the same location . The maximum acceler
ation was 0 . 39g , east direction (Matthiesen , 1973) , and the spectral acceler
ation was 0 . 37g . The maximum acceleration of the calculated Banco - Central
time history , east direction (Fig . 7 ) also compares with the seismoscope data .

305
 MODULUS
.FOURIER
,CM./SEC
800

NORTH

EAST

400

20 40 60

FREQUENCY , RAD./ SEC .

MODULUS

Figure 5. -Fourier Moduli, 1972 Main Shock .

.FOURIER
,CM./SEC

40

NORTH

EAST
20
M

20 40 60

FREQUENCY , RAD./ SEC .

Figure 6. - Fourier Moduli from 1968 Accelerogram .

306
 .48 NORTH

4 .
ACCELERATION

.3

0.2
,

.2

.3

.5

2
9
TIME , SECONDS
.5
EAST
.4
ACCELERATION

.3

a 2
,

.2

.3

.4 .

.51

1.61

Figure 7. Calculated Time History , 1972 Main Shock .

307
The maximum acceleration at the bank was 0 .61g and the spectral acceleration
was 0.558. a study of 1971
was 0 . 55g . A study of 1971 San Fernando data showed that these two indices
were of the same approximate size at a given site (Duke et al . , 1972 ) .

Further analysis seems to be warranted , using additional aftershock data

and more detailed geological , geophysical and soil mechanics subsurface
information when the latter become available . Studies of the soil - structure
interaction transfer functions at Banco Central and Banco de America can also
be made, using simultaneously recorded aftershocks at roof, basement and
nearby free field motions .

Acknowledgment . This work was supported by NSF Grant GI 29932 . Assistance in

various aspects was rendered by Walter W . Hays , Kenneth King , James Jordan ,
Peter Ward , R . B . Matthiesen , P . J . Hradilek , A . R . Carriveau and Leroy Anstead .
The authors ' thanks is extended for all of this help .
References . Brown , R . D . , Ward, P . L . , and Plafker , G . , Geologic and Seismo
logical Aspects of the Managua , Nicaragua Earthquakes of December 23 , 1972 ,
U . S . G . S . Professional Paper 838 , 1973 .

Brown , R . D . , Managua , Nicaragua Earthquake of January 4 , 1968 : Proj . Rept . ,

Nicaragua Inv . ( IR ) NI- 1 , 16p . 1968 .

Duke , C . M . and Hradilek , P . J . , Spectral Analysis of Site Effects in the San

Fernando Earthquake, 5th World Conference on Earthq. Engr . , Rome , Italy , 1973 .

Duke , C . M . , Johnson , J . A . , Kharraz, Y . , Campbell , K . W . , and Malpiede, N . A . ,

Subsurface Site Conditions and Geology in the San Fernando Earthquake Area ,
U . C . L . A . Engr . Report 7206 , Dec , 1971,
Duke , C . M . Johnsen , K . E . , and Engman , D . C . , Effects of Site Classification
and Distance on Instrumental Indices in the San Fernando Earthquake , Proc .
Int . Conf . on Microzonation , Seattle , Washington , pp . 465- 482 .
Environmental Science Laboratories , NOAA , ESL Nicaragua Earthquake Engineering
Report , February 1973 .
Haskell, N . A . , Crustal Reflections of Plane SH Waves , J . Geophys . Res . 65,
4147 -4150, 1960 .
McBirney , A . R . , and Williams, H . , Volcanic History of Nicaragua, Calif . Univ .
Pub . Geol . Sci. , v . 55, 73 p . 1965 .

Matthiesen , R .B . , and Knudson , C . F . , Strong -Motion Instrumental Measurements ,

Reconnaissance Report , Managua , Nicaragua Earthquake of Dec . 23 , 1972 ,
Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, 1973 .
Swain , F . M . , Bottom Sediments of Lake Nicaragua and Lake Managua , Western
Nicaragua , Journal of Sedimentary Petrology . Vol . 36 , No . 2 , pp . 622 - 540 ,
June 1966 .

308
 LOCAL STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING PRACTICE
BEFORE AND AFTER THE 1972 MANAGUA EARTHQUAKE

BY

FILADELFO CHAMORRO C .
STRUCTURAL ENGINEER
MANAGUA , NICARAGUA

HISTORICALLY , THE CITY OF MANAGUA IS YOUNG : IT BECAME A CITY IN 1846 . PROFES

SIONAL BUILDING ENGINEERING PRACTICE IS EVEN YOUNGER , NOT MORE THAN 35 YEARS
OLD . THAT MEANS THAT VERY FEW ENGINEERED BUILDING WERE BUILT BEFORE THE 1931
EARTHQUAKE , THAT DESTROYED MOST THE ADOBE AND STONE CONSTRUCTION TYPICAL AND
EXISTING AT THAT TIME . HOWEVER TAQUEZAL CONSTRUCTION SUFFERED LITTLE OR MOD
ERATE DAMAGE DURING THAT EARTHQUAKE , AND PARTLY ON ACCOUNT OF IT , AND PARTLY
BECAUSE IT WAS A VERNACULAR ANSWER TO OUR CONSTRUCTION PROBLEM , IT BECAME THE
ACCEPTED TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION FOR THE NEXT 15 YEARS , DURING THAT PERIOD SOME
TWENTY CONCRETE BUILDINGS , AND A FEW STEEL BUILDINGS WERE BUILT IN THE CITY OF
MANAGUA BY FOREING TECHNICIANS OR ENGINEERS .

THE END OF SECOND WORLD WAR BROUGHT A GREAT CHANGE IN THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
OF THE COUNTRY . AT THAT TIME A NEW GENERATION OF YOUNG ARCHITECTS AND ENGI
NEERS WERE READY TO TAKE COMMAND OF THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY , AND WERE SUBS
TITUTING THE TRADITIONAL LOCAL BUILDERS IN MOST IMPORTANT CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS .
ALSO , AROUND THIS TIME , THE RECENTLY FOUNDED ENGINEERING SCHOOL WAS GRADUATING
ITS FIRST CLASS .

FOR THE FIRST TIME NICARAGUAN ARCHITECTS AND ENGINEERS WERE PLANNING , DESIGN
ING , AND CONSTRUCTING , TOTALLY ON THEIR OWN , THEIR FIRST GENERATION OF BUILDINGS .
THEY BECAME A NEW SORT OF MASTER BUILDERS , BUT HANDLING NEW MATERIALS AND
TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION WITHOUT MUCH EXPERIENCE OR TRADITION TO SUPPORT THEM .
USUALLY WORK WAS STARTED WITH ONLY GENERAL PLANS , INCLUDING STRUCTURALS , WHICH
WERE COMPLETED AS THE WORK ADVANCED . THIS TYPE OF ORGANIZATION , ALTHOUGH
VERY COMMON IN MANY COUNTRIES , DOES NOT PRODUCE THE BEST OVERALL RESULTS , SPE
CIALLY , AT TIMES OF RAPID TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES , OR TO COMPLEX PROBLEMS LIKE
EARTHQUAKE DESIGN .

NEW STYLES AND METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION WERE INTRODUCED IN THE COUNTRY . REIN
FORCED OR PARTIALLY REINFORCED MASONRY REPLACED TAQUEZAL AS THE MAIN TYPE OF
CONSTRUCTION , AND REINFORCED CONCRETE BECAME OF COMMON USAGE . ALTHOUGH ENGI
NEERS WERE AWARE OF THE EARTHQUAKE PROBLEM , BUILDINGS WERE DESIGNED , FRE
QUENTLY , ONLY FOR GRAVITY LOADS . DESIGN WERE BASED SOLELY ON STRENGTH REQUI
REMENTS , USING THE ACI OR OTHER FOREIGN CODES , AS A REFERENCE . SINCE STIFF
NESS WAS NOT A DESIGN CRITERIA , THE GENERAL TREND WAS TOWARDS SLENDER STRUC

309
TURES . FOR EARTHQUAKE LOADS , THEY DEPENDED ON PROVEN STRUCTURES , BUILDING
SHAPES , OR TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION ; ON HIGH SAFETY FACTORS ; ON GOOD WORKMANSHIP ;
AND , PERHAPS , ON AN INDISCRIMINATING RELIANCE ON THEIR NEWLY LEARNED CONCRETE
TECHNOLOGY . SEISMIC FORCES WERE USED , PROBABLY , FOR CERTAIN BUILDINGS , BUT
NOT VERY FREQUENTLY . FURTHERMORE , SINCE MOST BUILDINGS WERE LOW , STRONG TRE
MORS INFREQUENT , AND WIND LOADING NOT A SERIOUS PROBLEM , LATERAL LOADING WAS
NOT GIVEN ITS DUE IMPORTANCE . SINCE MOST BUILDINGS WERE REINFORCED CONCRETE
FRAMES , ENGINEERS DID NOT HAVE MUCH TRAINING AND EXPERIENCE WITH THE DESIGN OF
BRACED STEEL AND TIMBER STRUCTURES . THIS IS , PERHAPS , AN IMPORTANT POINT TO
MENTION , SINCE THE INFREQUENT USE OF BRACED STRUCTURES DID NOT GIVE ENGINEERS
FREQUENT OPPORTUNITIES TO ANALYSE THE PATH OF FORCE TRANSMISSION FROM THE
STRUCTURE TO THE GROUND , EVEN IN SIMPLE STRUCTURES , CONSEQUENTLY , DIAPHRAGM ,
CHORD , AND CONNECTION STRESSES WERE NOT GIVEN MUCH THOUGHT , AND WERE NOT DULY
DETAILED . WHILE ENGINEERS KEPT DESIGNING REINFORCED STRUCTURES WITH SOLID
SLABS , THESE STRESSES WERE NOT CRITICAL , BUT YEARS LATER , WHEN NEW CONSTRUC
TION SYSTEMS , BASED MAINLY ON PRECAST ELEMENTS , WERE INTRODUCED AND USED EX
TENSEVELY IN A HIGHLY COMPETITIVE INDUSTRY , THESE STRESSES AND DETAILS BECAME
CRITICAL , AND WERE OFTEN OVERLOOKED BY ENGINEERS .

AT THIS POINT , AND IN ORDER TO HAVE A COMPLETE PERSPECTIVE OF THE WHOLE SITUA
TION , LET ME POINT THAT THERE WAS NOT , AROUND 1940 , PRACTICALLY ANY LOCAL PRO
FESSIONAL ENGINEERING TRADITION IN OUR COUNTRY . BY TRADITION , I MEAN THAT BODY
OF KNOWLEDGE , TRAINING , AND EXPERIENCE THAT IS FOUND IN ENGINEERING OFFICES ,
UNIVERSITIES , AND REGULATORIES AGENCIES , OR IN THE STANDARD AND CODES OF A COM
MUNITY . IT REPRESENTS , THE AVERAGE QUALITY OF ENGINEERING PRACTICE AND COM
PETENCE OF SAID COMMUNITY . IT ALSO REFLECTS THE WORK OF THEIR BEST ENGINEERS ,
WHO AT VARIOUS TIMES , SHAPED IT , AND PASSED THEIR KNOWLEDGE TO THE FOLLOWING
GENERATIONS . TO COMPLETE OUR PERSPECTIVE WE SHOULD ALSO KEPT IN MIND THAT
THERE EXIST A TIME LAG , OF BETWEEN 10 TO 20 YEARS , IN THE OFFICE DESIGN PRAC
TICE OF OUR COUNTRY , IN RELATION TO THE CURRENT KNOWLEDGE OF COUNTRIES OF AD
VANCED TECHNOLOGY ,

DURING THE SIXTIES , ENGINEERS BECAME AWARE THAT IT WAS NOT ONLY INEFFICIENT TO
MAINTA IN THE OLD MASTER -BUILDER TYPE OR ORGANIZATION IN A HIGHLY COMPETITIVE
INDUSTRY , BUT ALSO A HANDICAP IN ORDER TO KEEP ABREAST WITH TECHNOLOGICAL DE
VELOPMENTS . THIS LESSON WAS LEARNED THE HARD WAY , BUT QUICKLY. A GROUP DE
CISION WAS TAKEN OF THE GREATEST IMPORTANCE TO THE BUILDING INDUSTRY AND ITS
PRACTICE : TO SEPARATE ENGINEERING DESIGN PRACTICE FROM CONSTRUCTION WORK . IT
CONSTITUTED A DEVELOPMENT OF GREAT VALUE AND CONSEQUENCE , EVEN FOR A COUNTRY
WHERE A VERY HIGH PORCENTAGE OF ITS CONSTRUCTION IS MADE OF ONE AND TWO -STORIES
STRUCTURES . FROM THAT TIME ON , THE PROCESS TO SEPARATE ENGINEERING DESIGN
OFFICES , FROM CONSTRUCTION COMPANIES PROGRESSED RAPIDILY.

AS A RESULT , THERE WAS A GENERAL IMPROVEMENT IN BUILDING PRACTICES . MORE

COMPLETE AND DETAILED DESIGNS AND PLANS WERE ELABORATED , AND FREQUENTLY THE

310
UNIFORM BUILDING CODE WAS USED AS A DESIGN STANDARD ; MODERN AND RELIABLE
METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION WERE USED MORE EXTENSIVELY IN THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS ;
DUE IMPORTANCE WAS GIVEN TO THE SUPERVISION OF WORKS ; AND PRIVATE LABORATORIES
FOR SOIL TESTING AND QUALITY CONTROL BECAME AVAILABLE FOR THE FIRST TIME TO THE
PRACTICING ENGINEERS .

HOWEVER , DESIGNS WERE STILL BASED MAINLY ON STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS , AND LITTLE
THOUGHT WAS GIVEN TO THE ATTAINMENT OF PROPER BUILDING STIFFNESS AND ITS DISTRI
BUTION AT DIFFERENT STORIES AND AMONG ITS ELEMENTS . DUE CONSIDERATION WAS NOT
GIVEN TO RELATIVE OR SUDDEN CHANGES IN STIFFNESS ; TORSION REQUIREMENTS ; DRIFT
CONTROL , THAT WAS THE CAUSE OF MOST SERIOUS DAMAGE IN THE PAST EARTHQUAKE ;
OR POUNDING BETWEEN ADJACENT BUILDINGS . THE DAMAGE THAT OCCURED DURING THE
PAST EARTHQUAKE , ON ACCOUNT OF THIS LAST POINT , ILLUSTRATES BETTER THAT ENYTHING
ELSE , THAT WE DID NOT HAVE A FEELING FOR THE REAL FOR CES ACTING ON STRUCTURES
DURING A STRONG EARTHQUAKE . SOME LESSONS ARE LEARNED ONLY BY EXPERIENCES .
EVEN AT THAT TIMES , ONE AND TWO -STORY DWELLING , WITH RARE EXCEPTIONS , WERE NOT
DESIGNED FOR SEISMIC LOADS . AND PROBABLY MOST IMPORTANT , THERE WAS NOT A SE
RIOUS INVESTIGATION FOR DESIGN CONCEPTS THAT COULD GIVE ANSWERS TO THE EARTH
QUAKE PROBLEM , EITHER IN DWELLINGS OR BUILDINGS . THE EARTHQUAKE PROBLEM WAS
NOT INCLUDED AMONG THE RELEVANT FACTORS IN OUR SEARCH FOR A VERNACULAR ARCHI
TECTURE ; IT WAS TREATED AS AN IMPORTANT , BUT COMPLEMENTARY ELEMENT IN OUR
DESIGN PROCESS . IN APRIL 1972 THE FIRST LATERAL FORCE CODE , A MODIFIED VERSION
OF THE SEOAC CODE , BECAME LAW IN THE COUNTRY , BUT ITS REGULATION NEVER TOOK
EFFECT .

AFTER THE EARTHQUAKE THERE HAS BEEN A GREAT INTEREST AND A VERY SERIOUS EFFORT
TO IMPROVE , AND UPDATE DESIGN PRACTICES . THE WHOLE EARTHQUAKE PROBLEM IS

BEING CAREFFULLY STUDIED , AND DUE CONSIDERATION IS GIVEN TO THE INCIDENCE OF ITS
MOST RELEVANT FACTORS .

FOR THE FIRST TIME GEOLOGY HAS BEEN BOUGHT INTO THE PICTURE EXTENSEVELY ; SOIL
RESPONSE , PROBABLY THE MOST IMPORTANT FACTOR IN THE DOWNTOWN AREA , WILL BE
STUDIED BY GOVERNMENT AGENCIES ; A NEW CODE REGULATES STRUCTURAL DESIGN ; NON
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS ARE CAREFULLY DETAILED AND GIVEN DUE CONSIDERATION ; AND
IN A NEAR FUTURE DYNAMIC ANALYSIS WILL BE CARRIED OUT FOR THE DESIGN OF BUILDINGS
MORE THAN 3 STORIES HIGH . THE GENERAL TREND IS ENCOURAGING AND POSITIVE .

BUT CONSIDERING THAT OUR ENGINEER ING TRADITION IS STILL WEAK , THAT A TIME LAG
STILL EXISTS , AND THAT THERE IS THE EVER PRESENT DANGER OF USING AN INCOMPLETE
TECHNOLOGY IN THE COMPLEX FIELD OF EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING , WE SHALL REQUIRE OF
A TEAMWORK APPROACH , AND A JOINT EFFORT BY PART OF OUR ENGINEERS TO FIND SOLU
TIONS TO A PROBLEM OF SO GREAT CONSEQUENCE TO OUR COMMUNITY TO BE LEFT IN THE
DOMAIN OF A FEW .

As A CLOSING REMARK , I WOULD LIKE TO SUGGEST THAT THE EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

311
RESEARCH INSTITUTE , IN COOPERATION WITH SOME INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION , COULD
HELP NARROW THE GAP , AND SHORTEN THE LAGS AMONG NATIONS BY SHARING WITH THE
PRACTICING ENGINEERS OF OTHER REGIONS OR COUNTRIES , ITS VAST EXPERIENCE AND THE
RICH CALIFORNIA TRADITION IN EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING .

312
 HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF BUILDING FORMS IN MANAGUA

by

José Francisco Terán M.A.

Osorio y Terán , Architects and Engineers
Apartado 1327
Managua , Nicaragua

The ideas I want to present at this meeting are motivated by the inconfor
mity of an architect to be content with the usual statement made : " This
earthquake has taught us many STRUCTURAL lessons" since I believe that
to view this " lessons " in a more integrated context we must trascend the
aspects of Geology , Soil Mechanics and Structural Analysis and try to un
derstand the very important DECISIONS of the architect to form the build
ings and conform them to the many requirements functional, social and
evironmental. This is important because the resulting building forms once
they are built enter the realm of physical nature , whith their implicit mass ,
weight distribution and natural vibration characteristics ; and become sub
ject to the static and dynamic forces that will bear upon their capacities
to fulfill the first essential requirement of the classical Vitrurian triangle
of architectural principles " FIRMNESS , Commodity , and Delight " .

Talking about " FIRMNESS" we are often tempted to assign this problem to
the structural engineer alone , and expect him to solve it , hopefully , with
consideration of all the internal and external forces that normally or AB
NORMALLY will bear upon the building. But before the entire process

of stability analysis is considered , many decisions have already been made ,

usually by the architect, that result in a particular building form within
the limits of the particular building technology of an area , and many pro
perties of physical behaviour are implicit in such early decisions . This

explains why so many facts are shelved in the simplist explanation of " this
happened so and so for ARCHITECTURAL REASONS" after the critical
testing of a strong earthquake. My fundamental question is what are the
meanings of the so called " architectural reasons " and what are the rasons
for such " reason " to exist .

313
I will not enter into the complex problem of Architect- Engineer relationships
that so ofton is seriously or even jokingly commented in meetings such as
this . It is a fact that since the Renaissance split the sacred units of the
" Puilding Art" into as many pieces as it has been possible to rationalize,
w suffer from a multiplicity of improperly tested solutions that derive from
many technologies around the world and from as many different mentalities
as there are schools of thoughts and beliefs .

Solutions analyzed somdimes within the academic accuracy of the laboratory

are quickly incorporated in the design process thru the texts , the codes , and
what I call the " Structural Theology " based on the authority of the most
famous investigators . What I want to emphasize is that in the context of
seismic behaviour a lot more attention has to be given to the process of
design that determines the overall shape and proportions of buildings , their
interior modulations , their orientation , and their architectural and construc
tion detailing, all of which satisfy specific needs and perform jointly , with
the purely structural considerations , to determine the overall success or
failure.

Now , since it would be too ambitous to cover all the aspects that such
considerations imply in the short space of this paper, and since the pro
blems caused in and by the most commonly considered " architectural" as
pects such as suspended ceilings, electro -mechanical perforations, eleva
tors and the like are so obvious and self explanatory, I will limit myself
to some of the subtleties and complexities of the determination of BUILD
ING FORM , especially in the particular historical, economic, social, and
technological contexts of Managua , and the resulting seismic implications .

The essentials that the architect must take into consideration everywhere
to shape up the buildings are :

The alternatives for the distribution and organization of functions

in space. The extreme expression of this consideration is the
statement often quoted by modern architects around the turn of
the century " FORM FOLLOWS FUNCTION " .

The location , orientation , topography and other environmental

aspects of the particular site.

The construction technology available in the area .

314
 The structural concepts and considerations that especially in
contemporary architecture are of particular relevance for aesthe
tic expression .

The aesthetic expression and integration resulting from the

designer ' s creative impulse.

The historical, cultural, economic and political contexts .

The cost-benefit ratios analyzed or implied .

In the case of Managua much could be said on each of these determinants in
relationship to the resulting building forms and their performance in the
earthquake. However since most of them are clearly understood by the
dants of this meeting I will refer particularly to some of the historic ,
cultural and economic facts that in my opinion shaped to a large degree the
buildings of Man agua .

I also assume that we all agree on three points : First, that the primary
function of buildings is to satisfy human needs- physical, biological, social
- and not to be structurally sophisticated . Second, that we can 't endanger
life and property for the sake of functional or aesthetic gimmicks; and third ,
that seismicity affects emotionally entire societies in areas like Managua
and therefore the integrated search of all involved for building forms that
protect, rather than enhance this danger can produce aesthetically interest
ing results.

The aim should be, once other basic requirements have been studied , to
start very early in the design process with a FORM SOLUTION that at
least will not hinder or handicap the structural solution .

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

A brief analysis of the patterns of buildings in the Managua area reveals

a strong contrast between the old central part of the city that extended
North to South from Lake Managua to the residential blocks across the
Intercontinental Hotel and East to West three for four kilometers on each
side of Roosevelt Avenue, and the newer residential areas that sprawl

315
within a wide fan shaped pattern with a radius of 8 to 10 kilometers
from the City Centre.

The older central part was predominantly built with continous " taquezal"
wall construction , roofed with timber frames covered by heavy Spanish
colonial tiles. Many of you that have visited Managua after the earth
quake have seen and explained " taquezal" as a local system of construc
tion made up of vertical timber frames resting on cut stone bases , with
wood columns 8 '' to 12 " square and completely covered by horizontal
slats of wood filled with a core of stones, clay bricks , or whatever hard
material was available. The entire surfaces were then plastered with a
mortar made of mud with some lime, finely stuccoed and painted . Simi
lar systems combining wood and inorganic materials in a more or less
primitive fashion exist in most underdeveloped areas of the world. To
understand the building form of " taquezal" we have to look back at some
of the historical facts that shaped Managua .

When Managua awoke to the tremendous tragedy that has motivated this
meeting it became evident that beyond the facts of intense ground shaking,
the rubble of destruction , the dead , the injured , the pillage , and the fi
res , Managua was also the victim of its historical origin , as a city
improvised out of political necessity during the century of cultural and
economic depression that followed the Nicaraguan independence from Spain
in 1821 .

To give you a little background , Managua was a political compromise

to settle the endless civil wars between Leon , seat of the Liberal Party ,
and Granada , seat of the Convervatives, two cities founded by the Spa -
niards in the first quarter of the sixteenth Century , that prospered until
1854 when it was decided to make Managua , at that time an insignificant
as

village, the capital of Nicaragua with the only merits of being nearly
equidistant from both , in front of a lake, with a flat plain pierced

316
by natural volcanic craters , overlooking the beautiful Momotombo , and , a place
with so little urban personality that Leon and Granada could really surrender all
their pride without the possibility of finding a new good reason to fight .

Leon , after it being removed form its original site because of " volcanic problems"
in 1610 , and Granada founded in 1524 , grew and flourished under Spanish rule .
This meant that the Spanish Building Art, inherited from the Romans and the
Arabs became the predominant feature of the architecture of both cities . In anti
quity, the Romans were the most structure- conscious people that formed their
spatial concepts from a deep understanding of the laws of gravity and produced
tremendous arched spans and incredible domes balanced on huge, static supports.
The Arabs, on the contrary, were the creators of tracery, ribs, slim supports,
and all the basic elements of thrust and counterthrust that in the hands of more
refined French monks later became the miracle of the Gothic Style. Despite
their contrasting structural philosophies both Roman and Arab Architectures were
STRUCTURAL styles and their expression was the result of the clarity of static
structural thinking .

Running down the huge inventory of large buildings : cathedral, palaces , convents,
etc . that the Spaniards built in the New World , we are impressed by the extra
ordinary consistency of planning and execution . The cathedrals of Mexico , Lima
and Leon in Nicaragua have tremendous similirarity despite ther being so far
apart. All three, are massive buildings, arranged with strong symmetry , cons
tructed with similar methods, placed on a wide base, and of such strong masonry
that the mortar and plaster can hardly be chipped . The residential construction
had even more extraordinary directness of structural layout with massive adobe
walls, stone or wood reinforced arched openings and patios exposed wooden
rafters on well tied timber frames that usually extended over wide overhangs
roofed with clay tiles .

The colonial cites of Nicaragua shared the consistency and continuity that resulted
from a strong, common building art, very much based on simple, strightforward
structural concepts and execution . The continous repetition of construction con
cepts and detailing led to more and more refinement, economy, and understanding
on behalf of owners and builders .

Managua , on the contrary, was the child of the century of Liberal Revolution , of
the tragic split of the building art in the hands of more and more skills and
specialists to satisfy the voracity of modern individualism trying to improvise on
archtectrual style, construction materials and methods.

317
If we add the post - independence economic and cultural depressions and visualize
the advent of the speculators that reduced to a minimum the width of the streets
and the area of the interior patios , we can understand why in the poverty of such
construction (''taquezal" ) and in the narrowness of such planning so many victims
layed in the earthquakes and fires of 1931 and 1972.

Looking over the aerial photographs of Leon and Granada , and comparing them
with Managua we can understand immediately the contrasts between the strong
structural urban patterns of the twin colonial cities of Nicaragua and Managua .
S

Effectively, the first two reflect the conitunity of buildings in city blocks as if one
roof pierced only by plazas and patios covered the entire city, except where build
ings like churches and markets stood . On the contrary, Managua seen from the
air , reflected the lack of urban coherence, with an old , decadent heart from which
sprawled residential neighborhoods planned in more recent days along the Garden
City Concepts , resembling a poor miniature of monstrous Los Angeles.

Nothing will ilustrate this contrast better than a comparison between the principles
of construction of residential blocks in Granada or Leon and Managua. While in the
first two cities the blocks were built continously of massive , homogeneus adobe
walls , in Managua the predominant " taquezal" construction of the destroyed city
fak ed with plaster and paint its heterogeneous composition in which wood was left
to rot unseen . While overhangs over sidewalks in Leon and Granada are struc
tured with exposed refters , in Managua it was customary to nail metal lath and
plaster under, and again the wood structure was placed under ideal conditions for
quick , invisible, dangereous decay . Effectively in the earthquake of 1972 , 95 % of
the total number of deaths occured in " taquezal" structures while people that at the
time of the earthquake were sleeping under "modern " construction , even if this
modern construction , as it happeden , also suffered severe destruction because of
improper design , inadequate construction , or intense ground shaking, the number
of victims was nihl.

ALL THESE CONCEPTS LEAD ME TO THE SUBSTANCE OF MY PRESENTATION

AS I TRY TO EMPHASIZE THAT CONSTRUCTION DOESN 'T HAPPEN IN A VACUM
WHERE ONLY PURE STRUCTURAL THINKING APPLIES. ON THE CONTRARY,
CONSTRUCTION IS PAR EXCELLENCE THE VEHICLE THAT HUMANS USE FOR
SOCIAL EXPRESSION OF THEIR VALUES - GOOD AND BAD - IN PERMANENT
BUILDING FORMS.

Therefore, if we try to force a purely stable and safe habitat and expect to fit all
other considerations later we may end with an unrealistic solution that society will
reject to such and extreme that it will prefer to be exposed to huge dangers rather
than be content with buildings that although very stable are far removed from social
and economic realities and aspirations .

318
NON TAQUEZAL CONSTRUCTION IN MANAGUA

The patern of " Taquezal" that was responsible for almost the totality of victims
caused by the December earthquake was interrupted by a few buildings of steel and
concrete of many different architectural and construction concepts built between the
1931 and the 1972 destructive earthquakes. The period between 1931 and 1972 coin
cides with several important developments in Nicaraguan History , now closely rela -
ted to world affairs .

At the time of the first major reconstruction of Managua in the years that followed
the 1931 earthquake, the architectural and engineering professions were non - existent
in Nicaragua ; the country was occupied by the U . S . Marine Forces that battled the
first liberation guerrilla warfare of modern times , and a world -wide economic de
pression raged over the country and the entire world .

Under such circumstances the city lost a great opportunity to be replanned at a

time when the principles of modern urbanistic theory and practice were already
well known in Europe and the U . S . The neccessity for several public buildings ,
and the total lack of architects and engineers to give coherent, inspired , modern
planning leadership resulted in the appearance of building forms totally strange to
Nicaraguan and even Central American Culture.

The predominant architectural features of these buildings of steel and concrete

were either pseudo Greek , like the National Palace and the Municipal Building , or
the worse type of Mussolini grand formality , like the National Bank , the Temple
of Music and the National Tribune. We may add the confussed neoclasicism of the
Cathedral that in 1931 was already under construction , or the Arabic style of the
Presidential Palace built shortly before. From such a lack of a more local perso
nality , we may understand the complete faithlessness that Managua , devastated by
a first natural disaster and without leadership , had in itself during the first recons
truction . Perhaps the only justification we can find for such neoclassical building
forms was their massiveness and basic symmetry in relationship to the evident
seismic problem since is it was proven in 1972 that most of those buildings suffered
less severe damage than some of the more modern and slender concrete buildings
of the central urban area .

These ''modern " buildings made their significant debut in Managua in the decade of
the 1940 's and proliferated after the shortage of money and materials created dur
ing the Second World War dissipated in the decade of the 50 ' s .

At the beginning a total " taquezal" building would be completely peeled off the mud
and lime plaster , covered with newly introduced metal lath and replastered with
cement mortar. Once in a while a timber column , that had been render
I S

319
gy putrefaction , would be replaced by rudimentary concrete with volcanic cinders
used as aggregate and reinforced with twisted or smooth steel bars . Slowly, con
crete in all forms (solid concrete, concrete blocks, etc . ) became the most impor
tant structural material.

The period between 1950 and 1960 was characterized by a complete change of build
ee

ing technology as the result of economic growth , but especially because the first
Nicaragua architects and engineers trained in the U . S . , Mexico and Europe for
med construction enterprises that constituted the core around which the local cons
truction industry developed .

As more architects and engineers appeared in the scene, as Managua 's population
became subjected to whim and fashion , and as a result of internal stability and
economic growth the city became partially renovated with boxy buildings that
characterized " Modern Architecture" with American , Mexican or Brazilian tenden
cies. The box on stilts, the box within two solid walls and a completely trans
parent glazed elevation , the louvered box, the box with grills , the thin canopies ,
the everhanging balconies , and all the repertoire of modern architecture became
quickly the focus of attention not only in the central comercial and government
areas , but also in the important public and private school buildings and in the
churches, whether they were sandwiched in with taquezal, or built free in the
moder - sprawlling residential areas .

The decade of the 1950 's may be summarized as a period of experimentation with
modern architectural forms and materials , mainly with concrete, executed by Ni
caraguan foreign trained architects and engineers , organized in strong building con
sortiums and serving a community obsessed with atoning itself to the " modern
times" . THE BACKGROUND OF THE 1931 DESTRUCTIVE EARTHQUAKE WAS
FADING AWAY INTO THE HISTORY BOOKS. We can also say that congruent with
the developments of seismic structural theory and practice abroad and the complete
lack of local building or structural codes , the anti- seismic design was of course
weak by present standards even in cases of foreign designed buildings such as the
American Embassy, The Customs and Pepsi-Cola Buildings , etc .

THE DECADE OF THE SIXTIES

In terms of building forms the decade of the sixties can be represented by the
appearance of the " skyscraper" in the cityscape of Managua . The Social Security
Building first, and the Central Bank and Banco de America later , confirmed that
the 1931 earthquake had been dropped from the background to a subconcious level
of fear , and Managua triumphantly was entering the new era of urban economic

320
power in which the tall commercial structures were predominant in its skyline.

Furthermore some buildings - Central Bank , ENA LUF , National Theatre, Intercon
tinental Hotel, Banco de America - were electromechanically brought up to such
standards of vertical transportation , air conditioning, illumination and communica
tions as in the more advanced countries . The new requirements , the new architects ,
and the new magnitudes , demanded the more complex studies of soil testing, seis
mic design more or less according to U. S. building codes , and the introduction of
new building techniques including pre and post stressed concrete and prefabrication .
To a large extent structural calculations were performed by engineers from other
countries working inside or outside Nicaragua . The practice of bidding on the ba
sis or fairly complete construction plans and specifications prepared with different
degrees of competence was the standard procedure, and a modern highly efficient
construction Industry developed . However the national investment in new construc
tion was kept at very low levels and there was a lack of long term financing to
replace the taquezal buildings that by now were not only obsolete but also invissibly
rotten .

( The outstanding buildings of this de cade , with their most important data are tabu
lated at the end of this paper . )

Meanwhile the well to do families on their own , and the middle income families
thru the help of Government or Alliance for Progress long term financing were
escaping as fast as possible to the more attractive periphery of Managua where
housing projects, of predominantly low density single family character , developed
with some kind of umbilical connections to the main highways . The nearly twenty

thousand families that the night of December 23rd were sleeping in the periphery
within partially reinforced masonry or concrete walls and under thin , asbestos , or
even heavy concrete roofs , managed to escape without harm even in those cases in
which partial or total destruction occured while among the less fortunate that slept
within " taquezal walls " and under clay tile roofs thousands of victims occured .
The other , perhaps the largest sector of the population , escaped injury in the
shanty slums of light wood and cardboard houses located in the clandestine urbani
zations of Managua .

CONCLUSIONS : The case of Managua illustrates the complexities that influence the
design and construction of buildings beyond the pure structural considerations .

The question arises as to whether the building should be designed to meet the
functional, social and aesthetic needs and then be implemented for structural safe
ty or if in seismic areas like Managua , the special problems of stability and over
all integrity should condition the design process by which the elements of form

321
such as mass, symmetry, modulation , etc. are decided.
If we agree that such is the case, how can architects engineers owners and the
whole community develop a common design attitude for a phenomenon that occurs
critically at considerable time intervals during which many of the design parame
ters actually change. Besides , in contrast with the automobile the ship and the
airplane that are designed primarily to be in motion during their functioning periods ,
buildings are designed to be static but may be subjected to short, dangerous periods
of violent motions. Furthermore it seems agreeable that no design philosophy can
evolve only from catastrophic considerations to achieve a cero risk situation . On
the contrary it has to grow from functional, social, cultural and economic realities
that determine the actual framework of CALCULATED RISKS that are significantly
different for each particular area .

As Managua prepares to enter its second reconstruction in recent history we can 't
expect that the seismic risk will be totally resolved or even significantly diminished
by demands and restrictions on building construction alone, but rather by a mature
attitude of physical planning and a realistic determination of an integrated approach
to the building art. The more simple , continous, symmetrical, straightforward and
repetitive the solutions the greater will also be the degree of reliability of the
motionless structures in which we live and work when they become attacked by
seismic motions.

Will this mature attitude evolve by itself or should we promote it thru special
educative techniques at least in our related professions ?

Undoubtedly , meetings such as this , are in the clear direction of achieveing that
purpose.

322
 TABLE ONE

IMPORTANT BUILDINGS STRUCTURAL DATE OF

1960-1972 ARCHITECT ENGINEER DESIGN

1. SOCIAL SECURITY 1 А 1960

2. CENTRAL BANK 1 A 1961

3. NATIONAL THEATRE 2 and 3 B and C 1964

4. SUPREME COURT 1 D 1965

5. ARPORT 3 B 1965

6. TELCOR 1 D 1966

7. BALMORAL HOTEL 4 G 1969

8. INTERCONTINENTAL HOTEL 1 D 1968

9. ENA LUF 2 D 1968

10. LA PROTECTORA 5 E 1969

11. BANCO DE AMERICA 3 and 6 B and F 1968

1 ) Architects 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 are from Nicaragua , trained in the U. S.

except for architect 4 who was trained in Mexico . Architect 5 is
from Costa Rica and architect 6 from the U. S.

2 ) Only structural engineers B, C and G are from Nicaragua .

Engineer A is from Colombia , engineers D and E are from
Costa Rica , and engineer F from California .

323
 TABLE ONE

INITIAL REPLACEMENT COST OF

CONTRACTOR COST VALUE 1973 REPAIRS 1973 PERCENTAGE

1. X 5.5 10 4 40%

2. X and Y 22 40 15 38 %

3. Z 14 20 4 20%

Ą. X 10 15 5 33 %

5. X 10 15 3 20%

6. Y 3.5 5 1.5 30 %

7. X 7 10 5 50%
.
8

Y 16 22 8 36 %

9. Z and W 16 22 5 23%

10 . Z 4 6 2 33%

11. X and Z 23 30 10 33%

3) All Contractors are Nicaraguan , trained abroad , mainly in the U. S.

4) All Cost figures in millions of cordobas . One U.S. dollar - Seven cordobas .

5) Costs of repair are estimated and include new requirements of the

Managua Code .

324
 TABLE ONE

STRUCTURAL DAMAGE ARCHITECTURAL DAMAGE

OVER OVER
TOTAL DAMAGE TOTAL DAMAGE

1. 50% 50%

2. 20% 80%
.
3

2 % 98 %

4. 25 % 75%
.
5

25 % 75 %

6. 50% 50 %

7.. 30% 70 %

8. 30% 70%

9. 30% 70%

10 . 30% 70%

11 . 50 % 50%

325
 TABLE ONE

TYPE OF STRUCTURE TYPE OF FORM

1 . Frame reticulated slabs Partial symmetry : Tower on base

2 . Frame tube reticulated slabs Partial symmetry : Tower on base

3 . Shear walls Very symmetrical : Box

i ti

4 . Frames shear walls Partial symmetry : Tower on base

5 . Frames Symmetrical : Rectangular low box

very elongated E - W

6 . Frames , post tension Symmetrical : Tower

7 . Frames Partial symmetry : Tower

8 . Frames shear walls Partial symmetry : Pyramid

9 . Frames shear walls Very symmetrical : Horizontal Box
10 . Frames Very unsymmetrical: Tower
11. Shear walls Very symmetrical : Tower

326
 SITHT:10

Figure 1 Figure 2
La Recolección - León The Cathedral of Leon

Figure 3 Figure 4
La Merced - León Subtiava - León
Four outstanding examples of colonial churches in the city of León , Nicaragua .

327
Figure 5 Figure 6
eenne
rrrr

Figure 7 Figure 8
Four examples of framing door and window openings in colonial buildings in Leon ,
Nicaragua .

328
Figure 9 Figure 10

Figure 11 Figure 12
Four examples of exposed structuration of overhangs and balconies in the city of
e entre , malent
Granada Nicaraguaexposed
. struct

329
Figure 13 Figure 14

Figure 15 Figure 16
Four examples of the excellent structural relationship of exposed roofs to
walls and columns in buildings in Granada , Nicaragua .

330
Figure 17 Figure 18
Taquezal unmasked by the december Early reinforced concrete house in
earthquake in Managua . Managua (1939).

Figure 19 Figure 20
Taquezal mentality introduced in the Result .
1940 's in school building in Granada .

331
 1900

Figure 21 Figure 22

Cathedral of Managua Temple of Music - Managua

BANCE
DE NICO

LIKO

Figure 23 Figure 24
National Tribune - Managua National Bank Building
Four examples of pseudo classical buildings of Managua's post 1931 earthquake
reconstruction .

332
 MI
MI

Figure 25 Figure 26
The pseudo Greek National Palace The Islamic Presidential Palace

Figure 27 Figure 28
Earthquake punishment to a hollow Early reinforced concrete mixed with
style . taquezal.

333
 PINTURAS
Protecto

DODGE
ONDRES

Figure 29 Figure 30
The Louvered box . The overhanging balconies .

Figure 31 Figure 32

Box composition . Facade unrelated to structure .

334
Figure 33 Figure 34
Architecture with an expression of Campanile for seismic Granada ?
structure .

DOBE

Figure 35 Figure 36
Faked overhangs of lath and plaster . Many people survived in light wood
houses .

335
Figure 37 Figure 38

The Social Security Building . The Supreme Court Building .

citis

Figure 39 Figure 40
The National Theatre . The Intercontinental Hotel .
Outstanding buildings of the decade 1960-1970 ,

336
 S
PEPSI

Figure 41 Figure 42

The Sk ys erapers of Managua . The Telcor Building.

Figure 43 Figure 44
La Protectora . ENA LUF

Other outstanding buildings of the Decade 1960-1970 .

337
 predominant
taquezal
rising
spirit
.Fiure
from
was
the
45-Anew

338
R.&
EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEREEBE
ASERBAS
EEEEEEEEEERBEEBERESSEERB
TOT
EES111
Figure 46
View looking South .

339
 Vicio
SL
.TVRDIO
NASTER

340
-TAQUEZAL
47
Figure
341
Maquezal
48
-TFigure
'tcNon
didn
but
badly
suffered
.houses
victims
ause
any
 Performance of Native Construction ,
Masonry Structures and Special Structures
in the Managua , Nicaragua Earthquake
of December 23 , 1972
by
J . E . Amrhein , Structural Engineer , Director of Engineering ,
Masonry Institute of America , Los Angeles
G . A . Hegemier , Professor of Applied Mechanics ,
University of California , San Diego
G . Krishnamoorthy , Professor of Civil Engineering ,
California State University , San Diego

1 . Introduction

1. 1 Location and Description

Managua , capital of Nicaragua , is located at Latitude 12° 15 ' North ,

Longitude 86° 40 ' West , and is approximately 2600 miles southeast of Los
Angeles (Fig . 1 ) . Locally , it is situated on the south shore of Lake Managua
(Fig . 2 ) . The city , with a population of 405 ,000 , was an interesting blend of
old torquezal houses and new , modern high -rise buildings of various structural
types (Fig . 3 ) .
The city of Managua lies on the Circum -Pacific Earthquake Belt and
has a long history of considerable seismic and volcanic activity . In March ,
1931, the city was completely destroyed by a major earthquake . Subsequent to
this , there was an earthquake in 1968 which also caused extensive damage .

1.2 Characteristics of Earthquake

At 00 :29 :42 Managua time (06 : 29 :42 GCT) , on December 23 , 1972 , the
city was subjected to an earthquake of Richter magnitude 6 . 2 and Modified
Mercalli intensity of VIII+ . The primary earthquake fault traversed through
Lake Tiscapa (Fig . 5 ) in the northeast direction , and ground motion was
generated by a left - lateral strike slip of approximately three inches . The
epicenter is estimated to be in the vicinity of the downtown area ; the focus
is estimated at two miles in depth .

Only one accelograph was functioning at the time of the earthquake .

This was located at the Esso Refinery , 372 miles west of downtown Managua ,
where ground accelerations of 0 . 39g E - W , 0 . 34g N - S , 0 . 33g vertical were
recorded . The accelogram is shown in Fig . 6 . A series of significant fore
and after shocks (not shown ) have also been recorded .

The lack of strong motion records in the downtown area is unfortunate .

This will hinder the completeness of any investigation .
Judging from observed distress in buildings and a local cemetery
(see Section .), horizontal shocks in the east- est direction were predominant
( see Section 4 . ) , horizontal shocks in the east -west direction were predominant
in the area of major damage .

342
 Los Angeles
at . 34 ° N
ong . 118 ° 30'W

Gull of Medico

199 BA

NORTH AMERICA
Managua
Lat . 12 ° 15'N BIA
COLOM
Coor Kong . 86° 40'w OU

Figure 1
Managua , Nicaragua 2600 miles southeast of Los Angeles , California

8 9.

Tipitapa
ores
Amor Las Cruces
El Pan
MANAGUAEl Cantón
FE
RR el
San Migu LasMercedes El Zapota
OC
376 AR San Coist óbal 80
RI
L 23 Zambrar
Las
Mercedes El Paraíso
V V
PA

El Bosquel 55
CÍ

O AVS

Sabana Grande
FI

Escuela Americana
DE

CO
L

Santa Rosa
N KA

an
Cofradías
Pla Argentina
D

Colonla Molina
30 Comarca Las Maguitas
Sase ! P
VI

bEstación
AS

meste motittelAurora
berfesto Aurora Veracruz
Santa Rosa 402 La/ Carbonera
1
EllCarmen VE
Pesq
squi pula
uipu
Crisálida lasg
Comarca Los Madrigales 3

Figure 2
Managua on south shore of Lake Managua .
The authors were billeted in the little town of Tipitapa .

343
 BATTERIER
F ESTEN
PETITIE

939933
mm

Figure 3
Modern Managua before earthquake

atsisa

Figure 4
Destroyed Managua

344
1. 3 Damage

The earthquake devastated 600 to 700 square blocks of the city in a

period of less than ten seconds (Fig . 4 ) , causing approximately 7 ,000 deaths ,
20 ,000 injuries , and property damage exceeding 700 million U . S . dollars .
Vital facilities , including power , water , communications , fire and hospitals
were destroyed . Panic was widespread . Approximately half the population of
Managua were left homeless .

1. 4 Investigation Objectives
The authors of this paper conducted an on -site investigation of
structural damage in Managua immediately following the earthquake as part of
the Earthquake Engineering Research Institute (EERI) team with the following
objectives : to investigate design practices and construction techniques of
structures , the performance of torquezal, unreinforced and reinforced masonry ,
precast concrete housing , certain industrial complexes , and other special
structures .

2 . Design

2.1 General

The design and construction of structures in Managua followed quite

consistently the techniques of design and construction found throughout Mexico
and Central and South America . Accordingly , major buildings were designed for
combined live load , dead load , and lateral forces due to wind and earthquake .
The latter were approximated by static load distributions . Virtually no
modern dynamic analyses of structures were evident .

2.2 Building Codes

Prior to the earthquake , Managua had no established buildig code or
building department that governed the design and / or construction in the city .
Small homes and minor buildings were designed by engineers and architects who
followed practices that they deemed reasonable and safe . Many of them used
the Uniform Building Code , the Structural Engineers Lateral Force Recommenda
tions and the ACI Code for major structures such as the Bank of America build
ing , the National Theater and Telecore.
Since the earthquake , the government has adopted a building code
proposed by engineers from Mexico and Venezuela , which is basically an updated
version of the Mexican Building Code . This present code includes equivalent
lateral force requirements and other detailed requirements for seismic design
of buildings .

345
 LOGITUD
Peninsula de Chiltepe
Mateared figure di sipasprie LATITUDE 12° 5 ' N i Ildefonsi

D E
los Cedros El Esfuerzo VOLCÁN CH
VOLCÁN CHILTEPE La Compania

T
UL
El Ros

FA
El Tempisque
Desmotadora Losprasiles Tipi
SanX Luis L EPICENTER Tip itata
pa pat El Hatillo
Miraflores
P S ET Chaparro los brasilesc Isia del Amor DOWNTOテーブ
( Los Ranchos San Francisco ルイー・ E! Renagna Santa
PACÍF EL

Bella Cruz MANAGU El Cantón -

San Andr
Il Santa ésIN 7 ,
San1 Miguel
FE
Las Mercedes El Zapotal
D
ICO
FR*A

RR
Luisa La OC
AR
Prin zapolka RI
L
te San Cristóbal 5. 1
ERRO Zamirang
( 2 las El Paraison
Mercedes
La Trinidad El Bosque / 55
eia Americana Sabana Grande
Santa Rosa TA
S E ! Descanso , Colonia Molina) i la Argentina A TA si Cofradías
2 C
El Prade Comarca LasMaguilas
Santa Eethonia S7 SanJosé A Estación
a Santa Anal San Ernesto (la Autora ( Veracruz
s
30 el Socorro Santa Rosa La Cach oneta
Carbonera
El Cainen
El Rosa Esquipulas
ComaresLosMadrigales / Los Altos der Quan
Figure 5
Major fault through Managua

Accelerogram of Managua Earthquake

Esso Refinery
halamhanamammanharm
North - South
Vertical

Time - Seconds

East - West
Vuruh tumwmwin
10.10 6.
23 Dec. 1972 00:35 Hrs.
Figure 6
Seismograph record from Esso Refinery

346
 3 . Materials and Construction

The building materials in Managua included torquezal , hollow clay

tile , concrete block , brick , concrete , structural steel , and wood to a limited
extent .

3 . 1 Torquezal Construction
The word " torquezal" means " pocket " and, in effect , the space
between the vertical members is a pocket packed with mud and stone (Fig . 7) .
Vertical
VE wood studs 2 " x 4 " , or even as large as 2 " x 8 " , are
erected approximately 24 " on centers . Wood lath , 1" x 2 " is nailed on each
side of the wall into the wood studs and spaced approximately 8 " 0 .c . vertic
ally . This wall is a series of pockets that are filled with stone and mud
balls . Additional mud is packed around the mud balls and stone in the wall .
As the mud dries out it becomes firm and the wall is stiffened . After the mud
and rock infill wall is dry , the surface is plastered with a cement stucco
(Fig . 8 ) . No wire mesh or any other reinforcing material is applied to this
surface ; the stucco is applied directly to the wall over the lath . The sur
face is then painted and this constitutes the wall construction for the
majority of the older native buildings in Managua .
The wood studs serve as the vertical load - carrying members for the
roof system . The roof construction consists of light wood trusses that are
covered with a wood lath on which are laid clay tile, cement asbestos sheeting ,
corrugated metal or another roofing material . This construction has good insul
ating qualities against tropical heat and has vertical load carrying capabili
ties because of the vertical wood studs . However , the lateral force resisting
strength of this system is very poor , for the infilled walls of earth are
heavy and have very low strength (Fig . 9 ) . This type of residential wall con
struction should be banned in earthquake areas .

3.2 Hollow Clay Tile

Hollow clay tile was used extensively in Managua for walls , parti
tions , frame infills and below windows as spandrels . Severe damage of this
material was observed . In most cases such walls were considered only as archi
tectural partitions and their structural contribution was neglected . In point
of fact, however, use of this material as an infill changed the response of a
given structure from a flexible frame building to a rigid shear wall structure .
The effect of the infilled walls is to reduce the period of the building and
consequently increase its response to seismic excitation .

Test reports on hollow clay tile were obtained from LAMSA , Labora
torio , Nicaraguinse de Materials , S . A . Compression tests were performed both
parallel ( end construction ) and perpendicular (side construction ) to the cells .
Detailed test results are presented in Tables 1 and 2 . ASTM requirements are
listed in Table 3 for comparison .

347
 Figure 7 Figure 8
Torquezal construction was used for Detail of torquezal construction
majority of homes.

Figure 9
Collapsed homes of torquezal
construction caused many casualties
and deaths .

348
 In general, the strength of the clay tile loaded parallel to the
cells had a low of 700 lbs . per square inch and a high of 1300 lbs . per square
inch , on the gross area . There are approximately 60 % solids and the net
strength , accordingly , was low 1160 psi, and high 2150 psi . When the clay tile
was loaded perpendicular to the cells , the net cross - sectional area was 340
psi , and the average net strength was 1000 psi. The net strengths loaded in
this direction were 580 psi low and 1570 psi high . The general conclusion on
the strength of clay tile is that the average strength of the ceramic clay
material is 1000 psi.
The workmanship was generally poor quality with the tile laid with
the cells horizontal and the bed joints mortared . No mortar was used on head
joints as these were open cells . This hollow clay tile masonry was plastered
over and no particular care was taken in the workmanship .
TABLE 1

.
Clay Block Compression Test
Load Longitudinal to Cells
Block Size Wall % Wt . of Av . Compr . Str . Compressive Str . Range
W x H x L Thick . Solid Block
lbs . Gross psi Net psi
Gross psi Net psi Low · Hi Low Hi
6 x 12 x 12 .63 18 .5 526 896 447 663 757 1124
6 x 12 x 12 .67 17 . 7 1035 1697 708 1315 1160 2155
18 . 5 290
18 . 5 899
20 . 0 445
20 .2 751

TABLE 2

Load Perpendicular to Cells

Block Size Wal1 % Wt . of Av . Compr . Str . Compressive Str . Range

W x H x L Thick . Solid Block
lbs .
Gross psi Net psi
Gross psi Net psi Low Hi Low Hi
6 x 12 x 12 .63 18 .5 312 913 199 499 582 1460
6 x 12 x 12 .67 17 . 8 370 1063 277 549 791 1570
4 x 8 x 16 .63 12 . 2 257 803 148 333 463. 1040
4 x 8 x 16 13. 9 348 1160

349
 TABLE 3

Standard Specifications for

STRUCTURAL CLAY LOAD - BEARING WALL TILE

ASTM Designation : 034 -62

Maximum Minimum Compressive Strength

Water Absorp (Based on Gross Area ) , psi
tiona by l -hr .
Boiling , End Con Side Con

Individual
Individual
Percent struction struction

Averages

Averages
Grade Tile Tile

Tests

Tests
Five

Five
Average Indi

of
of vidual of
Five
Tests

LBX. . . . . 16 191400 1000 700 500

LB . . . . . . 28 1000 700 700 500

aThe range in percentage absorption for tile

delivered to any one job shall be not more than 12 .

Gross area of a unit shall be determined by

multiplying the horizontal face dimension of the unit
as placed in the wall by its thickness .

350
3 . 3 Concrete Block Masonry

Considerable use was made of concrete block masonry in Managua for

both structural and non - structural walls .
Concrete block masonry was either a two or three cell type and there
were two general qualities : 1 ) specified block which would meet some strength
requirements , this specified block had an average gross strength of 630 psi
and an average net strength of 1000 psi, the maximum gross strength was 800
psi; and 2 ) unspecified block which was used in housing and unimportant commer
cial or industrial projects . It had a much lower strength with approximately
an average gross strength of 200 psi and an average net strength of 300 psi.
Detail test results , obtained from LAMSA Laboratories , are provided
in Tables 4 and 5 . ASTM requirements are furnished in Table 6 for comparison .

Concrete block construction , although superior to that of hollow

clay tile , sustained considerable damage . The quality of workmanship and
design was observed to be generally poor . In many cases there was no mortar
in the head joints , joints were not tooled , walls were unreinforced and not
tied to frames , etc . There were exceptions , such as the Esso Refinery head
quarters laboratory building , where the workmanship was excellent .
TABLE 4

Concrete Block Compression Strength Test

Block Size Age Average Comp . Str . Compressive Str . Range

W x H x L Solid at Gross psi Net psi Gross psi Net psi
Test Low Hi Low Hi
8 x 6 x 16 64 . 5 463 719 372 593 578 919
8 x 6 x 16 63 20 620 984 522 772 837 1225
8 x 6 x 8 59 . 5 718 1206 566 916 951 1540
00

60 196 325 181 210 300 350

8 x 6 x 16
x 6 x 16 61 25 800 1312 705 1045 1156 1713
x 6 x 16 65 . 2 24 670 1027 624 750 957 1150
x 6 x 16 64 . 6 23 674 1042 528 750 817 1264
x 6 x 16 66 . 5 781 1174 698 853 1050 1283

351
 TABLE 5

Concrete Block Compression Strength Test

Block Size %
W x H x L Solid Gross psi Net psi

6 x 8 x 16 52.4 370 702

6 x 8 x 16 63.9 324 507
6 x 8 x 16 66.4 218 328
6 x 8 x 16 63.4 496 782
6 x 8 x 16 58.6 144 245
6 x 8 x 16 58.6 209 356
6 x 8 x 16 61.2 181 295
6 x 8 x 16 61.2 209 341
6 x 8 x 16 63.2 303 479
6 x 8 x 16 58.9 470 798
6 x 8 x 16 65.6 812 1237
6 x 8 x 16 59.9 471 786
6 x 8 x 16 64.3 571 888
6 x 8 x 16 64.3 698 1085
6 x 8 x 16 64.3 579 900
6 x 8 x 16 60.9 526 863
6 x 8 x 16 59.2 896 1513

6 x 8 x 16 64.8 383 591

6 x 8 x 16 62.1 280 450
6 x 8 x 16 63.4 320 505
6 x 8 x 16 63.4 388 612
6 x 8 x 16 62.1 290 467

352
 TABLE 6

Designation: C 90 - 70 Amorican National Standard A79. 1

American National Standards Institute

Standard Specification for

HOLLOW LOAD-BEARING CONCRETE
MASONRY UNITS
TABLE 2 Strength and Absorption Requirements
Note - To prevent water penetration protective coatings should be applied on the exterior face of basement
walls and, when required , on the face of exterior walls above grade.
Water Absorption, max,
Compressive Strength 1b / ft (kg /cm )
min, psi (kgf/cm ) (Average of 3 Units )
with Oven -Dry Weight of
Concrete, lb / fl' (kg /cm ')
Grade Average Gross Arca Weighi Classification
Lightweight Medium weight Normal
Average of Individual Less than Weight
3 Units Unit Less than Less than 125 to 105 125 (2002)
85 (1362) 105 (1682) (2002 to 1682) or Morc
N .1 1000 (70) 800) (56 ) 18 (29) 15 (24) 13 (21)
N - 11
S - 1" 700 (19) 600 (42) 20 (32)
S - 11°
• Limited to use above grade in exterior walls with weather-protective coatings and in walls not exposed
to the weather.

2. Classification
2.1 Grades ---Concrete masonry units man Units designated as Type I (Grades N -I and
ufactured in accordance with this specification S-I) shall conform to all requirements of this
shall conform to iwo grades as follows: specification including the moisture content
2.1.1 Grade N --For general use such as in requirements of Table 1.
exterior walls below and above grade that 2 .2.2 Type II, Nonmoisture-Controlled
may or may not be exposed to moisture pene Units --Units designated as Type II (Grades
tration or the weather and for interior walls N - II and S-II) shall conform to all require
and back -up. ments of this specification cxcept the mois
2.1.2 Grade S - Limited to use above grade ture-content requirements of Table 1.
in exterior walls with weather-protective coat
ings and in walls not exposed to the weather .
2.2 Types — Two types of concrete masonry
units in each of two grades are covered as fol
lows:
2.2.1 Type 1, Moisture- Controlled Units

353
3. 4 Brick Masonry

Exposed (not plastered ) brick masonry was generally superior in

quality and workmanship to concrete masonry . Joints were raked or tooled and
the masonry itself was kept clean . Mortar joint thickness was observed to
vary from 3 /8 " to 3 / 4 " .
Infilled walls of brick masonry that were plastered over were gener
ally of inferior quality . This resulted in poor structural performance in
such structures as Estadio General Somoza , San Sebastian Church , and others .
There were exceptions, such as the National Theater , in which the infilled
brick masonry walls performed extremely well .

Comparison test results obtained from LAMSA Laboratories are shown

ison purposesoreher Asin physical
in Table 7 for solid clay brick . For Comparison purposes , the ASTM physical
requirements for Building Brick (ASTM C -62 ) are shown in Table 8 .

TABLE 7

Compression Test on Solid Clay Brick

H x W x L Wt .
Solid Brick 2 " x 5 " x 10 " 4 . 8 lbs .
Compression Strength psi
Specimen number 1 1152
1199
‫بمییا‬

1632
1359
11 5 966

Average value 1262

354
 TABLE 8

Standard Specifications for

BUILDING BRICK ( SOLID MASONRY UNITS MADE FROM CLAY OR SHALE )

ASTM Designation : C62 -69

PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS

Minimum Compressive
Strength (brick flatwise ) ,
psi , gross area
Designation
Average of
5 brick Individual

Grade SW . . . . . . 3000 2500

Grade MW . . . . . . 2500 2200
Grade NW . . . . . . 1500 1250

3.5 Concrete
The coarse aggregate used in concrete was hard basalt rock of local
origin . Table 9 furnished the 28 -day average cylinder strength ( f' c ) of con
crete used in major construction .

TABLE 9

Cast Concrete Compression Test (28 -day cylinders )

Project Strength f ' c psi

Altamira D ' este 2346
Residencial Las Mercedes 2915
Teatro Nacional Ruben Dario 39 40
Banco De America 4578

3 .6 Reinforcing Steel

Reinforcing steel was imported from the United States and other
producing countries such as Japan . The reinforcing steel was of intermediate
and hard grade , both deformed and smooth . Table 10 provides typical values for
yield stress ; once again , this data was obtained from LAMSA Laboratories .

355
 TABLE 10

Test
Reinforcing Steel Tension Test
Bar Size Yield Stress psi
50 ,700
3,25 49 ,800

3. 7 Reinforced Construction

3 . 7 . 1 Reinforced Masonry
The workmanship and quality of concrete block and brick
masonry has been discussed above in previous sections . The combination of
masonry with reinforcing steel was used in a specialized way as follows : the
masonry wall was subdivided into panels approximately five foot square with
concrete tie members (Fig . 10 ) . Tie members were reinforced by four # 3 bars
in a 6 ' square cross - section . With the exception of structures such as the
headquarters and laboratory building of the Esso Refinery , reinforcing steel
was not integrated in a manner similar to that used in California .

3 . 7 . 2 Reinforced Concrete
The quality of reinforced concrete and the connection details
varied from excellent to poor .

The Bank of America Building is an example of excellent reinforced

concrete construction . The Estadio General Somoza Stadium , on the other hand ,
is an example of poor material and construction techniques . In the latter
case , steel ratios were inadequate and reinforcing bars were observed to ter
mínate with hooks in joints and without proper anchorage .
3 .7 . 3 Precast Concrete

There were a number of structures fabricated with precast

concrete elements . Examples of such construction are the Nacional Instituto
Geografico de Nicaragua (National Institute of Geography Nicaragua ) and several
precast concrete housing complexes . The precast elements were generally of
good quality and workmanship . The construction , however , was inadequate . For
example , the filled walls in the precast housing complexes were insufficient
to resist the lateral forces generated by seismic ground motion and consequent
ly failed . This resulted in a dislocation of the roof channels from the walls
(Fig . 11) . See Section 4 . 16 for further information .

356
 Figure 10
Intermediate concrete tie members in wall

Figure 11
Precast concrete roof member collapsed due to inadequate connections

357
3. 8 Construction Inspection
There was an overt lack of inspection of construction . Serious dis
crepancies between design plans and actual construction were observed frequently .
A classic example is the Intercontinental Hotel . The plans specified 6 " thick
cast concrete exterior walls , whereas unreinforced concrete masonry was substi
tuted . In addition , connection details were flagrantly violated and inadequate
connections were apparent in most construction .

4 . Performance of Specific Structures

4 . 1 Cementario San Pedro (St . Peter 's Cemetery )
This 70 - year -old cemetery is east of the Social Security Building
(Fig . 12 ) . The longitudinal axis of the cemetery is north - south with the head
stones having their long axis in the north - south direction and the short axis
in the east -west direction , the same as the grave layout .
From the direction in which the grave headstones fell, it was obvious
that the maximum ground motion was in the east -west direction . A study of the
headstones revealed that the initial significant ground motion was primarily
to the west , causing the smaller , lighter headstones to fall to the east . The
subsequent ground motions shifted the heavier monuments from their bases and a
strong shock to the east caused these heavier headstones to fall to the west
(Fig . 13) , many of them rotated , which indicated that there was some north
south component to the ground motion (Fig . 14 ) .
4.2 Native or Torquezal Buildings

The majority of the small residential, commercial and older buildings

in Managua were constructed according to the torquezal system described in Sec
tion 3 . 1. Approximately 70 % of the torquezal buildings in the central area of
the city collapsed or were seriously damaged (Fig . 15 ) . The mode of construc
tion was the major cause of the high death toll and , as stated previously ,
should be banned in earthquake- prone areas such as Managua .
4 . 3 Nacional Instituto Geografico de Nicaragua (National Institute of Geography
Nicaragua ) , Ministerio de Obras Publicas (Minister of Public Works )

The National Institute of Geography is the agency that surveys the

country , prepares maps and maintains topographic , geographic and highway records .
Geographical maps of the country are available at this Institute ,

The Institute is located to the east of Managua , approximately three

miles from the center of the city . It is on the south side of the main east
west road and is a one- story plant consisting of a major building that has two
sections , a storage building and a small garage annex (Fig . 16 ) .

358
 Salu
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4.

Policia

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Parque 11 Julio ( El Hormig
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Zlaya Cuart
ICO

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INSS menterio San Pedro

Bolivar
ira Turismo e

12 Figure Figure 13
Location of Cementario San Pedro Heavier , more stable head stones
fell to the west

Figure 14
Some monuments rotated indicating a north - south component of ground motion

359
 Figure 15
Collapsed torquezal buildings

II
COURT
YARD
mneleis
Boys7
35

L.
CORRIDOR CORRIDOR
MAIN
TOAN

1
EN

El

12 Bays 3 Hous 9 says

Cometers 15 meters 45 meters

FIGURE 16 PLOT . PLAN NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC BUILDING

Figure 16
Plot plan of National Institute of Geography

360
 The main National Geographic Building is a one - story structure, 116 '
wide by 400 ' long . The longitudinal distance , 400 ' , is made up of two buildings ;
one 200 ' long, the other 150 ' long with a courtyard 50 ' long inbetween them .
These two buildings are connected with a concrete block and beam roof system
with open areas over the courtyard .
The building frame consists of precast concrete columns and beams
with cast - in -place joints between the roof beams and the columns (Fig . 17 ) .
The exterior walls are infilled with two wythes of unreinforced 6 " concrete
block with a 2 " insulation air space between each wythe . The infilled panels
are 13' x 15 ' 6 " wide and are sub -divided by 4 " x 6 " intermediate ties . The
intermediate concrete beams and columns (tie members ) are reinforced with four
# 2 bars (Fig . 18 ) . These infilled panels were not connected in any way to the
main frame members .

The precast columns and beams are 12" square and the exterior roof
member is topped with 18 " of masonry . This parapet gives an appearance of a
deep roof member which is plastered over with 1 " of plaster stucco (Fig . 18 ) .
The east -west direction of the earthquake , with some north -south component ,
caused a few of the infilled walls to fall out (Fig . 19 ) . The infilled walls ,
although they were not tied to the frame , acted as shear elements . The loads
imposed upon the wall due to the earthquake are evident by the corner cracks ,

The roof of this structure is a clay tile block and prescressed con
crete beam system . Two inches of concrete is poured over the clay tile (Figs .
20 & 21) . This system , performing as a diaphragm , distributed the lateral
shear loads to the side walls . Inside the building there were two types of
ceilings . In the rooms on either side of the corridor were hung ceilings with
lightweight acoustical panels and inset lights . Many of these came down , in
cluding the light system and the air conditioning ducts . In the corridor was
a heavy plastered ceiling approximately 3" thick and weighing approximately 35
to 40 lbs . per square foot . This ceiling collapsed completely (Fig . 20 ) . The
tie wires either separated from the clay tile and /or the plastered ceiling , or
failed in tension .

Figure 22 is a force - elongation curve for the ceiling tie wires .

The wires had an ultimate strength of approximately 620 pounds . The wires
supported about 10 to 12 square feet of ceiling which weighed 400 to 500
pounds. The ceiling dead weight plus the inertial forces due to the vertical
acceleration of the earthquake inevitably led to failure of the wires . The
collapse of this heavy corridor ceiling could have resulted in casualties if
there had been people in this building at the time .

Approximately 2 " of settlement of the brick pavement in the court

yard was observed . The foundation tie beams between columns prevented the
brick over it from settling . (Fig . 23 )
Several roof bays in the courtyard failed . The open roof areas in
the courtyard between between buildings created high localized stresses in the
roof diaphragm , and in some instances the roof diaphragm pulled away from the

361
H

Figure 17 Figure 18
West wall of National Institute of Infilled walls fell out due to lack
Geography . connections between walls and frame .

Figure 19 1
Infilled masonry walls
-
-
-

362
--
 Figure 20
Block and beam roof with heavy collapsed ceiling in corridor

363
 820LBS
605 LBS

FORCE
LBS
IN
Test Specimen
Wire Diameter 0 . 112 "
Length 4 . 75 "

DEFORMATION IN INCHES

Figure 21 Figure 22
Heavy roof supported by short columns Force-elongation curve of ceiling tie
Se thatarch failed
resulted orded by short columns
in shear
arein recor the teacupupil
wire used to hold up plaster ceiling
d Institute
National of aste
Geography

Figure 23
Settlement of soil in courtyard

364
beams . The roof collapsed completely at two locations and partially collapsed
at a third . Inside the building , the corridor walls were open from the ceiling
to the roof . These walls abutted the columns and provided lateral support ,
except for the short distance between the ceiling and the roof . This two -foot
column section was highly stressed in shear and generally failed (Fig . 21) .

The National Geographic Building , a shear wall structure with infilled

walls , performed quite well considering the fact that the walls were not tied
into the frame and the beam column connections were quite inadequate (Fig . 24 ) .
The annex garage building on the east side of the structure is 32 '
square with walls up to the roof on the west and north sides and with partial
walls on the east and south sides . The infilled walls on the north side moved
inward approximately 1" , and the columns on the south side failed in the top
16 inches . The walls were not tied to the columns . The roof is concrete .
This building was subjected to some torsional force , which was evident from
failures on the east wall , the north panel, and on the column on the south
side (Fig . 25 ) .
4 .4 Teatro National, Ruben Dario

The National Theater , the cultural center of Managua (Fig . 26 ) was

built in 1966 and has a seating capacity of 1135 (Fig . 29 ) . It has all the
facilities or ballet , orchestra and plays . The theater is located on the
south shore of Lake Managua , north of Park Ruben Dario (Fig . 27 ) . The building
is a reinforced concrete frame structure infilled with brick masonry walls that
are sub -divided with tie columns and beams . The building is a complex struc
ture of many walls , both inside and out , and is a shear wall system , boxy and
very stiff . It is 123 ' x 218 ' in plan and 54 ' high . Dimensions to the outside
of the collanade are 142 ' x 252 ' (Fig . 28 ) .
On the north side is the main entrance to the building, and the wall
is a facade of large tinted glass panes . Five of these glass panes , approxi
mately 5 ' X 8 ' , fractured during the earthquake (Fig . 30 ) . Inside the north
entrance are the foyer and the back wall of the auditorium . The back wall of
the auditorium served as part of the earthquake -resisting system for the east
west direction .

In the main lobby of the National Theater , four fiberglass panels

fell out of the ceiling and several strands of beads were broken in the elab
orate crystal chandeliers (Fig . 31) . In addition , approximately 10 to 15
recessed lights were dislocated . Two marble slabs in one corner were spalled
due to an overturning moment . There was slight damage to the plaster , but it
was basically superficial. The east and west exterior walls leading to the
auditorium exhibited some diagonal shear cracks and a few cold joint cracks .
In the main auditorium on the first balcony , there were minor hair
line cracks in the plaster at the junction where the back wall and the side
wall joined . The corridors which led to the auditorium and to the upper levels
were wallpapered with a red velvet wallpaper and no cracks could be seen . The
ceiling of the auditorium was intact .

365
 Figure 24 Figure 25
Reinforcing bars deformed improperly Short columns failed in shear due
for adequate connection to loading from heavy roof

del P. de N
je Frixione

Ainisterio Dario
ito Nacional Emp:
Club Managuo Bom
LANICA
Parque Central
Plaza de la República
INFONAC Catedral
MER 28
Palacio Nacional Arzobispat
Ministerio
Gran Hotel 3 Agricultura
Teatro González An American Cables
22

Figure 26 Figure 27
The National Theater on the shore of Lo cation of Ruben Darko Nationa
Location of Ruben Dario National
Lake Managua the shore of Theater

366
 Figure 28a
North elevation of Theater
mm
HG
AB

Fi
Figure
gure 28b
East elevation of Theater

367
 Figure 28c
Longitudinal section

Figure 28d
Plan of Theater

368
 FITRIPPE

zabb

DOORO

Figure 29 Figure 30
Seating arrangement in Theater ; North side of Theater ;
1135 -seat capacity a few broken windows

Figure 31 Figure 32
Interior of upper lobby Bust of Ruben Dario fell off
pedestal

369
 On the lower level , which is the entrance to the main floor auditor
ium , slight marble spallation at the northwest corner was observed . Also , at
this level a bust of Ruben Dario fell in the north -west direction from a 4 '
high pedestal ( Fig . 32 ) . The frame in this building is reinforced concrete
with columns spaced approximately 15 ' 0.c. , and the horizontal cross -members
spaced approximately 10 ' apart . These panels are sub - divided with small tie
members creating masonry panels that are about 8 ' x 5 ' ( Fig . 33 ) . The walls
are approximately 2 ' thick . Close inspection on the south wall revealed no
inside cracks , but the exterior of the south wall showed some plaster spalla
tion ( Fig . 34 ) .

In general , the Ruben Dario National Theater performed extremely

well , being subjected to the major force of the earthquake with the earthquake
fault passing through or near to this building .

There is a Collanade surrounding the building consisting of columns

54 ' high , 1'9" square and veneered with travertine marble . These columns
spanned from the promenade walkway to the roof and were subjected to very
little load . They performed well ; in particular , the travertine marble did
not spall . The adhered marble veneer throughout the building , on the columns
and walls , performed extremely well and there was very little evidence of
spalling or cracking . This is a true compliment to the capabilities and the
workmanship of the marble veneer installers ( Fig . 35 ) .

The building was founded on compacted volcanic soil with spread foot
ings ; settlement of the structure was not evident . The soil adjacent to the
building at the southeast corner ( at the bridge stairs ) exhibited approximately
2 " to 3" settlement ( Fig . 36 ) .

In summary , it is noted that the overall performance of this stiff ,

shear wall structure must be rated as excellent ; only minor architectural
damage was evident . This building was already well constructed with stiffness
uniformly distributed for a monolithic action . It was observed that ground
motion at the cite was apparently as severe as in any other area , as indicated
by the bust of Ruben Dario falling to the floor .

4.5 National Theater Pedestrian Bridges

There are two pedestrian bridges from Ruben Dario Park to the
National Theater , located on the east and west of the theater , that span over
a railroad track ( Figs . 26 & 37 ) . These bridges are reinforced concrete and
have a total span from abutment to abutment of 183 feet . There are four spans
of 41 ' each with approach spans of 8 ' and 11 ' respectively ( Fig . 37 ) . The
bridge is 18'15 " wide with side rails .

The performance of these bridges was excellent , with the exception of

the settlement of the abutment stairs on each end . This indicated that the
earth fill at each end was not properly compacted . The stair abutments on each
end of the east bridge and on the south end of the west bridge settled approx
imately 6 " with some lateral movement ( Figs . 38 & 39 ) .

370
 Figure 33 Figure 34
Interior of wouth wall . Note tie Spalled plaster off exterior of
member sub -dividing masonry infilled south wall .
wall .

Figure 35 Figure 36
The marble veneer was not dislodged Slight ground settlement occurred
from the tall columns . around building .

371
 "26
" '3
20
41

18'5 " ‫ال‬16"

ch *

Figure 37
Elevation and cross - section of pedestrian bridge

Figure 38 Figure 39
Settlement of approach steps of south Settlement of steps of west bridge ,
side of the east pedestrian bridge . south side

372
 High overturning forces on the west bridge caused a reinforcing bar
in a south pier to buckle slightly and spaul the concrete cover .

In the piers at 4 ' to 5 ' vertical intervals there was slight cold
joint cracks .

The railroad track which runs east -west under the bridges was in good
condition and trains were running on schedule .

4 .6 San Sebastian Church

The San Sebastian Church is located at the intersection of 7a Calle
no . and 7a Avenida no . (Fig . 40 ) .

The entrance on the south and the east exterior walls of this church
are illustrated in Fig . 41. Typical interior framing and the north (altar )
walls are shown in Fig . 42 . The structure consists of a reinforced concrete
frame with unreinforced infilled brick walls and a folded plate roof.

Virtually all columns on the east side failed in compression on the

west side of the base , as illustrated in Fig. 43. This phenomena was due to
an east component of the predominently east -west ground motion at the site.
Severe shear cracks in a south wall column and the staircase leading to the
choir loft were observed (Fig . 44 ) . As shown in Fig . 45 , brick infilled walls
in this area (southwest corner ) failed in shear .

With the exception of the altar area , performance of the concrete

frame was satisfactory . The brick infilled walls , on the other hand , performed
poorly , in particular in the altar where complete wall collapse was observed .
It is noted that walls were poor in quality , unreinforced , and not tied to the
frame in all portions of the church .

4 .7 Christian Brothers Church

The Christian Brothers Church is located on Avenida central between

4a Calle and 5a Calle (Fig . 50 , Location ; Elevations , Plan and Section , Figs .
51) .
This structure consists of fixed transverse arches (Fig . 52 ) connected
together longitudinally by drag struts (Fig . 54 ) in the roof , which transfer
forces into end shells (Figs . 54 & 55 ) . The arches , struts and end shells are
constructed of reinforced concrete. The longitudinal axis of the church is in
the east -west direction with the choir loft located at the west end . Beginning
with the west wall , there are eight bays to the altar area ; the altar consti
tutes the ninth bay . The arches are approximately 24 ' on center , 12" in width
and 3 ' deep -- the latter dimension is variable , yielding piecewise rectilinear
exterior sides for north - south walls and roof . The north and south walls
(Figs . 51 & 64 ) consist of plastered - over masonry rising vertically approxi
mately 20 feet . The roof , which is corrugated sheet metal , then commences and
continues to the peak of the arches , which is estimated to be 45 feet .

373
 A.7

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.8 V
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1
Colegio Calazans
N . o.
Ean Sebastián

IL
TRIUNFO Zacarías Guer
.ONA6°V

Museo Naciona

Palacio de Comunic

Figure 40 Figure 41
Location of San Sebastian Church South and east sides of San Sebastian
Church

Figure 42 Figure 43
Interior , looking north , of San Detail of compression failure
Sebastian Church

374
 Figure 44 Figure 45
Stairs to choir loft suffered severe Infilled walls of hollow clay tile
damage . cracked badly due to racking of
concrete frame .

Figure 46 Figure 47
Columns failed at top due to loads Walls of chancel failed at windows
from folded plate roof . and at corners .

375
 Figure 48 Figure 49
Exterior view of chancel walls , The racking of the concrete frames
north end of San Sebastian Church . failed the unreinforced brick
infilled walls .
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Figure 50
Locati on of Christ ian Bro the rs Church and School ( Instituto Pedagogico )

376
 The arches generally exhibited compressive failures at approximately
the 1 / 3 points , as illustrated in Figs . 52 & 53 . A detailed examination of
the latter revealed that these were initiated at reinforcement splice - ends
(Fig . 54 ) . The forces necessary to precipitate failure could have been the
result of either vertical or north - south components of ground acceleration .
The primary east -west earthquake ground acceleration was absorbed by
the drag struts in the roof and transmitted to the end shells . These struts ,
or roof beams , failed near the east shell, as illustrated in Fig . 55 . The
hinge point is located where the additional reinforcing steel extending from
the arch terminated , i . e . , that portion of the strut from the arch to the hinge
contained approximately twice the reinforcing steel as did the remaining por
tion of the strut .

In addition to damaged arches and struts , an exterior roof (Fig . 56 )

attached to the east end of the church collapsed . The latter appears to have
been added following completion of the main structure ; in particular , the
quality of construction was substantially below that of the main structure .

The major architectural damage occurred on the north and south walls .
Typical to tharu lulustrated furt
Typical is that illustrated in Fig . 57 , which shows breakage of windows and
concrete ventilation screens .

The performance of the primary structure (end shells , arches , struts )

was generally good . In contrast , windows and ventilation walls performed
poorly . The general quality of material and construction of the main struc
ture appeared to be fair by U . S . standards .

4 .8 Christian Brothers Five - Story Building

This structure is adjacent to the Christian Brothers Church (Fig . 58 ) ,
with the longitudinal axis in the north - south direction .

This is a reinforced concrete frame building with hollow tile in

filled walls . An elevator tower of reinforced concrete abuts the structure on
the east . The east side of the building is illustrated in Fig . 59 .

The hollow tile infilled walls , which acted as shear walls until
failure , suffered severe damage . Typical failures in both interior and exter
ior walls are illustrated in Figs . 60 , 61 & 62 . As a result of wall failure ,
interior door frames were distorted , as illustrated in Fig . 62 . In addition ,
a substantial number of glass windows were broken .

Separation of the elevator tower from the main structure was noted
(Fig . 63) . As much as 6 " separation was observed on the top floor .

Structural performance of the reinforced concrete frame by itself

was good . The widespread failure of infilled walls , door frames and windows
indicated the performance of architectural elements was poor .

377
 TAR CESTE

Figure 5la Figure 51b

Front , west , elevation of church Cross - section , transverse of church

unor man
nu with

CARDENALU

Figure 510
Plan of Christian Brothers Church

378
 .
2 . 1
SER

CARNI

Figure 510
Longitudinal cross - section of church

E
BOEEEEEE

Figure 52 Figure 53
View of arches , interior of church Choir loft and main entrance ,
towards altar . Looking east in nave . looking west.

379
 Figure 54
Stress concentrations were created at the end of the reinforcing splices
at the third points in the arch frames .

Figure 55
Struts connecting arch frames also failed at splice location .

380
 IILE
Figure 56 Figure 57
Collapsed Cantilevere roof on each The east -west racking of the arch
side of church . Concrete arches of frame caused severe damage to the
church are shown . windows and screens .

Figure 58 Figure 59
Five -story building located on right East elevation of administration
side of picture and dormitory building .

381
 Figure 60 Figure 61
Hollow tile infilled walls completely Columns failed in building
shattered .

Figure 62 Figure 63
Wood door crushed by distortion of Separation of elevator shaft from
frame . main building .

382
4.9 Simon Bolivar School
The Simon Bolivar Elementary School is located due south of Central
Escalor No . 1 and to the east of Estadio General Somoza (Stadium ) (Fig . 64 ) .
This school was under construction , but was structurally complete . It consists
of two buildings , each two stories high , with corrugated asbestos roofing , rein
forced concrete frames, and infilled solid brick walls . The walls in the east
west direction did not extend to the roof or floor ; there was an open area for
ventilation between the top of the wall and the bottom of the floor or roof of
15 " (Fig . 65) .
The first floor end walls on the east side of the north building were
completely destroyed (Fig . 65 ) and some walls on the south side of the build
ings exhibited shear cracks. The short columns on the first floor failed in
shear, as would be expected . The second floor did not show any distress , for
the light corrugated asbestos roofing did not impose much load on the walls or
frame of the structure .

In the center of each building was a stair tower . Local impact be

tween this stair tower and the classroom building (Fig . 66 ) was evident .
Cracking of the plaster in the stair tower and dislocation of the plywood
panels from the roof soffit was visible . This occurred because of lack of
adequate separation between the stair tower and the classroom building . The
south building (Fig . 67 ) is twice as long as the north building . It is separ
ated in the middle and the extension is ten bays or about 125 ' long . The cor
rugated asbestos roof is supported on wood trusses , and at the east end of the
south building there is a large room four bays long and the full width of the
building .
The lack of increased shear resistance in the lower stories caused
the short columns to fail (Fig . 68 ) . It is recommended that the walls be re
inforced and tied to the underside of the floor and roof system in order to
better resist the lateral forces imposed .

4 . 10 Church and School, Barrio Meneses

In the Barrio Meneses , which is approximately three miles to the east

and about la miles south of the main downtown area of Managua is an elementary
school and church facility . They were identified to us as the San Rafael
Church and School. The school was built with cooperation of the Alliance for
Progress , which was established by President Kennedy . The two school buildings
were in the east -west direction , and the church building was in the north - south
direction (Fig . 69) .

The school was well constructed , with concrete frames and infilled
walls . The south masonry wall of each building was approximately 7 '6 " high
with a 2 ' high window above (Fig . 69) . The north wall of both buildings had
masonry up to 3 ' high , above which were windows (Fig . 70 ) . The buildings were
roofed over with corrugated asbestos and had wood trusses in them with plywood
soffits . No damage to these structures was observed ( Figs . 69 & 70 ) .

383
 1. CALLE N . O .

CALLE CENTRAL

clo de Justicia 1 . CALLE S.

Biblioteco Camil
CALLE 15 DE SE
Colegio Divina PT San José
CALLE LAS CASA

1ER . CALLEJON 3. 0

7
stadio Nacional 5°. CALLE S. O

Figure 64 Figure 65
Location of Simon Bolivar School North building of School. Concrete
frames with unreinforced brick
infilled walls .

Figure 66 Figure 67
Stair tower of north clarrsoom build South classroom building of Simon
ing banged into balcony and roof Bolivar School .
overhang .

384
 INICIO

Figure 68 Figure 69
Short columns failed in shear below School building ; church on left side
second floor . of picture .

SI APOSTOL

Figure 70 Figure 71
North wall of school, Barrio Meneses Church of San Raphael, Barrio Meneses

385
 Figure 72 Figure 73
East wall of church No ties or reinforcing in the wall ,
east wall fell out

Figure 74 Figure 75
West wall of St . Raphael Church Honey - comb in concrete reveals poor
quality workmanship .

386
 The church building to the west of the school (Fig . 71) was oriented
in a north -south direction . The church was built with inferior workmanship
and poor quality unreinforced concrete masonry walls . The church itself was
a simple steel frame with a corrugated sheet metal roof , with the surrounding
walls of unreinforced concrete masonry . On the east wall , at the north end ,
the wall tilted out and two panels completely collapsed (Fig . 72 ) . It was
evident that there were no ties between the structure and the walls (Fig . 73 ) .
Inside the church , part of the west wall failed (Fig . 74 ) . The infill concrete
columns had many honeycomb holidays , indicative of very poor workmanship (Fig .
75 ) . The damage to the church was quite severe and was basically due to lack
of tieing of the structure together and proper masonry reinforcement .
4 . 11 Industrial Buildings
Throughout the area , the performance of industrial buildings ranged
from complete collapse, such as the Pepsi- Cola building , to structures with no
damage, such as the Esso and Siemens Industrial buildings . The degree of
damage to the building was in relation to the quality of design and construction ,
to the distance from the fault , and the ground acceleration .

Masonry , concrete and torquezal buildings all suffered various degrees

of damage . Several interesting conditions did occur in industrial plants , such
as the unreinforced brick masonry walls buckling and falling out when the steel
frame deformed (Fig . 76 ) . In the Roche Pharmaceutical Plant , the polyvinyl
chloride seals around windows peeled out when the glass moved in the frames
(Fig . 77 ) . Other buildings had parapet walls collapse , roofs cave in and walls
fail .

4 . 12 Siemens Building
Siemens is an industrial electrical manufacturing organization similar
to General Electric , supplying transformers , turbines and other heavy industrial
equipment (Fig . 78 ) . The Siemens industrial complex consists of a main ware
house , office building (Figs . 79 & 80 ) and a small storage shed facility (Fig .
81) , and is located approximately four kilometers east of downtown Managua .
The main warehouse is a steel frame structure approximately 80 ' wide with a
steel roof truss system spanning from the outside wall to a center column . The
perimeter walls are hollow clay masonry reinforced at approximately 8 ' inter
vals. The building was roofed over with corrugated asbestos and the truss
system was well secured and acted as a rigid bent . The grouted clay tile
masonry walls performed very well and there was no visible sign of cracking in
the walls , in the piers between windows or at the junction of the roof with the
wall (Figs . 79 & 80 ) . There was a very slight crack at the columns beneath the
truss on the south wall at the end of the building . According to the plant man
ager , the building was designed in Germany . He also reported that the fluor
escent fixtures that were suspended from the roof were hanging in an eratic
manner .

387
 Figure 76 Figure 77
Single wythe unreinforced brick Stripping around windows peeled out
infilled wall buckled . when glass moved .

-
I
-
SIEMENS
Mabo DALALECTROTECNIA

Figure 78 Figure 79
Siemens Corporation building sign North elevation of office and ware
house structure .

388
 rn
mode
Figure 80 Figure 81
South elevation of Siemens building Storage and timekeepers building .
South of main structure

Figure 82
3" stone veneer displaced and fell off walls .

389
 The storage shed on the south side of the main building is a one -story
masonry structure covered over with corrugated asbestos roofing (Fig . 81) . The
exterior walls are clay tile , and there was no evidence of distress in these
walls .

4 . 13 LaFancisa Buildings
The pharmaceutical supply company , LaFancisa , is located on the north
side of the main highway between the airport and the city . The plant consists
of an office building , with a manufacturing and supply warehouse at the rear .
The office is a two -story reinforced concrete frame structure . As the base
moved in the west direction , the office building was subjected to lateral
vertical forces to the east and the columns hinged at top and bottom .

The plant to the north of the main building has a concrete frame with
infilled tile walls . The suspended ceiling inside the plant collapsed , reveal
ing a cast - in -place concrete roof . There were " x " cracks in the exterior tile
walls caused by the lateral inertial force of the heavy cast - in -place concrete
roof . The reinforced concrete beams in the rear of the plant at the column
beam connection failed . It also appeared that the walls moved out slightly and
there was no connection between the infilled walls and the frame .
The walls of the plant were veneered with a 3 " thick stone . This
stone was adhered to the tile and was part of the infilled wall. In many
places it failed (Fig . 82) , while inside the buildings storage racks overturned
during the earthquake . These racks were re - erected and welded together in
place .

4 . 14 Elca Industrial Building

The Elca Building is about half a kilometer west of the airport on
the north side of the main east -west road which leads to Managua . Elca is a
television supply warehouse with solid brick walls on the east and west side
and showed no cracks (Fig . 83) . The framing on the north and south walls was
concrete frame infilled with hollow clay tile . An exterior inspection of this
building indicated that it performed very well during the earthquake.
4 . 15 Subasta Nacional SA

The Subasta Nacional SA building is a one- story auction facility with

a small auditorium where cattle are brought in for inspection and bidding (Fig .
84) . The building consists of concrete frame infilled with unreinforced solid
brick walls . It is located approximately two kilometers west of the airport
and is 60 ' wide by 90 ' long and approximately 12 ' high . The building did not
suffer any distress due to the earthquake except in the office where acoustical
ceiling tiles fell . It appears that there has been distress to ceilings
throughout the total area regardless of whether they are heavy or lightweight
ceilings . The roof of the Subasta Nacional was corrugated asbestos . This
building performed very well in the earthquake .

390
 SUBASTA NACIONAL..SA

Figure 83 Figure 84
Hollow tile industrial building near Well constructed masonry structure ,
airport faired very well . Subasta Nacional, performed satis
factorily although acoustical ceiling
and overhead lights were displaced .

Figure 85 Figure 86
Precast housing tract with precast Precast concrete roof channel
roof channels . connections either failed or were
non - existant

391
4 . 16 Precast Concrete Housing
Scattered around Managua are a series of housing tracts (Fig 85 ) con
structed of precast concrete and roofed with either corrugated asbestos sheets
or precast concrete channels . These homes sold for $ 25 , 000 and a monthly
rental of approximately $ 120 . The homes with precast concrete roofs did not
fare well , for many of the roofs slid off completely and collapsed into the
homes (Fig 86 ) . The precast concrete roof channels were held in place primarily
with gravity connections ; there were no positive connections . In some instances ,
there was a small welded connection approximately 2" long by 1 / 4 " at each end .
This , however , was hardly adequate to keep the heavy precast concrete roof from
sliding . The walls were not connected together , and the homes were basically
" a house of cards " (Fig . 87 ) .
The precast concrete walls were well constructed and the workmanship
was quite satisfactory . Inadequate connections constituted the primary cause
for failure of these homes .
Had positive connections been used , adequately tieing the walls
together in the corners and the roofs to the walls , these homes would , in all
probability , have performed satisfactorily .

The homes with the lightweight corrugated asbestos roofs performed

well , as the roofs did not possess enough mass to cause serious damage or move
ment to the walls .

4 . 17 Estadio Nacional (National Stadium )

The National Stadium is located west of the central district (Fig . 88 ) .
It is situated in close proximity to fault traces of the 1931 earthquake and is
immediately above secondary fault traces of the 1972 earthquake. The foregoing
are approximately parallel and run in the N 300 E direction .

This oval shaped stadium with a seating capacity of 8937 was used for
the national sports of soccer , baseball , and other field activities .

The main entrance to the stadium is located on the north side (Fig .
89 ) . A cross -section of the reinforced concrete structure and the interior of
the upper level is shown in Figs . 90 & 91. The canopy over the seats (Fig . 91)
is steel with an asbestos board soffit . Insignificant damage in this area of
the stadium was observed .

On the southwest and southeast perimeters the upper walkway was

covered by a reinforced concrete beam -slab roof which , in turn , was supported
by l ' diameter concrete columns, approximately 3 ' in height on the outside and
9 ' in height on the inside . On the outer side of the walkway there was a
parapet 3 ' high and l ' wide . These sections of the stadium suffered severe
damage or complete collapse as indicated in Figs . 92 through 95 . In particular ,
short column connections failed in shear which , in turn , initiated failure of
the interior columns .

392
393
Figure
87
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earthquak
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Figure 88 Figure 89
Location of National Stadium Main north entrance to Stadium

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21

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ELTARIO NACIONAL 8
Meias PS Kated

Figure 90 Figure 91
Cross - section of stands View of stands and canopy

394
 Figure 92
South end of stadium showing concrete roof supported on short and long
columns .

Figure 93 Figure 94
Faile d colum ns southwest side , roof Roof from Figure 93
moved to right .

395
 Figure 95 Figure 96
Steel in columns failed in tension . Scoreboard and auxiliary dressing
rooms

Figure 97 Figure 98
Dressing rooms on south end of Collapsed second story
stadium .

396
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Figure 99 Figure 100

South entrance to stadium Interior of auxiliary dressing rooms

Figure 101 Figure 102

Unreinforced lime mortar masonry Failed reinforced concrete column

397
 Two main reinforced concrete frame structures for dressing and broad
casting were located on the south end of the stadium ; these were separated by
a structure with openings for entrance and exit to the playing field (Figs . 96
and 99 ) . The buildings were tied together by the continuation of the first
floor beam and slabs above the openings and over the sides of the stadium walk
ways. This structural complex experienced severe damage (Figs . 98 and 99 ) .
The building on the west side sheared off at the first floor level. Consider
able torsion was observed ; this evidently resulted from the fact that the
principal structural axes were inclined to the predominant E - W ground acceler
ation . Considerable damage to interior columns (Fig . 102 ) and interior and
exterior infilled walls was evident (Figs . 100 & 101) .

Quality of design and construction varied throughout the structure .

The north section appeared to be well constructed . The south section , on the
other hand , was of poor quality ; columns were not adequately tied , walls were
generally unreinforced , and the combination short and long columns invited
disaster (Figs 92 through 95 ) .
4 . 18 Esso Refinery

On the east side of Lake Asososca is located the Esso Oil Refinery
(Fig 103) . At this refinery two seismoscopes and an AR240 strong motion seis
mograph were located (Fig . 106 ) . This instrumentation provided the only record
of the Managua , Nicaragua earthquake . This instrumentation was located in a
one - story reinforced masonry laboratory building (Fig 105 ) and the seismograph
record provided by the AR240 indicated a 30 % to 40 % ground acceleration both
horizontally and vertically (Fig . 6 ) . This reinforced masonry building revealed
no damage or cracks and it performed extremely well. It was designed and con
structed in accordance with the requirements of the Uniform Building Code ,
Earthquake Zone 3 .

4 . 19 Central Park Dance Hall

This was a reinforced concrete structure . The collapsed roof shown

in Fig . 107 was supported by thin columns , which were inadequate to support
lateral loads induced by the concrete roof . Thirty deaths were recorded .

5 . Conclusions

5 . Conclusions
(a ) The tragic loss of life occurred mainly in the buildings of
torquezal construction . This construction , although economical and with good
insulation characteristics , is a satisfactory solution to the problem of walls
and housing ; it lacks the inherent strength to resist the lateral forces imposed
by an earthquake . The strength /weight ratio of this type of construction is
very low and therefore not a good system to use in seismic areas .
(b ) There were inadequate connections as evidenced in the precast
housing systems , allowing the roof structure to break free and collapse . There
were inadequate connections between the masonry walls and the concrete frame in
the National Geographic building, again allowing the walls to fall out.

398
 Figure 103
Esso Refinery , Managua
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Figure 104
Plan and elevation of administration building and laboratory building

399
 Figure 105
East elevation of administration , laboratory building . Note reinforced
concrete block walls .

Figure 106
AR240 and Wilmot seismoscopes from which accelograph ( Fig . 6 ) was obtained .

400
 Sk

401
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107
 (c ) Walls that did not go all the way up to the underside of the
above beam created very short columns in the wall. These short stiff columns
resisted the major part of the load and failed in shear . This was evident in
the Simon Bollivar school building .

(d ) There was improper anchorage of steel through the joints or

anchoring them by hooks within the joints . In some instances , all the steel
stopped at the same place thus causing a rapid change of stress at the end of
the steel . This was evident in the Christian Brothers Church .

(e ) In general, except for reinforcing steel, the masonry materials

were of inadequate strength in comparison to the ASTM Standards followed in
the United States .

( f ) Many of the buildings were irregular in shape and imposed high

torsional stresses within the structures themselves .

6 . Recommendations

6 . Recommendations
It is suggested that the following recommendations be reviewed by
the Nicaraguan government for evaluation and possible adoption to improve the
earthquake resistance of the buildings in their area .

( a ) Adopt a building code that requires seismic design . Such a code

could be the Uniform Building Code , the Mexican Building Code or the Venezuelan
Building Code .

(b ) A system of plan checking and job inspection must be instigated .

Either the architect , engineer , or a building official inspector should be
made responsible to insure that the buildings are built as designed .

(c ) Materials should meet minimum requirements of ASTM . This will

insure a consistent quality of material upon which design can be made .
(d ) All masonry systems should be reinforced adequately .

( e ) All elements must be well connected together ; a roof diaphragm

to the frame and the walls, and the walls connected to the columns and to each
other . This means proper and adequate tieing the building together so that it
will perform as a unit .
(f ) Avoid long and short columns in combination .
(g ) Increase the strength of the structure from the top down . Do not
permit a flexible first story or a soft first story construction .
(h ) Maintain as much as possible regular shaped symmetrical buildings
to avoid torsion within the building .

402
 ( i) Provide adequate walls both transversely and longitudinally
within the building to limit distortion and drift of the building .

(j ) Provide some consideration for non - structural elements within the

building such as accoustical ceilings and ceilings in general, partitions,
etc .

(k ) Provide some considerations for equipment within the building

such as furniture, file cabinets , electrical fixtures , machinery , etc .
( 1) Provide emergency lights for all exits so that when the power
failure occurs , the emergency lights will go on and allow people to escape
from the buildings in a safe manner .
(m ) The use of torquezal construction should be limited to , perhaps ,
warehouses and other utility buildings and not permitted in homes or apartment
buildings .

403
 RESPONSE OF SEVERAL SCHOOL BUILDINGS

TO THE

MANAGUA , NICARAGUA , DECEMBER 23 , 1972 EARTHQUAKE

JOHN F. MEEHAN

Research Director , Supervising Structural Engineer

Structural Safety Section
Office of Architecture and Construction
Department of General Services
State of California

Introduction . This report discusses a standard type design of

those school buildings where the plans were made available or
the buildings were similar to the plans , and where general
observations can be made . No attempt has been made to draw
attention to all the significant and detailed structural re
quirements for California public school buildings which are
given in Title 21 , California Administrative Code , nor is there
any intention of attempting to fix blame or give credit for the
performance of these buildings . Photographs and discussion of
all twelve school sites visited by the author in Managua are
provided in the Earthquake Engineering Research Institute
Reconnaissance Team Report , " Managua , Nicaragua Earthquake of
December 23 , 1972 " . The purpose of this paper is to go a bit
further into depth than that presented in the Reconnaissance
Report to explore the reasons for or the lack of the damage .

Standard Buildings . Marazon and Aguerri Schools and Recinto

University . A standard type classroom wing constructed in
several areas of Managua is presented in this paper . Where the
construction is identical , the response of these types of build
ings to the earthquake of December 23 , 1972 provides an indica
tor of the ground motion intensity at that particular site .
Three such standard type school sites were visited - the
Francisco Marazon School in the westerly side of Managua , the
Josefa Toledo de Aguerri School at the easterly side of Managua
and the Recinto University Ruben Dario south of Managua . The
Marazon and Aguerri Schools buildings performed quite satis
factorily as there was essentially no damage at either site .
iar
Therefore , one would assume that the ground motion was similar
at each site or , at least , the earthquake motion was below the
damaging level at each site . The, Marazon School and the Aguerri
School were quite similar in exterior appearance .

404
The classroom wings are oriented with the longitudinal axis in
an east -west direction . The offices or toilets are in one end
of the wing . The wings contain from about four to six class
rooms . The entry doors and walkways are adjacent to the south
walls . Photographs of the drawings, Figures i through 10 ,
indicate that the framing generally is of corrugated sheet metal
roof decking supported by 2 " x 5 " wood purlins about three feet
( 1 m ) on centers spanning between steel trusses about lll - 8 " 0 . 0 .

IS
( 3 . 6 m ) and the trusses spanning about 19 ' -6 " ( 6 . 0 m ) across
the classrooms landing at the exterior reinforced concrete
columns . Exterior walls are concrete columns and bond beam
framing infilled with unreinforced single wythe brick masonry .
As shown in Figure 8 , the corrugated sheet metal roof deck acts
as a diaphragm spanning horizontally between the interior masonry
cross walls or to the end X -braced bays at the ends of the wings .
Reinforced concrete columns and framing , together with the un
reinforced masonry walls , form the vertical lateral force resist
ing elements resting upon continuous concrete footings .
Classrooms are about 23 ' - 4 " ( 7 . 2 m ) in an east -west direction
between cross walls and 19 ' - 6 " ( 3 . 6 m ) between longitudinal walls
in a north - south direction as shown in Figure 1 .

East -West Acting Lateral Forces . The exterior appearance of the

end walls at the Marazon School site coordinate very closely with
the details shown on the drawings . Figure 12 shows photographs
of the Marazon School after the earthquake and Figure 4 shows
the elevation of the end walls on the plans . It is therefore
assumed that the school buildings at the Marazon site and the
Aguerri site were constructed in accordance with the plans
provided .
Photographs at the Recinto University Dario Ruben are shown in
Figures 14 to 20 . Plans for this site were not available but it
is assumed that the construction is somewhat similar except for
the end wall construction . A comparison of the end wall con
struction can be seen by comparing Figure 12 with Figure 14 .
The end wall construction at Marazon and Aguerri Schools probably
follows the details shown in Figure 6 as taken from plans of the
buildings . The end wall construction at the Recinto University
is shown in Figures 14 , 18 , 19 and 20 .
Instances of wall and roof anchorage failures were observed
throughout Managua as in all previous earthquakes investigated
by this author . Therefore , such anchorages require special
attention and codes recognize this condition . For instance ,
Section 2313 of the 1973 Uniform Building Code is quoted as
follows and has been revised as a result of the 1971 San Fernando
earthquake damage :
" Concrete or masonry walls shall be anchored to all
floors and roofs which provide lateral support for

405
 the wall. Such anchorage shall provide a positive
direct connection capable of resisting the hori
zontal forces specified in this chapter or a
minimum force of 200 pounds per lineal foot of wall ,
whichever
enis su
greater
cant:. Required
neque anchors
anno . in1 ,masonry
Masonry
walls of hollow units or cavity walls shall be em
bedded in a reinforced grouted structural element
of the wall .

For floor and roof systems subject to lateral

forces due to earthquake there shall be provided
continuous cross ties , connected to the diaphragm ,
between diaphragm chords which shall be capable ,
together with the associated wall anchorage , of
resisting the forces tributary thereto . The dis
tortions of the walls and the floor and roof
system shall be considered in the design of the
anchorage Walls shall be designed to resist
bending between anchors where the anchor spacing
exceeds 4 feet . Wood framing connected by toe
nails , or nails subject to withdrawal is not
acceptable anchorage . Wood ledgers shall not be
used in cross grain bending .

The minimum load , 200 pounds per lineal foot , or the positive
anchorage requirement for masonry walls and the requirement for
ties across the building have been in Title 21 , California
Administrative Code for many years . This is the code under which
all California Public Schools are constructed . However , it goes
on to require the connections to be made with bolts , screws or
other acceptable means and permits certain other specified means
of accomplishing some of the anchorage requirements .
East -West Acting Lateral Forces . In the east -west direction the
lateral loads of the end walls at the Recinto University are
primarily supported by the foundation at the base and the roof
diaphragm and the roof bracing at the top . Secondary support
of these walls are provided by the north and south longitudinal
walls . For loads acting in the east -west direction the primary
vertical resisting elements are in the longitudinal walls and
are the concrete cantilever columns fixed at the level of the
window sill by the unreinforced longitudinal masonry walls . The
load is delivered by the diaphragm to the top of the trusses ,
through the angle braces shown in Detail B / 7 and c / 7 in Figure 9
to the top of the reinforced concrete columns . The rigidity of
the short south wall columns in the east -west direction is
considerably greater than the longer more flexible north wall
columns in this direction ; therefore , essentially all of the
east -west lateral loads are resisted by south columns and walls .
Figure 12 shows the typical south wall columns at Marazon School

406
and Figure 13 shows the north wall columns at this school , both
of which are undamaged . Figures 15 and 16 show the condition of
the south wall columns and unreinforced masonry walls at Recinto
University and Figure 17 shows the condition of the north wall
columns ,

At the Recinto University the connection of the end walls to the

longitudinal concrete chords pulled loose as indicated in
Figures 18 , 19 and 20 . Apparently the anchorage length of the
horizontal bars in the chords as well as the roof anchorage were
insufficient to resist the loads imposed by the earthquake .
North - South Acting Lateral Forces . As shown in Figure 8 the
roof is X -braced at each end of the building and the corrugated
sheet metal roofing acts as a diaphragm in the central portion
for lateral loads acting in the north - south direction . Because
each classroom interior cross wall is of masonry construction
below the ceiling , as shown in Figure 7 , the horizontal span of
the roof diaphragm is probably rather short , i . e . between the
cross walls ; therefore , the shear stresses within the web of the
diaphragm and its chord stresses are rather low . The diaphragm
end shear load is transferred from the corrugated sheet metal
roofing to the purlins at the trusses , through the clip angles
nailed to the purlins and welded to the top chord of the truss ,
as shown in Figure 9 , then through the truss to the truss anchor
bolts located at each exterior wall and finally into the cross
wall and to the foundation . Actually , of course , the earthquake
produces loads which are transferred from the foundation up into
the building ; however , a common procedure is to assume the
lateral loads start at the roof and then transferred through
the structure down to the foundation . No distress of the roof
diaphragm materials nor of the rod bracing was observed at any
of these schools .

Upon considering how the roof diaphragm chord stresses , some

times referred to as flange stresses , are developed , let it be
assumed that the roof diaphragm chord is the concrete window
header beam on the north wall and the concrete window sill beam
at the south wall for lateral loads acting in the north -south
direction . These horizontal concrete members are shown in
section in Figure 5 . The diaphragm chord stresses are trans
ferred from the corrugated decking into the wood purlins , than
by horizontal bending of the two round rods of the steel truss
top chord to the l xl x 3 / 16 steel diagonal angles welded to
the truss top chord and the truss bearing plate shown in
Figure 9 , the chord stress is then transferred through the anchor
bolts to the concrete member . In the north wall the chord stress
is carried directly by the concrete chord above the window and
in the south wall the chord stress must be transferred by bending
in the short concrete column to the window sill concrete beam .

407
There appeared to be little damage as a result of the lateral
loads acting in a north - south direction in any of these typical
classroom wings .

If the cross walls were not of stiff , such as masonry construc

tion , but were of flexible , such as plywood construction , the
roof diaphragm would have been longer and thus may have been
distressed . The design of diaphragms made of panels of materials
relate to the physical properties of the panels , the end connec
tions of the panels to the joists , the lap or side joints of the
panels to each other and the connections of the panels to the
chords . When considering diaphragm designs, the deflection or
flexibility and strength properties of the diaphragm , relative
to the comparable properties of the supporting walls , framing
and even nonstructural elements of the structure must be investi
gated . When the first tests were made on diagonally sheathed
wood diaphragms it was learned that the ultimate load was
satisfactory ; however , the deflections at mid -span of the dia
phragms were rather high at the calculated nail value design
loading . The allowable load on the standard diagonally sheathed
diaphragm was thereafter reduced about one - half to keep the
deflection within acceptable limits . All other diaphragm
materials are considerably stiffer than diagonal sheathing and
therefore , the mid - span deflection of the horizontal diaphragms
is much less . Title 21 , CAC , establishes allowable spans width
ratios of horizontal diaphragms of various materials with respect
to the stiffness of the wall construction . It is believed that
corrugated sheet metal roofing material and its fastenings in
these school roof diaphragms are rather flexible .

There is some eccentricity in the joints of the roof rod cross

bracing as shown in Figures 10 and ll . Because the ceilings and
roof were intact at the Marazon and the Aguerri Schools the
bracing could not be viewed . At the Recinto University the brac
ing was not observed .

With regard to rod bracing , Section 2314 ( j ) of the 1973 Uniform

Building Code requires that in Seismic Zones Nos . 2 and 3 all
members in braced frames of K = 1 . 0 and K = 1 . 33 buildings be
designed for 1 . 5 times the design load and that the connections
for these members be designed without the usual one -third
increase in allowable stress .
Conclusions and Recommendations .

1. Upon designing buildings for aseismic design , details

must be provided which will establish a direct and logical path
to resist the loads imposed upon it by the earthquake giving full
consideration to relative stiffness , deflections, and the in
fluence of all parts of the building .

408
 2. From the observations at the site and the analysis of
plans there was no justification found which would suggest that
the current level of safety now in Title 21 , CAC , should be
altered . However , it was very clear that more effort must be
exercised to provide seismic stability to architectural treat
ments , mechanical equipment and electrical devices .

Acknowledgments . The wholehearted and generous assistance of

Structural Engineer Filadelfo Chamorro of Managua is gratefully
acknowledged . Without his support this report could not have
been prepared . Also to be gratefully acknowledged are
James G . Stearns , Chairman , and Wesley G . Bruer , Secretary , of
the Governor ' s Earthquake Council , Herbert R . Temple , Jr . ,
Director , Office of Emergency Services , and Fred W . Cheesebrough ,
Chief Structural Engineer , Structural Safety Section , Office of
Architecture and Construction , who arranged for financial
assistance to visit the site and prepare this report .
C . Martin Duke , President , and Frank E . McClure , Secretary of
the Earthquake Engineering Research Institute , who provided
critically timed and valuable assistance for the visit to
Managua , and who arranged the make -up of the EERI Reconnaissance
Team , are also gratefully acknowledged. Also to be acknowledged
are Structural Engineers Henry J . Degenkolb and Donald F . Moran
who provided much consultation while visiting the sites with the
author .

409
 /1
SALA DE AVL

A ANTA TIPO sexvicio SANITANO PLANTA TIRO AULA

Figure 1 . Floor Plan of a typical standard design school building

BYNGION INNA TA
Warat

Figure 2 . South Elevation of a typical school building

Figure 3 . North Elevation of a typical school building

410
 A AVEW . te formonte ve U OLO Atom

2.805
g•7

ELEVACION
SCALA
LATERAL

Figure 4 . End Elevation of typical school building

I
. -

HESIONAL
NES

Figure 5 . Cross Section of typical school building

411
 AUTERICA TODO LO CUARTones E TECNO 0.30
CAUTSAR

MINIMO

was mm
DUATONES DE X5 CHPARK

Cuacan Xh
COLGADEX , De 12 V

WAAABUR
BUSTEAD 2 xia

Purwort en cho SSS

LADIALLO CARTERON
" P & HILTEvc & • e

PEPELLAX Y AFINA

Figure 6. Section of End Wall of typical school building

LAMINA DZIN CONCADO CAL 6

PLACE
‫ܫܫܫܫܩܝ‬
m

MACA PA INCHAL

BIRTRADO
vezi

PLE WOOD
JALAD
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LALALLE GASTEN
PH TRI CHO

Figure 7. Section of Interior Cross Wall of typical school building

412
 11

REA
PLANTA DE TECHO 109
IUCCIONE . Y MANTENIMIENTO ot PROYECTO
KOIPICIOS PUBLICOS ESCUELA .
GOBIERNO DI
TERIO DE OBRAS PUBLICAN TROWO DE XING

Figure 8. Roof Framing Plan of typical school building

1-15 zo
Lozs 1. Zo
VER REMATE ZIUC LA LOC
LANINA ve it'

ve
UMAVA
CENEFNA

LACERA 27 VA AL LADY
4.AC.16 p.16 cou 4pº8
2.10
A

SECCION A E. 1-20
na
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$ LA
COL 2544
ELEV DET. exe : 10

ATINAWey
DE ar
CUERDA SUA KEMALADO
ZIMIA I
प

VA ELE
ARROT
VE Te
CUERDA IN . 2. Od PLANTA DE MED

Figure 9. Roof Truss and anchorage details of typical

school building .

413
 SOLVADLA 5
CAMPO
PLACA DE APOYO
5 ) VAT VECTICAL PLATINA VE ONCE 31 ou
CON HOY VE "
SOLVAIN ACELA TAIF GLAVE 3
A /

CA VERTICAL 26

DETALLE Escri-5
Figure 10 . Horizontal Roof Bracing details of
typical school building

Z PLAAS DE SENDAJA
EN VEZE SUPLOVE
CEREKA METALA HZ05/

BILA TEUSOT 3/8

CENETA 142 ATSAV

OLDAVUSA

ZUEVA Z PLATILA
1 reyd LADA
SOLVARENE CAMPO USA 2 ve ELCHA
# TOS DE
ELEVACION Ese : 15 10
AZWIOSTRE ALTZAL LOLITUDINAL AL LAIL.Go
DE TOTA LA CUMP .EZA
Ngc A1446 TELON ALAS S ia Port
MED
D ATE DE

Figure ll . Vertical Bracing for trusses of

typical school building

414
Figure 12. East End Wall and South Longitudinal Wall -
Marazon School

ILI

Figure 13 . East End Wall and North Longitudinal

Wall - Marazon School

415
 SC
J850
FDC

Figure 14 . East End Wall and South Longitudinal

Wall - Recinto University

180

RA

Figure 15 . South Wall - Recinto University

416
Figure 16 . South Wall Column Recinto University

TRS

Figure 17 . North Wall Recinto University

417
 1
Keel

Figure 18. South Wall at West End - Recinto University

Figure 19. South Wall at East End - Recinto University

418
Figure 20 . Detail of Window Sill concrete beam at east
end wall - Recinto University . Note the two horizontal
reinforcing bars of the sill beam have been pulled out
of the end wall and were pounded flat against the end
of the beam .

419
SURVEY OF DAMAGES AND EARTHQUAKE PERFORMANCE OF MANAGUA BUILDINGS
by
EERI Investigative Team 12

INTRODUCTION
The EERI Team I buildings are three to eight story reinforced
concrete structures which suffered various amounts of damage during
the earthquake . The buildings are grouped closely within the down
town Managua area (Fig . 1 ) . Accordingly the variations in levels
of damage depend more upon the differences in structural configura
tion than differences in ground motion .
The objective of this paper is to compare earthquake perfor
mances of the different structural configurations . The configura
tions include : shear wall - frame, moment resistant frame, and
moment resistant frame - seismic truss .

A damage survey is presented for each of the buildings

discussing the reasons for the patterns of damage in the structure
Both structural element and system damages are explored .
Whenever possible , capacity and structural dynamic studies
are performed . The Telcor, Inmobiliaria , and Baltodano buildings
lend themselves to analytical models - -both for capacity and elastic
structural dynamics studies . The others are more difficult to
model , but certain results are presented .

The results that are found are used to show why the building
performances differ . The comparison of earthquake performances
and the validity of the comparisons are emphasized .

TELCOR BUILDING
General Considerations
The TELCOR building , an eight story reinforced concrete struc
ture pictured in Fig . 2 is located in downtown Managua at the
location given in Fig . 1 . This building was designed as a moment
resistant frame , but the elevator shear core at the west end of
the building figured significantly in the response of the structure.
The shear core carried most of the base story shear until diaphragm
failures occurred at the face of the elevator ; then the frame
carried a larger portion of the lateral load . The prestressed
concrete beams in the frame showed evidences of shear failure . A
number of the columns failed in shear . Seismic impact occurred on
the west side of the building with warehouse structure . As with
1 . Buildings are: Telcor Building , Inmobiliaria Building, Baltodano
Building , Hotel Balmoral , Pan American Life Insurance Building ,
and the Guerrero Pineda
Team I members : L . G . Selna , V . V . Bertero , L . A . Wyllie , and
S . A . Mahin .

420
many other buildings in Managua , the flexibility of the frames
permitted heavy damage to the hollow tile spandrels and partitions
(Fig . 3 ) .
The Telcor building is interesting because of its shear
wall -moment frame configuration (Fig . 4 ) . The structural elements
are easily observed due to the removal of the modest partitions
and wall coverings after the earthquake .
The scope of the presentation on the Telcor building includes
survey of damage , dynamic response , and capacity studies . The
purpose of these studies is to determine if changes in seismic
design procedures should be recommended in the light of the per
formance of the Telcor building . Also the seismic performance
of the Telcor building will be compared with other buildings
studied in this paper .

Survey of Damages
Referring to Fig . 4 , all categories of elements in the
structure sustained damage during the earthquake . The long - span
transverse elements are postensioned using the LEOBA prestressing
system . Conventional reinforcement was also used . These draped
cable beams had shear cracks at the thin end of the taper . The
spandrel beams which run in the east - west direction evinced very
light shear cracking . A few of the columns exhibited major shear
failures particularly on the third and fifth floors . At all levels
the floor slabs tore along line 2 at the face of the elevator .
Heavy shear cracking and overturning failures occurred
in the core at the first and mezzanine floor levels . Cracking
occurred above elevator doors , growing in intensity from zero at
the top to maximum at the bottom . Damages to ceramic tile block
spandrels used above and below the windows and in interior parti
tions was heavy throughout the building (Figs . 3 , 5 , and 6 ) .

The damages to the structural elements varied significantly

through the height of the building (Fig . 7 ) except for the east
west spandrels which showed light shear cracking through the height
of the building . A floor by floor description of the damages is
as follows :

a) Roof - damage on the roof was minor except in the elevator

penthouse between lines (1) and 3 (Fig . 4 ) . Here the elevator
equipment was moved from pre - earthquake locations ; counterweights
were jostled from their guides ; concrete blocks supporting the
hoisting mechanism were shifted from rubber pads which supported
the blocks . The permanent offset of the blocks was 4 - 5 inches to
the west . The ceramic tile wall on the south side (Fig . 5 ) is
badly X cracked . A 4 ft . diameter x 10 ft . long cylindrical water
tank resting on its side in cradle mounts was shifted 18 in . to
the west .

421
 b ) Seventh floor - in this floor the damage was light in all
elements except the tile block floor slab (Fig . 8 ) ; this was torn ;
a { " crack resulted along line 2 . A good indication of slab damage
on Floor 7 is shown in Fig . 9 - - note the large crack running
north (bottom ) to south ( top ) in front of the elevator .
The diaphragm resistance of this floor is limited . The
joists which span between the prestressed concrete beams are present
to resist vertical load ; their ability to resist diaphragm tension
across the prestressed concrete beam lines is negligible . The
building remained together over most of its length due to line A
and E boundary spandrels which resisted tension between lines
( 3 ) and (10 . Between lines ( 2 ) and ( 3 ) there is little reinforcing to
resist the tension ; only # 2 bars at the top surface of the slab
could help resist the tension which developed along line ( 2 . The
tension was due to incompatibility of core and frame deflected
shapes for east -west translation ; building torsion about the core
also causes slab tension .
c) Sixth floor - in this floor the damages in the columns
start to build up ; the l " plaster coating on the inside face of
columns is spalled or X - cracked within the region of the windows .
The prestressed concrete beams of the seventh floor framing
observed from below are undamaged . .

The floor slab is cracked at the face of the elevator on line

2.
On the core there are minor cracks emanating from the corners
above the elevator openings .

d) Fifth floor - in this floor five of the columns suffered

heavy shear damage . The severity of the shear failure in the window
region is indicated in Fig . 10 : the crack runs top on the east to
bottom on the west side . A westerly drift is indicated by the pre
dominant shear crack in the column . The lateral reinforcement
used in these columns conformed with the requirements of ACI 318
56 (Tl) 3 . Five of the twelve columns on the fifth floor evinced
heavy shear damage . The shear damage is due to two factors : 1)
high shear forces in the columns due to the short clear height of
the column within the window , and 2 ) inadequate lateral reinforce
ment present to resist the shear .

The prestressed concrete beams of the sixth floor framing

observed from the 5th floor on line 9 showed a shear crack at the
inner end of the taper at the north end of the thin section . The
crack runs at 45° from top north to bottom south : this direction
is opposite to that caused by gravity load . A south drift is
indicated for this story by the shear crack in the beam .

3. Numbers in parentheses refer to corresponding items in REFERENCES

422
 Again , cracking occurred above the elevator doors on the core .

The floor pulled away from the elevator on line 2 .

The impression on this floor is that the frame was de formed
enough to cause heavy damage in the columns due to east -west
motion and light damage occurred in the prestressed concrete beam
on line 9 above due to building torsion .

e) Fourth floor - column damage is lighter on this floor than

on five . The plaster cracked on most of the inside faces of the co
lumns but only one showed shear cracking in the concrete .

The prestressed beam on line 9 of the fifth floor framing

cracked at both ends of the thin section . The implication of this
is that building torsion is stronger on this floor than in 5 , 6 ,
and 7 .

The floor pulled away from the elevator along line 2 . The
crack width is 3/8 in . This is comparable with similar floor
cracking which occurred in the upper floors .
On the whole the damage is greater on the fifth floor than
on this fourth floor , but building torsion is increasing .

f) Third floor - damage was heavy here . The severity and

frequency of shear damage in the columns is equivalent to floor
five . The predominate drift indicated by column shear failure is
to the east .

The prestressed beams of the fourth floor framing all showed

shear cracking . Beams on lines (4 ) through 8 cracked at the north
end of the thin section while beam ( 9 is shear cracked at both ends .
Damage at the north end of the beam is shown in Fig . 11 . The
intensity of beam damage increased at the east end of the building .
A south drift is indicated by beam damage .
Compression spalling is noticeable at the top of the south
east corner of the core ( B - 2 ) .
The slab pull away is greater ; a one inch crack was opened
along line 2 .
A summary of damage is that column shear damage is heavy due
to east - west motion . There is a transfer of east -west story shear
from the frame to the core at the third floor level . This is
shown by the wide l " floor crack and column damage . The shear
cracking which occurred in the second floor on the south face of
the core also substantiates this . The damage due to torsion as
evidenced by the heavier beam 9 damage , is increasing from top to
bottom of the building .

423
 g ) Second floor - At the midheight of this floor there is
heavy impact with the warehouse building on the west side .

The hammering didn ' t cause heavy shear damage to the columns.
The plaster spalled on a few of the columns but shear cracks
weren ' t visible in the concrete . As a contrast the third floor
columns suffered more .

All transverse beams of the third floor framing except 9 shear

cracked at the north end of the thin section . A south drift is
indicated by the cracks . Beam 9 cracked at both ends of the thin
section ; again a south drift is indicated by the cracking .

The slab separation is 14 " on this floor -- a larger value

than any of the other floors .

The core shows compression spalling at the top of the story

at B - 2 . The south face of the core experienced light diagonal
x cracking .
The general impression is that damage is less on this floor
because of the smaller column damage , but the damage in the beams,
floor slab , and core are actually increasing . The transfer of east
west story shear from the frame to the core is indicated by the
14 " floor crack along line 2 .

h ) Mezzanine floor - there is an opening in the floor between

lines (5 and 8 on the east and west and A ) and D on the north and
south ; the transverse beams (6 ) and (7 ) are absent below . The floor
slab was terminated on the east and west with 3 ft . cantilevers
beyond lines (5 ) and 8 . The longitudinal spandrel at the mezzanine
floor level ( top of first story ) on line ( A is missing (Fig . 12 ) .
Also in the photo see mezzanine transverse prestressed beams ( 4 ) and
5 at bottom left and beams 8 and 9 at bottom right . Transverse
beams 6 and are seen to be absent in the photo .
Columns 4 - A ), 4 - € , © - @ , and © - E taper in the north
south direction from 4 . 34 ft . ( 1 . 35 m ) at the second floor up to
6 . 56 ft . ( 2 . 00 m ) at the first floor ( ground level) .
The absence of the spandrel on line (A ) of the mezzanine floor
level reduced the east - west shear in the columns on line ( A ) ; east
west shear damage in columns was small . On the north side of the
building the spandrel was present ; east -west shear damage in the
columns, although not heavy , was present . A permanent offset is
not indicated by the cracking .

In the transverse beams at the second floor level the damage

was also light . Beam 9 cracked at the north end ; a south drift is
indicated by this crack . The extra deep longitudinal boundary
spandrel along lines A and E at the second floor level showed light
shear cracking between columns.

424
 - - - -

The slab . separation is very small in this floor ; this was

influenced by the opening and the absence of the spandrel beam on
line A .

The core started to work heavily in this floor carrying east

west shears . The south face of the core is moderately X cracked
(Fig . 13) . Overturning failure was indicated at the north - east
corner of the core in this story .

The east -west shears carried by the columns in the upper floors
were transferred to the core and the second and third floor levels .
This is shown by the extra wide cracks in the floor slab at the
face of the elevator at these levels and the corresponding buildup
of shear and overturning damage in the core . The columns in the
third story and above are heavily shear cracked in the window
openings . In the second story the shear damage is much less ;
east - west column shear damage in the mezzanine and first floors is
negligible .

i) First floor - the absence of the spandrel on line @ ) at the

mezzanine floor level diminished the east - west shear in the first
story columns on line ( A ) ; there was no evidence of east - west shear
damage in these columns . The columns on the south side had spalling
of the plaster covering but damage was light .
The transverse beam - column joint is of interest because it
has conventional and prestress reinforcement ; the prestress cables
which are unbonded terminate in the joint . The mezzanine floor
joint of column ( A ) - 9 is shown in Fig . 14 . The joint appears to
be undamaged . The first story column shows a flexure crack ; on
the other side of the column a diagonal crack is present ; this
crack doesn ' t penetrate the joint .

Based on this and other observations of joint behavior , the

prestress - conventional joint details used in the building performed
well .

The transverse beams suffered heavily in the mezzanine floor .

The breaks in the mezzanine floor caused distress in these beams
especially on the south side of the building . All of the beams
showed shear cracks at this location (Fig . 15 ) . Showing the effects
of building torsion only beams 8 and 9 cracked at the north end .
The core had heavy overturning and shear damage in this story .
The overturning failure which occurred at 2 - B is shown in Fig .
16 . The wall thickness is 20 cm (8 in . ) with 2 curtains of rein
forcing . # 3 @ 20 cm . ( 8 in . ) were used in both directions . The
corresponding p = 0 . 35 % which is comparable percentages used in
UBC ( T2 ) design procedures .
The survey of damages shows that the building had elements
which tended to fail in shear instead of hinging . If current

425
design requirements for lateral reinforcement (T2) had been
followed , the number of shear failures would have been reduced .
For the columns , the shear force used for lateral reinforcement
design should be based on clear height which in the case of TELCOR
is the height of the windows .

The flaw in the structural system which resulted because

the core was apparently neglected in analysis and design is illustrated
in Fig. 17. This structural system configuration known as the shear
wall - frame system has been studied extensively (T3) . For the first
mode shape shown in Fig . 17 the building has high tensile forces at
the second and third floor slab . These forces pull the floor slab
away from the core at line ( 2 ) . As the building vibrates back and
forth , alternating tension - compression forces develop at the top
and bottom of the structure ; these tension forces pull the slab
away from the core . A static or dynamic analysis which represents
the frame and core acting together will give these diaphragm forces
to be used in design .
Material Properties
Construction field or post earthquake test data were not
available to the EERI Team I investigators . Specified on the plans
was the following :
A. Concrete
= 3000 psi
oo
44roro4

Elevator core
Footings
= 4000 psi
Beams
Slab
C. Columns

B. Conventional reinforcing Steel

1. fy = 33 ,000 psi
c. Prestressing wire - 150 / 170 ksi .
casual examination of the concrete during the Team I field obser
vations did not reveal serious deficiencies in the concrete quality .
Structural Dynamic Analysis (Elastic )
A 3 dimensional model (Fig . 18 ) of the structure was devised ;
UN

it consisted of 117 joints or nodes with 6 degrees of freedom and

P.

248 beam elements . The columns and core were assumed to be fixed
at the first floor level. The core was idealized as a thin tube
for computing beam element cross section properties . The horizon
tal beam element properties were chosen to represent the transverse
prestressed beams , the longitudinal east - west spandrels , and the
(D

floor slabs .

426
 The masses were lumped at the nodes according to tributary
areas .

Damping was assumed to be 5 % for all modes .

Two horizontal components of the ground acceleration history
obtained at the ESSO refinery were used as the input .
The following results were obtained :
1) Mode shapes and frequencies - thirteen mode shapes and
frequencies were obtained . A plan view of the building giving the
first three mode shapes is presented in Fig . 19 .
2) The maximum resultant displacements (cm . ) at the roof are
as follows :
Location Time (sec . ) North Disp . East . Disp .

Un
Roof, NE 6 .2 1 . 85
Roof , SE 6 . 2 2 . 00
Roof, Core 4 . 79 1 . 92
In examining the displacement result it is clear that the torsional
action of the building is significant . At time 6 . 2 sec . the core
north displacement is 4 . 79 cm . , lagging the north displacement
11 .52 cm . at the east end of the building by 6 . 73 cm .
The Esso record was obtained 4 miles west of the downtown
area . Its strength is considered to be somewhat less than the
strength of ground motions which occurred in the downtown area
perhaps as much as 35 % . The ESSO and El Centro records are similar .
3) Maximum Shear and Torque in the core - the maximum shear
force and torque in the core are given in Fig . 20 . The maximum
shear occurred in the east - west component . As indicated by the
shear results , the model seems to represent the prototype fairly
well . The large jumps in the shear diagram in the lower floors
are indicative of the diaphragm tension forces . The reversal at
the fifth floor level is due in part to the transfer of shear from
the core to the frame .

The torque distribution in the core (Fig . 20 ) is interesting .

The reduction of torque at second and mezzanine floors is due to
enlargement of the columns © - A and © - E . Because of their
increased size and stiffness these columns carry larger north - south
shears than the corresponding columns in the upper floors ; this in
turn reduces the torque on the core .

The combined frame and core story shear is given in Fig . 21 .

A comparison of the north - south and east - west story shear reveals
the dominance of the east - west components in the lower floors .

427
 4) Another indicator of the strong torsional behavior of the
building is the first story column shear distribution given in
Fig . 22 for time 7 . 5 sec . The column shears have a large north
component on the west side while on the east side the component
is dominantly to the south .

5) The story shears shared by the frame and core vary through
the height of the building (Fig . 17 ) . The core was apparently neglec
ted in the seismic computations because there was no provision
for transfer of load through the floor . The model used to
represent the structure was not appropriate . The consequences of
neglecting the core in the lateral force computation can be assessed
by studying the results obtained in the present study for maximum
base story shear :
North Component East Component
(Metric Tons ) (Metric Tons )
Frame 51 15
Core 200 569

It is clear that the core carried 80 - 97% of the base

story shear while the frame hardly worked . It is an improper pro
cedure to misrepresent the structure in analysis because it leads
to erroneous structural design . The failures of the floor slab
and the core illustrate this point .

Capacity Studies
A limited capacity study was performed in order to determine
shear capacity of the frame , shear capacity of the core , overturn
ing capacity of the core , tensile capacity of the floor slab at
the elevator .
The shear capacity study of the frame took the following tack :
the beam and column moment and shear capacities were evaluated
using ACI ( T4 ) procedures . Then analyses were performed to deter
mine if shear failure or moment hinging would govern for north
south and east - west frames .

For the prestressed beams it was found that the shear capacity
of the beam is reached before hinging occurs at the ends . Also
shear capacity of the columns is reached at about the same time
that shear capacity of the beam is reached . Based on this informa
tion it can be concluded that : 1 ) for north - south motion the
individual frames will fail in shear , but whether beams or columns
will fail first is not certain , and 2 ) the shear capacity of frame
in the north - south direction computed by a summation of individual
column shear capacities closely represents the strength of the
system .

In the east -west direction the failure mechanism in the frame

is simpler . The columns failed in shear within the height of the

428
windows . The shear which accompanies moment hinging , VM''
Vm can be
computed from the relation

‫ܟܠ‬
‫ܛ‬ 2M

(
)
1
= CAP
h
w

in which MCAP = column dead load moment capacity ; hw height of

the window . The shear VM exceeded the column shear capacity based
on ACI procedures . From this it is concluded that the columns may
fail due to shear for east - west motion ; this conclusion of analysis
was emphatically
supported by prototype behavior . The tile block
spandrels which are considered to be weak nonstructural elements
were sufficiently strong to induce this undesirable mode of column
behavior .

On the south side in the lower stories the columns are unres
trained in the east - west direction by tile block spandrels making
the likelihood of hinging a more reasonable mode of behavior .
This possiblity was not explored in the present work . Prototype
behavior could not be used to determine if hinging or shear failure
was the alternative at this location because the core carried most
of the story shear in these stories .

In keeping with the most prevalent mode of failure in the

frame , column shear failure , the story shear capacities are computed
by summing the individual column shear capacities . This leads to
equal frame story shear capacities in the north - south and east - west
directions . The frame story capacities when normalized by the
weight of the building above represent the story shear capacity
coefficients ( Fig . 23 ) .

The story shear capacity of the core based on shear failure

was computed using UBC ( T2 ) procedures ; the shear capacity ,
expressed in capacity coefficient form is given in Fig . 23 .

The east - west story shears in the core and frame are presented
in Fig . 23. These results show clearly that the core was loaded
well beyond its shear capacity in the lower three stories confirming
the findings of field observations . The frame on the other hand
is not heavily stressed . However there are additional effects

which are not represented in the force and capacity results given
in Fig . 23 ; these effects are : 1 ) the redistribution of forces
to the frame after the core and diaphragm damages have occurred ;
2 ) the impact with the adjacent building ; 3 ) the difference in
ground motion between ESSO and downtown ; and 4 ) the modification
of capacity due to torsion . These effects would tend to increase
the frame shears and decrease the frame capacities from those
presented in Fig . 23. These arguments are used to justify the
discrepancy between analytical findings and field observations .
The strongest points made in Fig . 23 are : 1 ) that the core had to

429
carry practically all of the base story shear - - it had only 1 / 3
of the strength necessary for the task ; and 2 ) the combined system
had a high base story shear capacity and yet heavy damage occurred
in the frame and the core ; this occurred because the brittle core
and columns were loaded separately and failed separately due to
unequal stiffness and eccentricity .

The overturning damage observed in the core stimulated a brief

study on overturning capacity . The flexural capacity was deter
mined using an under - reinforced flexural beam as the model . The
moment capacities are 47 , 000 ton - cm for north - south displacement
and 34 ,000 ton - cm for east -west displacement . The corresponding

H . H.
values obtained in dynamic analysis are approximately seven to
eight times greater, thereby justifying the failure . The over
turning failure (Fig . 16 ) in the first story at 2 - B (Fig . 4 ) is
tensile in nature ; the vertical bars have elongated ; then upon
unloading they are buckled out . The concrete at that location
has spalled out next to the bars , but has not crushed all the way
through the wall . A tension failure is possible at this location
due to compressive slab force inputs to the core . The slabs would
have to be in tension to cause a compression failure ; they don ' t
have sufficient tensile capacity to cause the compression failure .

The tensile capacity of the floor slab at line 2 (Figs . 4 and

8 ) was evaluated considering the # 2 reinforcement as the principal
element of resistance . The resistance was found to be 3 . 58 metric
tons /meter . The tension force in the second floor due to east -west
motion is approximately 8 times this value . This large discrepancy
between analysis forces and capacity provides a basis for the
damages which were observed at the face of the elevator . This also
provides a justification for the overturning tension failure in the
core .

Conclusions
Taking stock of the structure after the earthquake it is clear
that the building has suffered heavy damage . The principal diffi
culties with the building are :
1) The frame is composed of elements which fail in shear
instead of hinging.
2) Because of stiffness considerations the core wants to
carry the shear in the lower stories . The floor slabs
have transferred compressive forces to the core but not
tension forces . The core has been loaded sufficiently
to experience diagonal cracking and overturning tension
failures in the lower stories .

3) The floor slab has separated at the face of the core .

430
 - - -

4 ) The eccentricity between stiffness and mass causes column

and beam elements at the east end of the building to be
worked extra hard while others are not . A progressive failure
regime may occur , starting in the most heavily loaded ele
ments ; with strong north - south ground shaking a failure of
this type might have occurred .
5) The "non -structural" tile spandrels tend to stimulate
shear failures in the columns; the tile blocks have shat
tered in many places .

Restoration of this building would require the repair of

damaged elements. The core at the west end requires
strenthening . Asymmetrically placed channel shaped wall
should be added at the east end of the building so that
symmetry of structural response is achieved . Boundary
and bridging beams should be added to tie the core , new
wall , and frame together .

INMOBILIARIA BUILDING

General Considerations

The Inmobiliaria building is a seven story shear wall frame

structure located in the center of the city (Figs . 1 and 24 ) . The
building rests on spread footings . The first and mezzanine floor
plan is presented in Fig . 25 . In the first floor there are north
south shear walls along line ( 9 ) - (10 , ) - ( 8 ) , and (3 ) - (4 ) ; east -west
motions are resisted by a wall running east - west adjacent to ( 7 ) - ( 9 ) ;
spiral columns were used at most other grid points shown in Fig . 25 .

The beams in the mezzanine floor framing were wide - shallow

beams : 63 x 10in . ( 160 x 25 cm ) running east - west and 15 . 75 x
10 in . (40 x 25 cm ) in the northab- south
rs bdirection .he The strategy of
y wns ;; tthe
the designer is clear from the tbeam svadimensions structure is
supposed to resist north - south motions by walls and east - west
motion by frame action . The slab system consists of waffle joists
with tile block fillers .

There are four major changes which occur between mezzanine

and first story plan given in Fig . 25 . In the mezzanine story :
1) the shear key at 4 is replaced with a spiral column ; 2 ) spiral
columns 1 and 2 are replaced with a shear wall between them and
boundary tied columns at 1 and 2 ; 3) columns 1 ]) , 12 , and 13 are
removed ; and 4 ) a shear wall running east -west adjacent to 8
is added .

The section of the building south of line 1 - © terminates

at the second floor framing . North - south beams spanning between
(3 ) and 18 , 5 and 17) , and 7 and 16 form the roof. These concrete
beams of I cross -section which span 34 ft . ( 10 . 45 m ) have the

431
properties : depth = 47 in . ( 1 . 2 m ) , web thickness = 6 in . ( 15 cm ) ,
flange width = 15 . 75 - 23 . 6 in . (40 - 65 cm ) , and flange thickness =
6 -9 in . ( 15 - 23 cm ) . Web stirrups used in these unusual beams were
# 3 ' s at 11 . 8 in . ( 30 cm ) .
A typical upper floor plan of the building is given in Fig .
26 . This part of the building resembles a tower . The north - south
walls at 1 - 2 , 7 - 8 , and 9 - 10 run for the full height of
the tower . The frame in the upper floors consists of spiral columns
and wide - shallow beams running east -west . The east -west wall adja
cent to ( 7 ) - (9 has door openings within each story . The east - west
wall adjacent to 8 - 10 runs from the mezzanine to the roof .
An elevation view of the building looking south is given in
Fig . 27 .
This building is interesting because it is predominately a
shear wall building in the north - south direction and a moment frame
in the east -west direction . The present study consisting of damage
survey , material property survey , dynamic analysis , and capacity
studies looks at the differences of behavior in the two directions .

Survey of Damages
Because of the differences in the location and number of shear
walls in the EW and NS directions . The damages suffered in the
elements in these two directions are entirely different . The
north - south direction has a stronger shear wall system than in the
east - west direction . This fact is illustrated very well on exa
mining the damage through the height of the building . The damage
suffered by the building from roof to ground are examined below :
a ) Roof - the roof level was accessible only in the region
of the stairs . The damage was light here .
b) Sixth floor - the columns in this floor seem to have
carried a large part of the east -west lateral load as evidenced
by the damage suffered by the columns . While columns 1 and 3 did
not suffer any damage column 2 had compression spalling on the NW
corner top . The column 4 hinged at the bottom and a tension crack
could be seen on the east face at a height of 18 in . ( 46 cm ) .
Columns ( 4 ) , 5 and 6 all had moment hinging . Column (4 ) had a flex
ural crack all the way around and compression spalling on the SE
corner . Column (5 ) had flexure cracks at the top but the direction
of major cracking could not be determined . Column 6 had hinges
form both at the top and bottom . This column was bent into an s
shaped configuration for west drift ; compression spalling occurred
at the east face top and west face bottom ; there was a tension crack
at a height of 18 in . (46 cm ) on the east face . The slab above
this column had slight cracking .

As for the damage in the shear walls the walls in the east -west
direction did not suffer any damage . For north - south motion , the

432
west wall at the roof had a hairline crack , and there was some
cracking in the elevator core which was tile block .

The damage was slight in this floor . Most noticeable was the
cracking in the spiral columns . Predominate drift seemed to be
toward the west .

c) Fifth floor - the damage in this floor was not heavy

except for the extensive window breakage . The columns had similar
damage to the floor above . Columns ( 1 ) and ( 3 ) again did not suffer
any damage . Column 2 had a tension crack on the west face indi
cating hinging . Column 5 had compression spalling on the top east
face of the column (Fig. 28 ) . Columns 4 and 6 had hinged at the
top and bottom . The tension crack on the top west of column (6 )
could be easily identified while it was hard to say whether it was
compression spalling or tension at the top west face of column % .
Column 4 had a small tension crack on the bottom west face and
column 6 had a compression crack on the west face at the bottom
of the column .
The walls had some damage , all of it confined to the west
end of the structure . The damage consisted of a construction
joint crack at floor level above on the west wall and a diagonal
crack around the door in the south wall located at half floor above .
The east - west motion was quite large so a to crack the slab . The
flexural crack running north - south was close to the east shear
wall .

The damage in this floor was mostly in the columns . The

cracking shows that east -west reversals occurred .
d ) Fourth floor - the columns in this floor as in the higher
ones had moment hinging for east -west motion . Columns 4 and 6 had
hinging at the top and bottom with sway towards west while column
(5 ) had compression spalling at the top of the east face . The floor
slab sustained a flexure crack running north -south all the way
across the slab adjacent to line 1 - 2 .
The damages in the shear walls were mostly in the west walls .
At the level of the floor above there was a hairline construction
joint slip on the west wall . A diagonal crack around the elevator
entrance could be seen . The south wall ( running east -west ) had a
diagonal crack around the door opening . Contrary to expectations
the east - west wall adjacent to (8 ) - (10 did not have any damage .

Except for the columns , the damage was slight in this floor ;
most of it was non - structural. Glass damage was heavy . The tile
window spandrel on the south of the tower interacted with the east
shear wall causing diagonal cracks in the lower portion of the wall
(Fig . 29 ) . The tile window screen on the south side was out . A
hollow tile facing on the outside of the north shear wall adjacent
to 8 - 10 wasn ' t damaged in this or other stories .

433
 e) Third floor - the damage pattern in this floor is similar
to the floor above . The slab had a flexure crack running NS close
to the east wall. The columns again indicate hinging due to
motion in the east -west direction . Column 4 , 5 , and 6 all had
an
compression spalling top east and tension cracking on the column
top west face .

The east shear wall had minor damage at south end due to
bending of the wall out of plane by the window spandrel . On the
south wall at the west end of the building there was cracking over
the door . The tile block wall used in the south side of the build
ing is badly X cracked . The shear walls along line 7 - 8 had
heavier construction joint slip at the floor above .
The elevator core had a hairline crack . Shear due to east
west motion cracked the wall adjacent to 8 - 10 diagonally over
the window .

At the west end of the building , a light moment frame with

tile block walls covers the region 14 - 15 - 16 - 13 . The entry
to this southern extension is gained by going down 1 / 2 flight of
the west stairs from the third floor , passing through the opening
in the south concrete shear wall adjacent to 7 ) - ( 9 ) , and going
down an additional 1 / 2 flight of stairs to the south . Moderate
shear cracking was present above the door of the shear wall adjacent
to - 9 . The concrete columns used in the frameb at 13) , 14 , 15 ,
lock infills
and (16 showed signs of shear damage and the tile block shead
suffered various degrees of damage . Fig . 30 shows the shear indamage
g the
to column 16 in the window opening due to north - south building
response . The tile wall between 15 and 16 at the south end of the
frame cracked diagonally due to east -west motion (Fig . 30 ) .

f) Second floor - on this floor the roof of the building

south of line ( 1 ) - ( ? - 9 meets with the second floor of the
tower . The roof extends to the south for two bays ; the south line
of the roof is 15 - 16 - 17 - 18 .
There is an unusual framing at columns 3 . 5 , and © . The I
section roof beams of depth 47 in . ( 120 cm ) emanate to the south
from these locations . The beams frame between columns 3 and 18 ,
(5 and 17 , and (7 ) and (16 . These beams did not suffer any damage
because they were in parallel with the north - south shear walls .
However there was damage in the joint (Fig . 31) due to unusual
framing . Columns 4 . 5 ) , and had compression spalling at the
top east face . The east wall on line ( 1 ) - ( 2 ) had a construction joint
slip at the top and an " X " crack in the panel between 1 and 2 At
the west end of the tower a tile block lintel was used between the
walls on line 7 • Vertical cracking occurred at the interface
of the lintel blocks and concrete wall . On the wall between (9 ) and
10 a construction joint slip occurred at the floor above . The
south wall adjacent to line 7 - 9 took up considerable amount of
east - west load and suffered moderate " X " cracking 1 / 2 floor below .

434
The east -west motion was sufficient to crack the slab in flexure
all the way across from north to south at two locations : 1 ) near
the east wall , 1 - 2 , and 2 ) close to line - 8 .
g) Mezzanine floor - in this floor the building is wider in

.HP
the north - south direction . The additional built up area (Fig . 25 )
includes a frame with tile block infills running along line 15 -
16 - 17 - 18 . This acted as a wall providing high east -west
lateral stiffness to the structure in this floor . In addition
there is an extra row of columns . The shear wall on line 10 - 9
lengthens in the floor to point (15 . The extended portion is
moment frame with tile block infills .

Because of the infilled frame between (15) a 18 which behaved

like a wall running in the east - west direction and the heavy shear
walls in the north - south direction the damage to the columns ( 3) ,
4 , 5 , and 6 was nil . Only columns 2 and 4 had a tension crack
at the top of the west face .
The shear wall (9 - 10 had slight construction joint slip at
the floor above while the tile block lintel between walls at
and 8 had tile exposed and spalling over the door . The elevator
core had light diagonal crack over the door . The east wall had
diagonal cracks in the panel between (1 ) and 2 with top of the crack
south and bottom north .

A flexure crack developed in the mezzanine floor slab running

south from the north edge just west of (4 ) to a location slightly to
the west of column 3 Diagonal cracking due to the transfer of
shear in the mezzanine floor slab panel 1 - 2 - 4 - 3 (Fig . 25 )
from the first story shear key at ( 4 ) to the mezzanine story shear
wall (1 - 2 was not evident from above ; the diagonal cracking was
evident when observed from below (Fig . 32 ) . The cracks run to the
northwest indicating a north drift .
h) First story - the plan of this story is depicted in Fig .
25 .
Spiral columns (1 ) and ( 2 ) under the shear wall (Fig . 32 ) seemed
to perform well under the high overturning moments imparted by the
wall ; the tile covering is spalled but the concrete shell is un
cracked . Damage in the columns due to lateral drift is small in
this floor . The shears were resisted by the walls . Column (1 D) had
some compression spalling at the top east face .
The shear key was undamaged although the marble on the south
face had spalled . The marble on the elevator core remained intact .
The north - south wall at 8 suffered out of plane shear damage (Fig .
33) due to termination of the east -west wall adjacent to ( 8 - 10 .
The shear wall between 9 and 10 evinced a diagonal crack : top south
and bottom north . A north drift is indicated by the shear wall
diagonal cracking .

435
 The damage was slight in this story due to the walls on the
west and south sides of the building .
Looking at the building ' s performance as a whole it is clear
from the column and floor slab flexural hinging that a moment
frame like response occurred in the east - west direction . The
response in the north - south direction was governed by the walls at
( 1) - (2 ) and (9 ) - 10 . The diagonal and construction joint cracking
in these elements verifies this hypothesis .
Material Properties
The material properties specified on the drawings were the
following :
inai
in

A . Concrete
-D

= 3000 psi
a columns
Walls
= 2500 psi
Slab
b . Beams

B. Reinforcing Steel
1. fy = 40 , 000 psi
Data on material properties obtained from tests performed
during construction or after the earthquake were not available .
Casual observations of concrete at the building site did not reveal
any shortcomings in concrete quality .

Capacity Studies
capacity of the building was evaluated so that
a proper explanation could be given for the damage . The story
shear capacity of the building was determined by summing the shear
capacities of the wall elements with the shear -hinging capacities
of the columns . The shear failure capacity of the columns was
investigated using ACI procedures . Except in a few cases shear
failure did not govern .
Columns : the columns were made up of ll distinct types ; nine
of the types were cicular and two were rectangular or square . The
properties of the various types are presented in Table 1 . The
concrete in the columns had a compressive strength , f . ,of 3000 psi .
The yield strength of the reinforcing steel, fy was 40 , 000 psi.
Axial load - moment interaction diagrams were determined for
each column type . The axial load on each column was determined
in order to find the moment capacity of the column . The shear
which accompanies moment hinging at the two ends of the column was
also determined . The shear, moment capacity and cross section

436
properties of each column floor by floor for both directions is
given in Table 2 .
Walls - the shear capacity of the walls was determined using
the UBC (T2) formula as given below .
( 2)
шо,щ>

where concrete compressive strength , psi

= wall reinforcing steel percentage
yield strength of steel , 40 , 000 psi
v = ultimate shear strength , psi
The shear capacity , V,,, of a wall element is given by
(3)
Vu = vyba
where = width of the wall , in .
d = length of the wall , in .
V = shear capacity of wall, pounds
The story shear capacities provided by the walls in the north
south and east - west directions are given in Tables 3 and 4 respec
tively . These are found by summing the shear capacities of the
individual walls .

The total story shear capacities are obtained for each

direction by adding the story shear capacities provided by the
columns ( Table 2 ) to the story shear capacities supplied by the
walls ( Tables 3 and 4 ) .

The total shear values for each direction are converted to

story shear capacity coefficient , c , using the relation
Story Shear capacity
c = Weight of the Building Above (4 )

The story shear capacity coefficient for each floor is pre

sented in Fig . 34 . In the first and mezzanine stories the c values
for north - south and east - west directions are only slightly affected
by the long walls on the east and south sides of the building .
Portions of these walls are tile block infilled frames , and the
shear capacity that they contribute is uncertain . There is no
information available on the capacity of these systems ; as a guess
the capacity of the block infilled frame was assumed to have a
unit shear stress capacity of 25 psi .
The base story shear capacity coefficient , cis 0 .67 for the
NS direction and 0 . 19 for the EW direction . The corresponding
values are 1 . 22 and 0 . 33 in the mezzanine story .

437
 In the second story the capacity coefficients increase to :
1) 1 . 50 in the north - south direction and 2 ) 0 . 45 in the east -west
direction . The north - south capacity coefficient increases rapidly
because while the weight of the building above decreases as we go
to the upper floors the wall capacities are constant . In the east
west direction the coefficient is nearly constant in the second ,
third , and fourth stories . The designer decreased the column
sizes in these stories thereby preserving the constant value .

Fig . 34 shows that the building was much stronger in the

north - south direction ; in fact the building is 4 - 5 times stronger
in the north - south direction than in the east - west direction . The
damages in the building point out that the building was much
stronger in the north - south direction .
Structural Dynamic Analysis (Elastic )

A modal response spectrum analysis was performed in order to

determine the maximum earthquake forces in the various elements of
the building . The north - south and east - west components of the ESSO
response spectrum ( IN 1 ) with 5 % damping were used as the inputs .
The analysis was performed with the aim of explaining the damage
which was observed during field study .

Structural Idealization - a shear wall frame model discussed

by Khan and Sbarournis ( IN 2 ) was used to idealize the building in
the two directions : a ) north - south - the idealization is made
up of 4 walls and 2 frames . Three of the walls are located at the
west end of the building and the fourth wall is located between 1
and 2 . The frame lines which are considered go through columns
6 . 5 , 12 , and and columns 4 . 3 . , and . b ) east
west - the building in this direction is idealized considering 3
walls and 3 frames . The walls are located : 1 ) on the south side
along the line 15 - 16 - 7 - 13 . 2 ) on the north side of the
building adjacent to the line 8 19 , and 3 ) adjacent to the line
joining and 9 . The three frame lines run through columns -
1 - and - 13 .
Results - a ) north - south - two periods and mode shapes are
computed . Their periods are , T = 0 . 15 sec . and T , = 0 . 06 sec .
The mode shapes were essentially the cantilever type . The predicted
periods are too short because of the member property idealizations
made using the model .
Using these mode shapes and periods the response spectrum
analysis was performed . The spectral velocities with 5 % damping
in the two modes is input for the structure . The square root of
the sum of the squares was used in determining the maximum resultant
force in the building elements however participation from the
second mode was small .

The shear distribution for the north - south component is shown

in Fig . 35 . The north - south shear coefficient and capacity

438
coefficient are shown in Fig . 34 . The maximum base story shear
coefficient was 30 % . A comparison between the north - south story
shear coefficient and the capacity coefficient implies that the
shears remained well within capacity values . The damages in the
building also seem to substantiate this result .

However in the east wall , line 1 - 2 , there is an " X " crack

in the third floor while on the second floor there is a diagonal
crack , top south and bottom north . The analysis shows that the
capacity of the story was not exceeded . There are two uncertainties
which might account for this : 1 ) these studies don ' t determine
if the individual element was overstressed , and 2 ) the ground motion
was stronger at the site than at the ESSO refinery .

b ) East - West - the first three periods are T , = 0 . 20 sec . ,

T2 = 0 . 05 sec . , and T2 - 0 . 02 sec . The fundamental mode is a
flexure beam shape ; the east - west walls at O - 9 and (8 ) - have
a strong influence on the shape .

The velocity spectra with 5 % damping were input for the 3

modes .
The results (Figs . 34 and 35 ) show two things : 1 ) the shear
forces in system exceeded the capacity , and 2 ) the east -west shears
are greater than the north - south shears .

The shear force and capacity results corroborate the damage

survey which showed that the columns and beams of the floor slabs
hinged in stories 2 through 6 due to east -west motion . The east
west shear wall adjacent to 7 - 9 also showed cracking in most
stories . The analytical studies prove that the building was too
weak in the EW direction to resist the earthquake .

The difference in the story shears for the two directions -

greater in the east -west than the north - south - is due mostly to
differences in spectrum inputs . The inputs for the two directions
are probably too low because of the ground motion was stronger at
INMOBILIARIA than at ESSO .

Conclusions

The Inmobiliaria building has a great disparity of strength

in the principal directions of the building . In the north - south
direction the building is 4 - 5 times stronger than in the east - west
direction . The weaker east - west base story shear capacity is 19 %
which is comparable with buildings designed under UBC ( T2) . The
building evinced damages due to response in the east -west direction ;
capacity and analysis model shows the damages should have occurred .

Spiral columns used in this building behaved well . They make

the building attractive for repair . The buildi
together by the wide shallow beams used in the floor slabs .

439
 For strengthening of the building in the east -west direction
the walls adjacent o © - 9 and 8 - 10 must be modified . The open
ings in © - should be closed , and the wall should be thickened ;
the wall 8 - 10 should extend down through the first floor to a
footing , the openings should be closed , and the wall should be
thickened . The columns and beams which have hinged should be
repaired .
The north -south resistance of the building is unspoiled .
Wall ( 1) - 2 would be improved with some attention . The diagonal
cracks in mezzanine and second stories should be repaired . The
( 1) - ( 2) wall should be extended down through the first floor to a
footing .

BALTODANO BUILDING

General Considerations

This building is a three story ductile moment resistant frame

which was under construction at the time of the earthquake . The
structure was designed as a five story structure ; three of the
stories including the fourth floor slab were completed . Vertical
shoring was present at the time of the earthquake (BALT 1 ) . The
age of the concrete at the time of the earthquake was not available
to Team I investigators .

Baltodano Building is located close to Inmobiliaria Building

(Fig . 1) . A plan view at the ground floor level is given in Fig .
36 . An elevation view from the south - east is presented in Fig . 37 .
There are five frames in the east -west and north - south directions .
Tied columns are used throughout ; all except on line E are
3' x in .
23ş in ((60 square c
cms), square
60 cms)
60 xx 60 on
cross section . The columns at
E - 2A and (E ) - 5A are ll 3 / 4 x ll 3 / 4 in . ( 30 x 30 cms ) and at
Ē ) - ( 3 and E ) - 4 are 23 1 / 2 x 15 3 / 4 in . (60 x 40 cms) . The columns
are prismatic through the height of the building . All the columns ,
besides having outer hoop ties , also have intermediate ties (Fig .
38 ) . The hoop and intermediate tie reinforcement is size # 4 . The
spacing ranges between 4 in . and 5 in . for distances 3 . 3 ft . (1 m )
from joints . The spacing in the mid height region is 12 in . ( 30
cms ) . The close spacing near the column ends and the use of inter
mediate ties makes the columns ductile . Longitudinal bar splices
were made at column midheight in accordance with SEAOC recommenda
tions ( BALT 2 ) .

The foundation consists of footings and grade beams . The

stairway and elevator shaft are located between region E - D - 54 -
(4 ) . The mezzanine floor is similar in plan to the first floor .
There is a rectangular opening which runs from the north to the
south sides of the building between lines A and B . Enclosing this

440
area are beams which are 23 1/ 2 x 13 3 / 4 in . (60_ x 35 cms) spanning
between columns on line A , locations ( A ) - 1 and B - 1 , and
locations A - 5 and B - 5 . The remainder of the area is spanned
beam system with hollow precast concrete box fillers .
This system resembles a waffle slab except that a concrete flange
area is not used ; the top of the precast box is flush with the
floor surface . The grid beams are spaced at 29 1 / 2 in . (75 cm ) ,
having a depth of 13 3 / 4 in . ( 35 cms) and varying in width between
4 3 / 4 in . (12 cms) and 11 3 / 4 in . ( 30 cms) . The space in between
these beams is filled with the precast concrete boxes made up of a
top and bottom half : the dimensions are 29 1 / 2 x 29 1 / 2 x 6 7/8 in .
(75 x 75 x 17 . 5 cms) . The precast boxes are laid in place before
the beams are cast .

Square drop panels are used with this floor system . The
dimensions are : a ) 3 grid beam widths ( 100 in . or 254 cm )
for plan dimension , and b ) grid beam depth ( 13 3 / 4 in or 35
cm ) for depth dimension .
The third floor has similar framing . The opening is closed
between lines ( A ) and (B . The columns on line 1 stop at this floor ;
this can be seen in the upper right corner of Fig . 37 .
The third floor area is smaller because of the setback from
line 1 . The grid precast box floor system is used in the
floor system . The column splices can be seen (Fig . 37 ) extending
above the fourth floor slab .

This building was under construction at the time of the earth

quake . Only the bare skeleton had been completed . Partitions ,
walls , windows and doors were non - existent . This building there
fore affords a good opportunity for studying the skeleton frame
for its damage and look at it as a whole without the interference
of non - structural elements . Factors which cause uncertainty are
the shoring and the strength or age of the concrete at the time
of the earthquake .

On balance , it appears that Baltodano is an interesting

building to study . In addition to survey of damages , a response
spectrum dynamic analysis and a capacity analysis are performed in
the present study .

Survey of Damages
In general the column damage was negligible . One column on
the south side at the first floor level showed spalling of the
shell (Fig . 39 ) the column bending moment was a maximum at this
location . In general , the columns were strong, ductile well
designed elements .

The lateral reinforcement detailing which goes with ductile

moment resistant frame design was used . Unfortunately this detailing

441
was not used for drop panels ; these showed cracking in shear
due to moment transfer between the columns and the slab (BALT 3 ) .
This type of failure leads to an abrupt loss of moment transfer
between the drop panel and the column . An antisymmetrical mound
( BALT 4 ) is formed in the slab around the column when failure
occurs .

The shear cracking is most noticeable in the drop panels of

exterior columns (Fig . 40 ) . The cracking of drop panels of the
interior columns is light while the damage to the drop panels of
the exterior columns is moderate . The level of cracking in the
exterior drop panels was uniform through the height of the building .

The grid beams outside of the drop panels were not damaged .
These had closely spaced stirrups - # 2 @ 15 cm (one - half of the
beam depth ) .

The remainder of the cracking occurred at the stairway and

at the shade which was used at the mezzanine floor on the south
and west sides of the building . Although this cracking is
important it is not considered crucial to the safety of the build
ing .

Structural Dynamic Analysis (Elastic )

A modal response spectrum analysis was performed in order to

determine the maximum earthquake forces . A moment frame model was
used to represent the structure . The structure is nearly equiva
lent in the two directions so that one structural idealization
was used for the study of forces in the two directions . The ESSO
response spectrum ( IN 1 ) with 5 % damping was used for the input
for the two horizontal components of ground motion .

pe rioaThe
periods
three mode shapes have a shear
seare : e T mo
thre , de . 34apes
= 0sh sec ha
. , T , = 0 . 12
beam appearance . The
sec . , and T , = 0 . 08 sec .

The story shears are presented in Fig . 41. The NS component

is larger due to larger response spectrum value at this period .
The relative contribution of the first mode to the response com
pared with the other modes was over 90 % .

The shear coefficients are depicted in Fig . 42 . The base

story shear coefficients as given by this model are 0 . 87 in EW
and 0 . 97 in NS directions . The high values result from : 1 ) the
input of s = 50 cm / sec . for first mode EW and S , = 70 cm ' sec for
first mode NS and 2 ) the shear beam like behavior of the building
gives a first mode participation factor of approximately 80 % .
Capacity Studies
The capacity study which is based on ACI ( T4 ) procedures is
performed using the following tack :

442
 1) The moment capacities of the columns are found from
interaction diagrams and appropriate axial loads ;

the flexural moment capacities of the grid beams and

drop panels are evaluated ;
the drop panel moment capacities which go with shear
failure due to moment transfer is evaluated ;
4) the moment capacities of the beams and drop panels in
flexure and shear failure are compared ; the moment shear
transfer failure is determined to be the weak link ;

5) for a system capacity model it is assumed that drop panels

punch due to moment transfer and the columns hinge at the
first floor slab (ground level) ;
6 ) using " 5 " as a model the story shear capacity is evaluated .

The story shear capacity coefficients found from this capacity cal
culation procedure are presented in Fig . 42 . These are compared
04

with shear coefficients also presented in Fig . 42 . In all cases

the capacity coefficients exceed the shear coefficients indicating
that major damages should not have occurred .

The damages seem to agree with these analytical studies . The

drop panels are cracking around the periphery of the building but
not on the interior - indicating that the capacity story shears
are nearly attained .
If the earthquake had been stronger the damage would have
been serious because the moment shear transfer failure is brittle ,
i . e . , the moment in the drop panel reaches a maximum value and
then decreases rapidly for an increase of drop panel curvature .
Frame action is lost when enough drop panels have failed .
Conclusions
The ductile moment resistant frame design used in the Balto
dano building is a step in the right direction for seismic design .
A moment frame building subjected to earthquake forces can resist
an earthquake without collapse , but large permanent offsets may
result (BALT 5 ) . A 5 -6 inch permanent offset story drift may occur
in a strong earthquake ; this cannot be tolerated because of damage
to the utilities in the building .

The Baltodano building could not have attained ductile behavior

because of the moment shear failure in the drop panels . The code
(Tl) didn ' t recommend shear reinforcement for drop panels even
though some may be needed ; the damages at Olive View Hospital
(BALT 6 ) show that shear reinforcement is needed in drop panels .

443
The cracking in the Baltodano building shows that these drop panels
should be treated as the haunch of a beam ; the haunch should have
stirrup ties designed to the same confinement and shear requirements
a beam in a ductile moment resistant frame .

HOTEL BALMORAL

General Considerations

The Hotel Balmoral is a seven story - three basement building

shown in Fig . 43. Plan and elevation views of the building are
presented in Fig . 44 and 45 . The building , designed as a seismic
truss - moment resistant frame system , has a seismic joint which
runs east - west through the building . The two parts of the building
are not tied together . The south part of the building has two
seismic trusses for resisting north - south and east - west motion .
The north part of the building has a seismic truss which resists
east - west motion of the north side of the building ( Fig . 46 ) . An
elevator core of reinforced concrete was used in the north portion
of the building .

Conventional flat slab construction with two way beam framing

was used in most of the structure . Tile block filler floor was
used around the swimming pool on the roof . The pool was empty .

The exterior walls and many of the interior walls had ceramic
tile block infills ; these provided a high in - plane stiffness to
the frames until shear or compression failures occurred in the
blocks . Capacity and structural dynamic studies of the building
are complicated because of the tile infills ; the force - deflection
relations used for columns and beams are strongly influenced by
the blocks ; the influence changes when failure occurs in the blocks .
Because of these complexities , structural dynamic and capacity
studies were not performed on this building .

The scope of the study on the Hotel Balmoral is limited to a

survey of damages .

Survey of Damages

The major aspects of the damage are : 1) the hammering of the

seismic joint , 2 ) impact with the building on the north at the
third floor level , 3 ) overturning failure of the first story
columns , 4) crushing of tile block infills due to overturning ,
5 ) shear failure of first story columns , 6 ) diagonal cracking of
the elevator core . and 7 ) diagonal cracking of the tile block
infills . Starting at the roof and working down through the building ,
the following was observed :

a ) Roof - there wasn't much damage on the roof ; it was confined

to the cover plates used for the seismic joint .
T

444
 b) Sixth floor - most of the damage was confined to the
seismic joint . Typical damage in the building due to banging of
the seismic joint is shown in Fig . 47 .

c) Fifth floor - damage is the same as the sixth floor .

d) Fourth floor -· damage is the same as the sixth floor .

e) Third floor - the damage on this floor was highlighted

by the heavy banging which occurred at the north side of the
building ; the tile infills in the north wall are punched through
in several spots . Seismic joint damage decreases in the lower

stories of the building . As measured at the seismic joint the

permanent offset between the north and south parts of the building
is decreasing from the roof to the first floor . This pattern of
permanent offset indicates the occurrence of a rotation whose
vector lies in the horizontal ; these rotations have occurred in
one part of the building or the other part of the building or in
both parts .

f) Second floor - there is heavy infilled tile damage in the

south part of the building . A few of the columns show hairline
cracking .

g) Mezzanine floor -- tile block infill cracking increased

here 48 )) ..
( Fig . 48 There is some evidence of tension cracking in the
columns due to overturning ( Fig . 49 ) . Minor shear cracking of
beams has occurred .

The elevator core located in the north part of the building

shows some diagonal cracking on the west face over the door open
ings . The damage at the seismic joint continues to decrease as we
go further down into the building ; it is quite small at this level .

h) First floor - the damage in the columns and infilled tile

walls was heavy here ( Fig . 50 and 51 ) . The columns at the left
side of Fig . 50 appear in a close - up view in Fig . 51. This is also
the west end of the seismic joint note the dual columns . The

longitudinal bars have buckled out between the first two ties at
the top due to overturning forces in the column . The column on

the right side in Fig . 51 is the west chord of the seismic truss
located at the northwest corner of the south part of the building .
The truss column had high axial forces and low bending moments .

Other columns on this floor behaved in a similar fashion .

Perhaps the most notable of these is the column shown in Fig . 52 .
Located just to the west of the elevator core this column had
bundled longitudinal bars with ties designed according to ACI 318
56 ( Tl ) .

At the south side of the building toward the west an obvious

column shear failure occurred ( Fig . 53 ) . At this location some

445
drift was possible after overturning failures occurred in the
seismic truss columns . The crack runs top east bottom west indi
cating a strong ground acceleration to the east .

The elevator core in the north portion of the building had

significant diagonal cracking in this floor . The north , east , and
west faces all evinced cracking . The south face was not visible .

The first story had by far the heaviest damage in the building .
The damage in this floor is of a serious nature complicating the
rehabilitation of the building . The building could be repaired , but
concrete shear walls should be added to carry the lateral forces .
If the columns are repaired then they can be used to carry vertical
dead loads but not overturning forces . The beams and floor slabs
are in reasonably good condition .

i) First basement - basement walls around the periphery

carried the shear and overturning forces here . The damage is
negligible in this level .

j ) Second basement - the north side of the building goes

down to a third basement ; the south portion of the building stops
after the first basement . There is no damage at this level .

k) Third basement there is no damage here .

Conclusions

The Hotel Balmoral had serious problems particularly in the

first floor . The overturning failures in the columns present a
serious repair problem because the reinforcement has been vitiated .
The building is out of plumb ; this is indicated by the variation
in the gap of the seismic joint .

The seismic trusses seem to have performed well even though

the reinforced concrete elements in them were brittle because of
the wide tie spacing . The widely spaced ties in the beams and
columns is the most serious problem in the building .

The elevator core carried a large part of the lateral load in

the north part of the building ; the original design apparently did
not consider the lateral resistance of the core .

PAN AMERICAN LIFE INSURANCE BUILDING

General Considerations

The Pan American Life Insurance Building ( Edificio Mil ) is

located in the same block as the Hotel Balmoral ( Fig . 1 ) . This
is a 6 story reinforced concrete frame and shear wall building .
Like the Inmobiliaria Building it is stronger in the transverse

446
direction and weaker in the long direction . A floor plan of the
building is given in Fig . 54 . The structure behaved as a shear
wall building in the EW direction and a frame building in the NS
direction . There was hammering between the east side of the
stairwell and the building located directly to the east .

Engineering plans for the Pan American Life Insurance Building

were not available to Team I investigators ; consequently no
analyses were performed . The present work is limited to a brief
description of damages .

Survey of Damage

a) Damages associated with east - west response - at the north

end of the building damage is heavy ( Fig . 55 ) in the tile block
walls . The reinforced concrete elevator core ( Fig . 56 ) located
at the north end of the building evinced little or no damage ;
this core is more flexible and stronger than the tile block walls .

At the northeast corner of the building the width of the

building is increased in order to accommodate the stairs , and
elevator entry . This extended portion which is a moment frame
with tile block fillers hammered against the building on the east
side of the structure . Damages at the third floor level are shown
in Fig . 57 ; diagonal panel cracking occurred in the tile block
fillers .

At the south end of the building a 40 ft . ( 12.2 m ) shear wall

runs for the full height of the building ( Fig . 58 ) . Tied columns
were used at the ends and at midlength of the wall . The panels
showed light diagonal cracking in the fourth , second , and first
stories ( Fig . 59 ) .

The tied columns designed according to ACI '56 ( Tl ) standards

did not evince shear failure due to east - west motion on the floors
2 to 6 . The first floor and basement could not be entered . The

structure resisted the east - west ground input with little difficulty .

Many of the columns failed in shear due to north - South motion

of the building . The column failures were especially heavy on the
east side of the building . Damages often occurred within the
height of the window opening , but this wasn't a definite rule .
If the cracking initiated in the tile block walls then a column
embedded in the wall would crack at the height where the wall crack
intersected with the column ( Fig . 60 ) . The tied columns on the
interior which had no restraints due to spandrels were undamaged .

The beams running in the north - south direction were not heavily
damaged because the columns failed first in shear . A minor amount
of flexural cracking occurred in the beams . The crack shown at
the right end of the top spandrel beam shown in Fig . 61 was the
heaviest crack found in any of the beams .

447
 Because their clear heights were shortened the weak links in
the north - south framing were the tied columns on the sides of the
building ; these failed in shear . Other elements , such as core ,
beams , interior columns , floor diaphragms , and shear wall are
undamaged .

Conclusion

The Pan American Life building is similar in many respects

to the Inmobiliaria building ; it is stronger in one direction than
the other . The major difference in the buildings is in the lateral
reinforcement design of the columns - - spiral columns in Inmobiliaria
and tied columns in Pan American .
On balance , the building performed well during the earthquake .
The shear wall on the south side and the elevator core gave the
building sufficient capacity to resist the earthquake . In spite
of this, a few tied columns on the east side of the building have
heavy diagonal cracks ; these columns should be repaired .
In order to upgrade east -west resistance, shear walls should
be added at the north end of the building .

To improve north - south resistance shear walls should be added

for two bays on the east and west sides of the building .

GUERRERO PINEDA
Guerrero Pineda was a five story reinforced concrete building
which suffered a complete collapse . The building was constructed
in 1952 . It is of little value to reconstruct the failure sequence
since the building was apparently not designed to resist seismic forc
it's important to show what happens in an earthquake to a building
which hasn ' t been designed to resist seismic loads .

A view looking south is presented in Fig . 62 . The parapets

of successively higher floors dropped successively further to the
left ( east ) . The top floor extended 20 ft . into the street .
Another view looking southeast is presented in Fig . 63 . Note the
rubble from the missing second and third stories at the right side
of the photo .
A view to the west from the top of the collapsed roof is
presented in Fig . 64 . While looking at the deformed top story it ' s
difficult to decide if the elements in the structure are walls ,
beams or columns . The building is composed of elements which
cannot be classified by normal standards of reinforced concrete
design . The element shown in Fig . 65 appears to be a tied column
smooth # 4 longitudinal bars and # 2 ties . It is a very sandy con
crete in this element .

448

- - - - -- -- -- --
 Fig . 66 shows a view of the building on the south side . Note
the heavy brick bearing walls with no reinforcing . This failure
is remarkable because the walls piled along side each other as
they cascaded down . There was no bond between the walls on suc
cessive stories .

The collapse of this building although serious should not be

considered as a black mark against seismic design procedures which
have been used in the past .

SUMMARY , CONCLUSIONS , AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

A summary of the important findings of this work is presented

in Table 5 . It is interesting to compare like quantities for the
different buildings.
consider structural periods . The Telcor and Baltodano buildings
obey the empirical relation which relates the period to the number
of stories in the building . The Inmobiliaria periods seem low at
0 . 15 sec . NS and 0 . 20 sec . EW ; the primary reason that they are
low follows from assumptions of story stiffness accumulation which
are made for use of the Khan - Sbarounis model ( IN2) . The fundamental
periods of this structure are estimated to be 0 , 5 sec . for east
west response and 0 . 4 sec . for north - south response .

A comparison of the base story shear coefficients shows that

the Baltodano had the highest value ; compared with Te loor and Inmo
biliaria there were differences in input and mode shape . The value
of lg. is high , but when it is reconciled with capacity against
the damages which occurred then the value seems reasonable . The
shear coefficients are lowest in the Telcor building because of the
longer periods .
The capacity coefficients show tremendous variation between
buildings and between directions in the same buildings . By UBC ( T2 )
standards the capacities are high except for the east - west direc
tion of the Inmobiliaria building . The Baltodano building is very
strong because the elements were designed to support a five story
building . In addition the designer added more moment capacity to
the columns than is required in the code . The capacity coefficients
for the Telcor building are deceptively high ; they are based on all
elements carrying their maximum at the same time ; the torsion in
the building would force the elements to fail in sequence instead
of in unison ; this would lower the story shear capacity from that
given in Table 5 .
When studying the damage in the various buildings it is inter
esting to compare the shear coefficient , capacity coefficient and
the damage . Except for Telcor the basic concept of damage increas

449
ing rapidly as the shear coefficient surpasses the capacity coef
ficient seems to be valid .

In the Telcor building , the damage is heavy in spite of the

fact that the capacity exceeds the shear coefficient . The reason
is that the stiffness of the core and the eccentricity it creates
causes the loads to go where they can ' t be resisted .
For the Inmobiliaria building the behavior predicted by
modeling agrees reasonably well with the prototype : a ) NS damage
is light and NS capacity exceeds story shear , b ) EW damage is
moderate and shear coefficient exceeds the capacity .
In the Baltodano building the capacity and the shear coeffi
cients are almost egual; the damage is light .
The concept of forecasting damages by determining the capacity
and maximum forces seems to be substantiated by the results shown
in Table 5 . There are uncertainties involved in the calculations ,
but research in earthquake structural engineering is directed
toward minimizing the uncertainty . In any case , studies like these
need to be conducted on new and existing buildings .

Although no analytical studies were performed , the Hotel

Balmoral damages are interesting because some of the non ductile
tied columns failed due to overturning instead of shear . Based
on the University of Illinois tests (SCARI) this type of brittle
behavior would be expected . This result demonstrates further that
nonductile tied columns should not be used in seismic areas .
The damages in Pan American Life show why seismic joints should
be used between buildings .

The collapse of Guerrero Pineda shows that structures not

designed for seismic loads are dangerous and should be razed .
Conclusions
what has been learned in this work ? The answer is presented
in the form of a list :
1) It is incorrect to ignore stiff eccentrically placed
elevator cores or other elements in structural analysis
and design . The reason is that internal forces in the
prototype will go to elements which may not have been
designed with sufficient strength to resist .
2) Buildings with unequal strengths in the two directions must
be designed with sufficient capacity in the weak direction .
Ductile moment resistant frame design must extend to all
elements of the frame; in the Baltodano building the drop

450
 panels which connected beams to the columns did not
satisfy this requirement .
Tile blocks used for spandrels or filler walls will often
force columns into loading patterns that are not in their
design load envelope , e . g . high shears in Telcor and high
overturning in Hotel Balmoral.
Capacity and structural dynamic analyses should be per
formed to determine the safety of existing and new
buildings .
Recommendations
What should be done with these buildings - - should they be
repaired or destroyed ? The answer must be given in terms of
social , economic , and structural engineering considerations . It
is technically possible to repair even a badly damaged building .
A number of repair schemes were suggested in the present paper .
However it should be realized that a repair as opposed to a recon
struction may not be the most economical solution . Yet , the social
needs may require that the buildings be available quickly for use ;
repair is usually faster than reconstruction .
The responsible individuals must weigh the social, economic ,
and technical considerations and then make their decisions .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A large group of individuals made this paper possible . The

greatest contribution was made by R . K . Ramanathan , Ph . D . student
at UCLA . Other UCLA graduate students who helped were K . B . Morrill
and E . Barelli . F . Chamorro , Structural Engineer , Managua , guided
our work while we visited Managua . Mr . Steve Stevenson of AISI
helped in procurement of the structural drawings . Dr . R . B .
Matthiesen of the Seismological Field provided the ESSO accelero
graph records, Miss Debbie Sekiguchi helped with her expert typing .
Michael Selna ' s able assistance in the photographic work is appre
ciated .
This work was supported in part by EERI and NSF .

451
 REFERENCES

Tl . Building Code Requirements for Reinforced concrete , ACI

318 - 56 , American Concrete Institute , Detroit , 1956
T2 . Uniform Building code (1973 ) , International Conference of
Building Officials , Pasadena , California 1973

T3 . ACI Committee 442 , " Response of Buildings to Lateral

Forces , " Journal American Concrete Institute , Proc . v . 68 ,
No . 2

T4 . Building Code Requirements for Reinforced concrete , ACI

318 - 71, American Concrete Institute , Detroit , 1971
INI . Private Communication : Walter Hays, Enviromental Research
Corporation , Las Vegas , Nevada
IN2 . Khan , F . R . and Sbarounis , J . A . , " Interaction of Shear
Walls and Frames , " Journal of the Structural Division , ASCE ,
Vol . 90 , No . ST3 , June 1964
BALT1 . EERI Reconnaissance Team , "Managua , Nicaragua Earthquake
of December 23 , 1973 , " Earthquake Engineering Research
Institute Report , Oakland , California , May 1973
BALT2 . Seismology Committee Structural Engineers Association of
california , " Recommended Lateral Force Requirements and
Commentary , " Structural Engineers Association Blue Book ,
San Francisco , California , 1973
BALT3 . Hanson , N . W . and Hanson , J .M ., " Shear and Moment Transfer
between concrete slabs and columns , " Journal of the PCA
Research and Development Laboratories , January 1968 .

BALT4 . Selna , L . G . (Editor ) , "Olive View Hospital Damage Survey

Report , " UCLA - ENG - Report , University of California , Los
Angeles , ( in preparation )
BALT5 . Ersoy , 0 . , Selna , L . , and Morrill, K . , " Shear Failure,
Elastic , and Inelastic Analyses of the Olive View Hospital
Psychiatric Day Clinic : A Study of Causes of Failure and
Remedies for Survival , " UCLA Earthquake Engineering and
Structures Laboratory Report , UCLA -ENG - 7284 , May 1973
BALT6 . Bertero , V . , Bresler , B . , Selna , L . , Chopra , A . , Koretsky ,
A . , " Design Implications of Damage Observed in the olive
View Medical Center Buildings, " Proceedings of the Fifth
World Conference on Earthquake Engineering , Rome, Italy ,
June 1973

452
 REFERENCES (Continued )

SCARI . Hognestad , E . , " A Study of Combined Bending and Axial Load

in Reinforced Concrete Members , " Univ . of Ill . Engr . Expt .
Sta . Bull . , No . 399 , 1951

453
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Column Types, Inmobiliaria Building

Table 2 Inmobiliaria Building, Column Capacities, Story Shears
Table 3 Inmobiliaria Building , Shear Wall Capacity -
North -South Walls
Table 4 Inmobiliaria Building , Shear Wall Capacity -
East - West Walls

Table 5 Summary of Response , capacity , and Damage Data

454
 TABLE 1
COLUMN TYPES , INMOBILIARIA BUILDING

IIIIIIIII

ooooooo
Spiral Columns :

wwwAAA
OOO
Type Diameter Longitudinal Spiral
AWNE

Oirur
WA
in . cm .

our
von
600

17 . 18 10 - # 8 ' s 3 @ 1 3/4

0 0
19 . 7 12 - # 8 ' s # 3 @ 1 3/4"

® ®® ® ® ® ® ®®
‫بییاا‬
13 . 8 @ 1 3/ 4
17 . 8 #8 's @ 1 3 /4

.
0
15 . 7 # 8 's # 3 @ 1 3/ 4 "
15 . 7 # 8 ' s @ 1 3/4"

0 0
13 . 8 6 - # 8 's # 3 @ 1 3/ 4"
11 . 8 # 8 's # 3 @ 1 3/4 "
11 . 8 # 5 's # 3 @ 1 3/ 4"

Tied Columns :

Type Dimensions Longitudinal Ties

Bars

10 11 . 8 x 11 . 8 in . 4 - # 8 's # 2 @ 10 in . (25 cm )
( 30 x 30 cm )
11 . 8 x 17 . 8 in . 4 - #8's # 2 @ 10 in . (25 cm )
(30 x 45 cm )

455
 2
TABLE
BUILDING
INMOBILIARIA
,STORY
CAPACITIES
COLUMN
SHEARS
STORY DIAM
.COL AREA |A.LONG
SHEAR
STORY
NS
EW
MOM
XIAL
ATERAL
.(cm
)NO BARS
)|(c“-mT'sL ons
OAD
ons
. mon
REINF EwconNS
First 450 12010
1490 1201000
3@/4" 413
108
16
02
.1
450 10
6
.1|224
413
1590
#83@1/4"201000
500 .9#3@l/4"112
86 904
306000
1960
|33444
500 1960 #8
306000 12 .9
#3@1/4"134
6 94
. 04
500 1960 #8
306000 12 .9
#3@1/4"1.6
|304
944
350 960 73600 6#5 #3@l/4".037
670226
350 960 73600 6#5 1
.77 0#3@1/4"302626
30 900 67500 4#5 .030#2@218
1 57 8

WE FOUAWN
173
.9173 .2
112 .2
112
x45
Mezzanine 30 1350 227810 #2@25 |1
8
.18
554
501
64
x45
30 1350 2278104#8 2@2# 5 .8
10
554
18 4
61
450 1590 201000 1288 #3@l/4 90
.07
271
27
450 1590 201000 12 #8 3@l/4# .09027
.77
|217
1

456
450 1590 201000 12 #8 #3@l/4 90
.027
.727.71
1
450 1590 201000 12 #8 3@l/4# 90
0. .71
27
1
350 73600 6#5 3@1/4# .5
NNN

960 514959

Our A WNA
12
12 350 960 73600 6#5 #3@1/4 14
.955.5955
Un

13 30 900 67500 4#5 #2@25 6.914 6.9292

.4165
150
988 .1
107 .1
97
Second x4305 1350 2278004#8 #2@25 .45
45 2|1.17
3502
x45
30 1350 2278004#8 #2@ 5 .445
5 .210
352
17
400 982 1256608# #3@l/4 .0
75 17
.3173
400 982 1256608# 3@l/4# .0
75 173
.3
400 982 1256608# #3@l/4 .0
75 1733
.3
17
|400 982 125660 #3@l/4 .0
75 317
.3 3|1. 73
wwwww

ouAWNE
89
.8103.922 4.66
9575
 C
)-(2 ontinued
TABLE

Third 1350
x45
30 2278004#8 #2@25 .3366 156
.6 .09
|130
x4350
5 2278004#8 #2@25 .36
36 .66
15 9.0
400 982 1256606#8 #3@l/4 .060 .55
14 .55
14
400 982 1256606#8 3@l/4# .0
60 .55
14 145
.5

олол
400 982 1256606#8 #3@l/4 .0
60 .55
14 .55
14

ол
400 982 1256606#8 #3@l/4 .0
60 14
.55 .55
14

Слололол
ол

au AWNE
.52
89 .22
76 975
.157
49
Fourth x45
30 1350 22780 488 2@2# 5 .27
27 .27
14 8.59
x45
30 1350 22780 4#8 #2@25 .27
27 147
.2 8.59
350 960 73600 6#8 #3@l/4 .45
45 .58
10 108
.5
350 960 73600 6#8 #3@l/4 .45
45 .5108 .58
10
350 960 73600 6#8 #3@l/4 45
.4 5 .58
10 .58
10
350 960 73600 6#8 #3@l/4 .45
45 .58
10 .5108

ou AWNE
.86
70 .5
59 .72
45 .38
38

457
Fifth 30
x41350
5 2278004#8 2@25 .18
18 .02
13 7.9
x4|15350
30 2278004#8 2@2# 5 .18
18 132
.0 7.9
300 710 397006#8 #3@1/4 .0
30 7.07 7.07
300 710 39700 6#8 #3@1/4 .0
30 7.07 7.07
300 710 39700 6#8 #3@l/4 .0
30 7.07 7.07
300 710 39700 6#8 #3@1/4 .0
30 7.07 7.07

Our A WNA
.32
54 .08
44 .00
35 .44
28
Sixth 305
x4 1350 2278004#8 #2@25 9.1 .64
11 7.07
x45
30 1350 2278004#8 #2@25 .19 .6114 77
.0

mm
300 710 39700 6#5 #3@l/4 .0
15 4.24 4.24
300 710 39700 6#5 #3@l/4 .015 44
.2 4.24
300 710 39700 6#5 #3@l/4 .0
15 4.24 4.24
710 39700 6#5 #3@1/4 .0
15 4.24 4.24

WWW
300

Our A WNE
.24
40 .1
31 .05
22 .04
17
 TABLE 3
INMOBILIARIA BUILDING
SHEAR WALL CAPACITY - NORTH - SOUTH WALLS

f: = 3000 psi
= 110 psi
(for Tile Wall 15- 14 v . = 25 psi vs = 0)

FLOOR WALL LENGTH THICK A REA Vw

si )
(m ) (m ) NESS (m ) (m2) (psi) | tons
|(metric )
15 - 14 - 9 - 10 17 . 45 0 . 25 4 . 35 . 189 92 . 1 202 . 1 344 . 0
2 . 2 0 . 30 0 . 67 | . 236 94 . 6 204 . 6 99 . 8
3. 2 0 . 30 0 . 96 | . 236 94 . 6 204 . 6 144 . 5
Total 588 . 3
M | 15 - 14 - 9 - 10 17 . 45 0 . 25 4 . 35 . 189 92 . 1 202 . 11 344 . 0
2.2 0 .3 0 .67 . 236 94 . 6 204 . 6 99 . 8
3 .2 0 . 3 0 . 96 . 236 94 .6 204 . 6 144 . 5
1- 2 9.3 0 . 15 1 . 40 . 286 114 . 0 224 . 0 220 . 0
Total 808 . 3 770 . 7
2 9 - 10 9 .4 0 . 25 2 . 35 . 189 76 . 9 186 . 9 305 . 4
2.1 0 . 30 0 .63 . 236 94 . 6 2046 . 95 . 3
3.2 0 . 30 0 . 96 . 236 94 . 6 204 . 6 . 144 . 5
1- 2 9.3 0 . 15 1 .40 . 286 114 . 0 224 . 0 220 . 0
Total 765 . 2

9 - 10 9.4 0 . 25 2 . 35 . 189 76 . 9 186 . 9 305 . 4

2.1 0 . 30 0 .63 . 236 94 . 6 214 . 6 95 . 3
3.2 0 . 25 0 . 80 . 283 113 . 5 223 . 5 125 . 4
1- 2 9.3 0 . 15 1 . 40 . 286 113 . 5 224 . 01 220 . 0
Total 765 . 2
олол
слол

9 - 10 9 .4 0 . 25 2 . 35 . 189 76 . 9 186 . 91 305 . 4

2.1 0 . 25 0 . 53 . 236 113 . 5 223 . 5 82 . 4
3. 2 0 . 25 0 . 80 . 283 113 . 5 223 . 5 125 . 4
1-2 9. 3 0 . 15 1 . 40 . 286 114 . 0 224 . 0 220 . 0
Total 733 . 2

SAME AS FLOOR 4 733 . 2

SAME AS FLOOR 4 733 . 2

7 9 - 10 9.4 0 . 25 2 . 35 | . 189 76 . 9 189 . 9 305 . 4
0 . 25 0 .80 | . 283 113. 5 223 . 5 125 . 4
Total 430 . 8

458

-- - - - - - - - - - - --
 TABLE 4
INMOBILIARIA BUILDING
SHEAR WALL CAPACITY - EAST -WEST WALLS
f: = 3000 psi
v . = 2 / Fi = 110 psi
( for Tile Wall 18 - 17 - 16 - 15 v . = 25 psi v . = 0)
FLOOR WALL LENGTH THICK AREA Vw

02
(m ) (m ) NESS (m ) (m2) (psi) tons
(metric )
18 - 17 - 16 - 14 16 . 24 0 . 25 4 . 06 . 283 0 55 72 . 0
near 9 3.5 0 . 25 0 .88 . 283 113 . 2 223 . 2 115 . 0
Total 187 . 0

M 18 - 17 - 16 - 14 16 . 24 0 . 25 4 . 06 . 283 0 55 72 . 0
near 9 3.5 0 . 25 0 .88 . 283 113 . 2 222 . 7 115 . 0
near 10 3. 0 . 15 0 .45 . 236 94 . 0 024 . 0 77 . 0
Total 264 . 0
near 9 3 .5 0 . 25 0 . 88 . 283 113 . 2 222 . 7 115 . 0
near 10 3 .6 0 . 15 0 . 47 | . 236 94 . 0 204 . 0 77 . 0
Total 192 . 0

near 9 1.8 0 . 25 0 . 45 . 283 113 . 2 222 . 7 70 . 5

near 10 3 .6 0 . 15 0 . 47 . 236 94 . 0 204 . 0 77 . 0
Total 147 . 5
SAME AS THIRD FLOOR 147 . 5

SAME AS THIRD FLOOR 147 . 5

SAME AS THIRD FLOOR 147 . 5

SAME AS THIRD FLOOR 147 . 5

459
 5
TABLE
CND
RESPONSE
OF
,ASUMMARY
DATA
DAMAGE
APACITY
-South
North
Response
Building Damages
capacity
Shear
Story
Base
Fundamental
Stories
sSSO
Period
(E
.)Cec
oeff

Telcor 8 0.77 0.30orsion

(t 0.48 :overturning
Heavy
)
present &shear
cracking
,
damage
core
beams
prestressed
cracking
shear
Inmobiliaria 0.15 0.30 0.67 Light

Baltodano 0.34 0.98 1.00 :drop

Light
panel
cracking
shear
moment
Balmoral
Hotel Heavy
:d iagonal
elevator
in
cracking

460
core

Life
American
Pan :beam
Moderat
crackin
failures
shear
column

Pineda
Guerrero collapse
Complete

-West
East
Response
Telcor 8 0.80 0.33 0.45 :column
Heavy
shear
,floor
failure
pulls
apart
,overturning
in
damage
shear
and
core
7
Inmobiliaria 0.20 0.54 0.19 :diagonal
Moderate
,cracking
walls
in
hinging
column
 5-(Continued
)TABLE

Building Damages
capacity
Shear
Story
Base
Fundamental
Stories
sSSO
(EPeriod
.)Cec
oeff
Baltodano 3 0.34 0.87 1.00 :drop
Light
shear
moment
panel
Balmoral
Hotel - :overturning
Heavy
,failure
columns
in
of
failure
shear
columns

Life 6
American
Pan :shear
Moderate
wall
cracking
diagonal

Pineda
Guerrero collapse
Complete

461
 LIST OF FIGURES

1 . Location of EERI Team I Buildings , Downtown Managua

2 . Telcor Building from Southeast
3 . Spandrel Damage , North Side , Telcor Building
Ą. Plan View , Telcor Building
5 . Ceramic Block Damage , Penthouse Telcor Building
6 . Ceramic Block Damage , Line 3 Mezzanine Telcor Building
7 . Elevation View , Telcor Building
8. Tile Block Floor , Telcor Building
9. Tearing of 7th Floor Slab Along Line 2. Telcor Building
10 . Shear Failure in 5th Floor Column , Telcor Building
11 . Beam Damage , Floor 3 , Line 0. Telcor Building
12 . South Elevation , Telcor Building
13 . Diagonal cracking in core - Mezzanine Floor , South Face ,
Telcor Building .
14 . Prestressed Beam - Column Joint , Telcor Building
15 . Transverse Beam 8 and 9 Damage First Story , South , Telcor
Building
16 . Overturning Damage in Core , Telcor Building
17 . Frame - Core Interaction , Telcor Building
18 . 3D Model of Telcor Building
19 . First 3 Mode Shapes , Telcor Building
20 . Maximum Shear and Torque in the core , Telcor Building
21 . Comparison of Maximum Story Shear Components , Telcor Building
22 . First Story Column Shears , Telcor Building
23 . Story Shear and capacity Coefficients , Telcor Building
24 . Photo of Inmobiliaria Building
25 . First Floor and Mezzanine Plan , Inmobiliaria Building
26 . Typical Upper Floor Plan , Inmobiliaria Building
27 . Elevation View of Inmobiliaria Building
28 . Compression Spalling , Top of Fifth Floor column # 5
29 . Window Spandrel - Wall Interaction Damage , Fourth Floor
30 . Column , Tile Block Damage , Inmobiliaria Building
31 . Damage , Joint Column 3 , Second Floor , Inmobiliaria Building
32. Diagonal Cracking in slab due to Shear Transfer
33 . Damage at Wall 8 - First Story , Inmobiliaria Building
34 . Capacity and Shear coefficients , Inmobiliaria Building
35 .
Story Shears , Inmobiliaria Building
36 . Plan View , Baltodano Building
37 . Elevation View , Baltodano Building
38 . Column Cross Section , Baltodano Building
39 . Spalling of Column Shell , Baltodano Building
40 . Cracking in Drop Panel , Baltodano Building
41 . Story Shear Distribution , Baltodano Building
42 . Shear and capacity coefficients , Baltodano Building
43 . Hotel Balmoral - South Elevation
44 . Plan View of Hotel Balmoral
45 . Elevation View of Hotel Balmoral
46 . Seismic Truss Hotel Balmoral
47 . Inside Damage , Seismic Joint - Hotel Balmoral
48 . Tile Block Cracking - Hotel Balmoral

462
 LIST OF FIGURES ( Continued )

49 . Tension Cracking in the Columns due to Overturning Hotel

Balmoral
50 . Column , Tile Block Wall Damage , Hotel Balmoral
51 . Overturning Damage in Columns - Hotel Balmoral
52 . Overturning column Damage near Elevator - Hotel Balmoral
53 . column Shear Failure , South Side Hotel Balmoral
54 . Plan View of Pan American Life Insurance Building
55 . Elevation View Looking Southest , Pan American Life Insurance
56 . Elevator Core , Pan American Life Insurance
57 . Banging with Adjacent Building , Pan American Life Insurance
58 . Elevation View Looking Northest , Pan American Life Insurance
59 . Shear Wall Cracking , Pan American Life Insurance
60 . Column Shear Damage , Pan American Life Insurance
61 . Beam Damage , Pan American Life Insurance
62 . View to South , Guerrero Pineda
63 . View to Southeast , Guerrero Pineda
64 . View to West Roof , Guerrero Pineda
65 . Column Reinforcement , Guerrero Pineda
66 . South Side of Building , Guerrero Pineda

463
 -AGO DE MANAGJA

ELOCR
BA TODANOF
MAILIARIA
-5.5A_MORAL PAN AMERCAN
SUPACE
BACO
LVER CA
NI
-7EEA

Figure 1. - Location of EERI Figure 2. - Telcor Building from

Team I buildings , Downtown Southeast .
Managua .

B © De
4.70 . 340
K40 ' 14 ILIS

10.50
STAIRS

ZDm 3.
ELEVATOR
CORE

2X3
479
5.9
REINFORCED

180m
CONCRETE

.50 30m
SPANDAEL
caUMNS

965
BCAMS

PRESTRESSED CONCRETL BEANS

4.15
m.
12.63
4.15m
13.63
4.15

TILE BLOCK FLOOR SLAB

m.
9.85

8
11.55
Om3.
9
5.10

Figure 3. - Spandrel Damage , North Figure 4. - Plan View , Telcor

Side , Telcor Building . Building

464
 Figure 5. - Ceramic Block Damage , Figure 6. - Ceramic Block Damage ,
Penthouse Telcor Building . Line ( 3) Mezzanine Telco Building .

(0 2 © 5 (6 (8 ) ( 9 (10 )
3.20m 11.50 ml.3.00 . 4.15 m 4.15 m 3.00m1155
10.50 195 591 9.65 13.63 9.05 5.10

FLOOR
PRES - ES50-6-3
CONCETE Juis
* 2. 25 cm ( 9.85 ). TILE LOCK
* 20 31 cm (122 ) CONCRETE
wsz

6
985

5
.

625 cm 625 cm
246 24.6
3
2

Figure 7. - Elevation View , Figure 8. - Tile Block Floor ,

Telcor Building . Telcor Building .

465
 CRACKED

Figure 9 . - Tearing of 7th Floor Figure 10 . - Shear Failure in 5th

slab Along Line 2 , Telcor Floor column , Telcor Building .
Building .

UKULERINGOR

Figure 11. -Beam Damage, Floor 3 , Figure 12 . - South Elevation ,

Line 9 . Telcore Building Telcor Building .

466
 I
JOINT

Figure 13. - Diagonal cracking in Figure 14. - Prestressed Beam

Core -Mezz . Floor , South Face , column Joint , Telcor Building .
Telcor Building .

CORNER

OF CORE 2

Figure 15. - Transverse Beam 8 and Figure 16. - overturning Damage

9 Damage - First , Story , South , in Core , Telcor Building .
Telcor Building .

467
 TRANSVERSE KAM
CORE ( ASTRE )
FLOOR SLAB FORCES
FLOOR SPONEL BEAM
R
R 7

--
-
COMPRESSION
7 6
6

4
5
4 3 COLUMN
3 TENSION 2
-

2 1 1

CORE FRAME

Figure 17. - Frame - core Interaction , Figure 18. - 3D Model of Telcor

Telcor Building . Building .

SHEAR
10 900 tki
200 ( TOR

MAX TORQU
Ti - 0.80

MAX SHEAR
(EW )
FLOOR

Tz = 0.77

3
2

M
T, -0.59
200 ( TON -M . )
KOO 3200 (KIP.FT.)
TORQUE

Figure 19. - First 3 Mode Shapes , Figure 20. - Maximum Shear and
Telcor Building . Torque in the core , Telcor
Building .

468
 7 NORTH - SOUTH

SCALE :
FLOOR

SHEAR = 20 TON - M

5 (44 KIPS )
4

- Id f
EAST - WEST

N
3

2
2

ž
M

200 400 ( TONS )

400 800 ( KIPS )
SHEAR

Figure 21. - Comparison of Maxi Figure 22. - First Story Column

mum Story Shear Components , Shears , Telcor Building .
Telcor Building .
R

FRAME SHEAR ( EW)

7
-CORE SHEAR ( EW )

FCORE CAPACITY

5
FLOOR

01
.

3
FRAME
CAPACITY
2
M

+
0.50 1.00

SHEAR COEF .

Figure 23. - Story Shear and Figure 24. - Photo of Inmobiliaria

Capacity Coefficients , Telcor Building .
Building .

469
 SHEAR WALL

6. 20 .
1579 16 66 20.32 ELEVATOR
(14) 9 ( 0 -SHEAR WAL
INFILLED

15 319
BLOCK

STAIRS 9
TILE
MOMENT

(16 ) 13 8
FRAME

7
TILE
(CONCRETE
BEAMS 6
117 12 (5 6

58
'
SPIRAL FLOOR
SHEAR KEY
COLUMNS TERMINATES AT
MEZZANINE
(18 (11) (3 (4 )
SLABS
i

6
On
1 2 20' -SHEAR WAL
30 FROM MEZZANNE
TO ROOF

INIMOOLIARIA BUILDING , PLAN NEW

Figure 25. - First Floor and Figure 26. - Typical Upper Floor
Mezz . Plan , Inmobiliaria Build Plan , Inmobiliaria Building .
ing .

SHEAR WALL
SPIRAL COLUMNS
14

SHEAR WALLS
84
'

FLOOR BEAMS
70

SHEAR KEY
58

INMOBILIARIA BUILDING , LOOKING SOUTH

Figure 27. - Elevation View of Figure 28. - Compression Spalling ,

Top of Fifth Floor Column
Inmobiliaria Building .

470
 PANEL
CRACKS

Figure 29 . -Window Spandrel -Wall Figure 30 . - Column , Tile Block

Interaction Damage , Fourth Damage , Inmobiliaria Building .
Floor .

Figure 31 . - Damage , Joint Column Figure 32 . - Diagonal Cracking in

3 , Second Floor , Inmobiliaria slab due to Shear Transfer .
Building .

471
 R

CAPACITY (EW )

STORY SHEAR ( NS )
5 ---
STORY SHEAR (EW )

FLOOR
CAPACITY ( NS ))
FCAPAC

1 2 3 5
SHEAR COEF,

Figure 33. -Damage at Wall 8 Figure 34. - Capacity and Shear

First Story , Inmobiliaria coefficients, Inmobiliaria
Building . Building .
R

V 1. 250
YONO
11- ? HOOR SYSTEM
STORY SHEAR ( EW ) ,
O
01
FLOOR

21.21

3
STORY SHEAR (NS ),
21.3 wco

2
6.45m
21.210

400 800 ( KIPS )

O

5 75m
10 ,
200 400 ( TONS ) O
SHEAR

Figure 35. Story Shears , Figure 36. - Plan View ,

Inmobiliaria Building . Baltodano Building .

472
 F
22cm TIES :
24 #10
8.67in
* 40 3in min
11 TWO WELD
HOOPS

19.7
cm
50
in
60 cm
23.6 in

Figure 37. - Elevation View , Figure 38. - Column Cross Section ,

Baltodano Building . Baltodano Building .

DR PA
OP NE
L
CR
AC
KI
NG 2

Figure 39. - Spalling of column Figure 40. - Cracking in Drop

Shell , Baltodano Building . Panel , Baltodano Building .

473
 31NS SHEAR CREFF
FLOORS

STORY SHEARTERE
EW SHEAR COEFF )
2 2

FLOOR
EW & NS

-
CAPACITY LE
bEEF

1
EF
11

STORY
SHEAR ( NS )

.3 .6 9 12 15

1000 2000 (KIPS)"

SHEAR COEFF
600 1200 ( TONS)

Figure 41. - Story Shear Distri Figure 42. - Shear and capacity
bution , Baltodano Building . Coefficients , Baltodano Building .

SEISMIC TRUSS
ELEVATOR CORE
66 '
35

21

SEISMIC TRUSS SEISMIC JOINT

93

IN

CONCRETE BEAM
58

SEISMIC TRUSS

49'
NOTES
I TIED COLUMNS THROUGHOUT
2 TILE BLOCK WALLS ON EXTERIOR
3 TRUSS AND MOMENT FRAME
FOR LATERAL RESISTANCE
HOTEL BALMORAL , PLAN VIEW

Figure 43. - Hotel Balmoral Figure 44. - Plan View of Hotel

South Elevation . Balmoral .

474
 SEISMIC TRUSS
66
77

JIWSIES
TRUSS
WALL
1212

73 '

HOTEL BALMORAL
NORTH ELEVATION

Figure 45. - Elevation View of Figure 46. - Seismic Truss - Hotel

Hotel Balmoral . Balmoral .

Figure 47. - Inside Damage , Figure 48. - Tile Block Cracking

Seismic Joint - Hotel Balmoral . Hotel Balmoral .

475
 TENSIO
CRACK
2 N

Figure 49 . - Tension Cracking in Figure 50 . - Column , Tile Block

the Columns due to Overturning -- Wall Damage , Hotel Balmoral .
Hotel Balmoral.

Figure 51 . -Overturning Damage in Figure 52 . -Overturning Column

columns - Hotel Balmoral . Damage near Elevator - Hotel
Balmoral.

476
 ELEVATOR CORE

m.635
25
5.08m
o RED TILE
BLOCK
INFILLS

m/5.08
20
'
MOMENT
IFRAME USED
• THROUGHOUT

5.0
5.08
20
SHEAR WALL
TIED
| 5.08
20 '
m. – 5.08m.
20 ' COLUMNS
21" 21"
Figure 53. - Column Shear Failure , Figure 54 . - Plan View of Pan
South Side, Hotel Balmoral . American Life Insurance Building .

E
EKR
S

Figure 55 . -Elevation View Look Figure 56 . - Elevator Core, Pan

ing Southeast , Pan American American Life Insurance Building .
Life Insurance Building .

477
Figure 57 . - Banging with Adjacent Figure 58 . -Elevation View Look
Building , Pan American Life ing Northeast , Pan American
Insurance Building . Life Insurance Building .

COLUMNZ

TILE

Figure 59 . - Shear Wall Cracking , Figure 60 . - Column Shear Damage ,

Pan American Life Insurance Pan American Life Insurance
Pan American Life Insurance
Building . Pan American
Building . Life Insurance age.

478
 TT
BA
NA

ALTO

Figure 61. - Beam Damage , Pan Figure 62. - View to South ,

American Life Insurance Building . Guerrero Pineda .

Figure 63. - View to Southeast , Figure 64. - View to West Roof ,

Guerrero Pineda . Guerrero Pineda .

479
 NO
Figure 65 . - Column Reinforcement , Figure 66 . - South Side of
Guerrero Pineda . Building, Guerrero Pineda .

480
 THREE REINFORCED CONCRETE FRAME BUILDINGS ,
MANAGUA EARTHQUAKE , DECEMBER 1972

Ву

Ralph S. McLean
McLean & Schultz
Fullerton , California

Introduction . The three buildings are the Judicial Department Building ,

the Social Security Building and La Protectora Building . The other two
members of the Earthquake Engineering Research Institute team which in
vestigated these buildings were Prof. Robert D. Hanson of the University
of Michigan and Christopher Rojahn of the Seismological Field Survey .
An " H '' or an " R " in parenthesis following the number of a photo will in
dicate that it was furnished by one or other other .

Each of the buildings had a reinforced concrete frame , spread footings ,

un - reinforced masonry in - filled walls and masonry partitions . A portion
of one had reinforced concrete shear walls . The Judicial Department
Building was the most complex and will be discussed first .

Judicial Building - Construction and Damage .. This building consists of

four units whose size and relationship are shown in Fig . No. 1 where the
tower unit is designated " T" , and the three wings are designated " N "
( North ) , ' W ' (West) , and "'S'' (South ) . A view from the southwest is shown
in Fig . No. 2 and from the North in Fig . No. 3 ( H ) . Exterior walls and

Figure No. 3 Judicial Building from North

481
 13.2 m . 240.00 11 .
22.6 20.0 22.6
14.1 91.8 14.1

61.3
10.1

N
3
951
29.0

29.0
143.3
13.7

25.0
12.0

I
48.2
147

AN

Plan

PNR
5.25

5.00

5.00
5

41.90
134.4
5.00

11
m
.
5.00
3

R 2.40
4.10
2
4.10

4.05

Elevation

Figure No. 1 Judicial Department Building - Plan and Elevation

482
483
.2Jrom
No
-fFigure
Building
southwest
udicial
 * 2 @ 0. 31 (12 ) * 2 @ 0 .15 (6 )
yonayoVOUSSIONAL
manager
0 000
[ 0.05 (2 )
100 RON

ORAS
0.20 (O )

0 .6 25 0 .625
2 - 05 2 -0 %

Section A- A

0 .005

I Pretension Wirela
0.05 Ø ST 145160 20.

Hole for Rebar

5 Wires 0.05 Ø 1> 5.00 0
a Wires v.os 0 K< 5.000 000 .09 32

Precast Joists

2@ 015 (6") ,2*

10.13 61
(
Section 8 -6

Figure No . 4 - Judicial Bldg . Floor Construction

484
 UN
15 . S

LA

RREGIMEO

D.11 UTID
. . .. .. .. ... . ... . ... .... .. . . .

deeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee

U TE'Z
06 - . .
-1
- - - - - . Lat

GR GGG . . . . eeee e eeeee

51. 125
p.24 .
- - --

81. 125C
-125
°

0 to R49 =
EDIFICIO DEL PODER JUDICIAL

Figure No . 5 Judicial Building - Plan of Unit " S"

485
partitions , with a few exceptions , were constructed of hollow clay tile . Few ,
if any , escaped damage and much of the damage was severe . Floor and roof con
struction consisted of prestressed beams and joists carrying a concrete slab
cast on precast concrete forms . Joist and slab construction are detailed in
Fig . No . 4 .
The South Wing consisted of only two stories without a basement . A plan
of this unit is shown in Fig . No . 5 . The available plans were not complete
and the prints were of poor quality , in some cases nearly impossible to
read . They appeared to show concrete walls located as follows: beginning
at D on line 1 and going around a stairway and back to line D then across
line D to line 6 . Along line 6 from D to L were two panels . All other
walls in this unit were clay tile as shown . In the large room between
lines D and L , there was a spiral concrete stairway to the second floor .
The wall along line " D " is shown in Fig . No . 6 and it is quite apparent that
it was not constructed of concrete . In this picture , and in Fig . No . 7 ,
which was furnished by Prof . Glen Berg, may be seen the westerly panel of
the two along line " 6 " which had not been well tied into the roof structure
and which would have fallen if it had not been held by some of the light
steel ceiling members .
Damage to the ceiling construction as seen in Figs . 6 & 7 is typical of
that throughout the building. In the far southwest corner of the building
on the first floor level there had been a restaurant which had a heavy
reinforced concrete ceiling which fell when a wall collapsed inward and
fell across a stairway going down into the restaurant area .

Figure No . 6 Judicial Buildings - Hollow clay tile walls, Line " D "

486
 in the large room with the spiral
stairway , there was no damage to the
stairway , but there appeared to be
some slippage at a construction
joint in the other concrete wall
panel on line ''6 " .

The West and North wings were con

structed with a basement, first and
second floors. The framing of the
North wing detailed in Fig . No . 8 is
typical of floor and roof framing in
all three wings . Sections A - A and
B - B refer to Fig . No . 4 . Beam and
column construction is detailed in
Fig . No . 9 .

In addition to prestress cables , re

inforcing bars with 90 -degree hooks
were placed in top and bottom of the
beams at the ends as indicated in
Fig . No . 9 . At first and second
Figure No . 7 Judicial Building floor levels , the beams had columns
wall panel supported by ceiling above and below , but at the roof the
lap between column and beam bars was
approximately 10 inches , insufficient for development of # 8 bars . This may
have contributed to failure observed at the roof level between beams and
exterior columns as in Fig . No . 10 (H ) .
An expansion joint between the North and West Wings on line 13 is noted in
Fig . No . 8 and shown in Fig . No. 11 where the beam is still seated on the
corbel but has pulled out nearly half the width of the seat . It suggests
that a more generous width should be provided . The same joint is shown in
Fig . No . 12 (H ) where the broken parapets and roofing are shown . No ex
pansion joint was provided in the parapets . At the outer wall on line A ,
the drawings did not show an expansion joint and the wall was constructed
with reinforcing continuous from wing to wing. Differential movement of
the wings caused tensile failures of the reinforcing at the fracture shown
in Fig . No . 13 .

At the junction between the South and West wings , no expansion joint was
shown or provided , but the earthquake caused a separation as shown in Fig .
No. 14 (H ) .

Fig . No . 15 is a vertical section through the West wing and the tower re
produced from the drawings for the building , and an expansion joint between
the two is shown . As a seismic separation , it was insufficient as shown
by Figs. No . 16 through 19 .

487
 03 15 10 17 0
0.21 4.10
15-5 15:59 11-2 15 9 15:
단
U un U

11
Ti

11.325
+ + A #

Open

.
+
-Expansion
Joint

HI
=
HE ti

======== C

II

+
th
itt +

13.325
B
Open

th
tit
tit
HT
=

AF
+
+
1:

FRAMING PLAN UNIT N

Figure No. 8 Judicial Building Framing Plan of Unit " N "

488
 pogodnost

Tortit
XISSP00S

25T(
655() 5 Lacoblos o Wine 0 0.0mm % ST 150 / 170
36.000Kg. Initial prestress 40 ask
ROOF

oooo
Stirrups: +385(2) 3@ 1069).1@ 15(67. SUM A
N
XOOO
1@20(0) @ 30012")

Column Ties Above floor and Below

Beans: * 3- 3@10(6 ),3@15(6),2 @ 20 (0) 50 192
and @ 35 (14") OSTA

Dont
AOD
GOST
RON
2021

Onlar

Berm Reint.- some as ot Roof

60 (232 )
FIRST FLOOR oxumorno
XOOX

SECOND FLOOR SIMILAR Do .

22

10 * -
2880
020

Doudsod
स

GOO
.
K202 3a

Figure No . 9 Judicial Building - Framing Details Unit " N " .

489
Figure No . 10 ( H ) Judicial Bldg. Figure No . 11 Judicial Bldg .
Beam Column Failure Expansion Joint

Figure No . 12 (H ) - Judicial Bldg. Figure No . 13 - Judicial Bldg.

Expansion Joint Differential Movement of Units

490
 22221

Figure No. 14 - Judicial Bldg. Figure No. 16 - Judicial Bldg .

South & North Wings Parted Separation - Tower & West Wing
.2l11t
1
10
.4
1901
VSI
1
15
.
015
. UT

Figure No. 15 - Judicial Building - Vertical section through West Wing and
Tower

491
Figure No . 17 - Judicial Bldg Figure No . 18 - Judicial Bldg .
Separation - West Wing & Tower Separation - West Wing & Tower

A plan of the tower unit is shown

in Fig . No . 20 . Joist and slab
construction is as shown in Fig .
No . 4 with joists running east -
west . Typical beam details are
reproduced from the building draw
ings in Fig . No . 21 . These details
show that the joists were let into
the sides of beams but there were no
details of support or connection of
joists and floor slab at the walls.

Figure No . 19 - Judicial Bldg .

Separation - West Wing & Tower

492
 1 .05 0.15 12.000 4 .15
111 ･ 12. 0

ustIT
510 . 30m
1010

JumoNY

ft HT
11
コロニーニニニニニニニニ == = = = = =
= = = =

I
-

91.6
woWON'rsS
ニニニニニニニニニニニニニニニニニニ
= = =

5.10m
lll

- -- - - - - - - ニニ
- - -ニニニニ ---- ==== == -40
= = = = = ---
!

--- - - ----

551
akisai

nganhohuu

Ill
Ust
-

ーーーー5ーーーーーーーーーーーーー

EDIFICIO DEL PODER JUDICIAL

Figure No . 20 Judicial Building. Plan of Tower

493
 VIGA EJE -M 6 PISO

1.

-11
PLANTA

C 9.

ol

ti
ico
111
:
o ...: . : .:
VIGAS EJES .K YN 4,5 y 6 PISO
BEAMS LINES K & N - 4.5 , 6th FLOORS

PLANTA

le
su

ita
..

120

..!!
VIGAS EJES - 8 y 1 - 4 , 5 , 6 PISO
BE AMS LINES 8 & 11 - 4.5.6th FLOORS

,
SEC . C - C SEC . D - D
30 46
12 '

戰
29

302
30

SI
75

SEC . ELE SEC . F - F

30
12'

Figure No.21 Judicial Building . Tower Beam

Details from Original Drawings

494
 Figure No. 22 Judicial Bldg . Figure No. 23 Judicial Bldg .
From Southeast Front of Building

Fig . No. 20 shows shear elements consisting of corner walls and an elevator
shaft , all of which extend the full height of the tower .

Fig . No. 22 is a view of the tower seen from the southeast , and Fig . No. 23
shows the stairways which are a feature of the front of the building . The
stairways are set behind the corner walls and the latter are unsupported be
tween first and third floors . The lower portion of the wall behind the
stairways is seen to be ribbed in Fig . No. 23 . The structural drawings do
not show a concrete wall at this location and it may be simulated in plaster .
Above the stairways the wall was hollow clay tile with a polished stone face ,
most of which fell .

The corner walls are 12 inches ( net ) in thickness with ribbed surfaces and
are reinforced with # 4 horizontal bars at 16 inches center to center each
face and # 5 bars vertically . The latter are spaced at 6 inches center
to center each face to the fourth floor level and at 12 inches above the
fourth floor . Free - standing edges were reinforced with four # 7 bars and
four - sided ties of unstated size and spacing .

At the second floor , the south wall of the elevator shaft was fractured above
the elevator door as shown in Fig . No. 24. Poor consolidation of concrete at
time of pouring may have contributed to this failure . This picture also shows
how concrete walls were tooled as means of improving adherence of plaster .

495
 Figure No . 24 - Judicial Bldg . Figure No . 25 - Judicial Bldg .
Fractured Elevator Wall Tower Wall @ South Wing Parapet

The balcony at the third floor level of the tower projected over the roof
of the wings as shown in Figs . No . 15 and 25 (H ) . There was severe pounding
between tower and wings as shown in Figs . No . 16 , 17 , 19 , 25 , and 26 . While
pounding was a contributing factor in some of the damage as in Fig . No . 26 ,
it was not the primary cause in this case or in Fig . No . 25 where the para
pet wall has little damage and the shear wall is severely damaged . This is
at the southwest corner of the tower . Fig. No . 27 is another view of the
same wall .
The corner walls of the tower continued above the roof and may have pre
vented collapse of the penthouse such as occurred in the Social Security
Building . Within the penthouse was a steel water tank , estimated from the
plans to have a capacity of 10 , 000 gallons , or dead load of 82 kips .

As noted above , the connection of joists and slab to the corner shear walls
was not detailed . Along line H and 0 , the joists would be supported on the
wall , but in each case there is a duct opening about 5 - 1 / 2 feet long
centered on the wall . Slab reinforcing may have run through the remaining 7
1 / 2 + feet . This would amount to approximately 0 . 4 sq. in . per wall . Along
lines 7 and 12 the connection would consist of only the slab reinforcement ,
i . e. , # 2 bars at 6 inches center to center.

496
 Figure No . 26 Judicial Bldg . Figure No . 27 Judicial Bldg .
Fractured Shear Wall Fractured Shear Wall

Judicial Building - Vibration Measurements. The Seismic Engineering Branch ,

U . S . Geological Survey (formerly Se i smological Field Survey , NOAA ) and the
National Science Foundation conducted vibration measurements of each unit
approximately one month after the earthquake and have provided computer
print -out sheets of a fourier analysis of the records . Fig . No . 28 is a
reproduction of a portion of simultaneous records of ambient vibrations of
the North and West wings in the east -west direction . From the computer
sheets , spectra were drawn as per Figs . No . 29 through 36 . Forced vibration
was accomplished by the operator shifting his weight , timing his movements
to conform to visual observation of the recorder . Then motion was stopped
and the vibrations allowed to die out. The resulting records (Fig . No . 37 ) ,
when they appear as smooth curves of uniformly decreasing amplitude, should
be a good record of the fundamental period of the structure , and good agree
ment was found with the values shown in Figs . No . 29 thru 36 except in the
case of the West Wing , in which case the error was about 12 to 14 per cent .
Periods were tabulated as follows:
N - S E - W
Tower 1 . 19 sec . 1 . 36 sec .
North Wing 0 . 56 0 .59
West Wing 0 .68 0 . 55
South Wing 0 . 35 0 .40

497
 West Wing

- :- -
IN!, toll M!. S ,121 : 07 . D ' ull.18 )

.. .

1 .. ..

---- - 211 . .
Figure No . 28 - Judicial Bldg . Simultaneous measurements of east -
west vibrations , North & West Wings

015161

NORIHIM

Pertina
Sec .

0.5

Figure No . 29 Judicial Bldg. - Vibration spectra - North Wing, N - S

498
 t0.59

NORTH WING FEW

136

Perlinie .. seci
0 0.5 1.0 1.5

Figure No. 30 - Judicial Bldg . Vibration spectra , North Wing , E- W

499
 TEL. 64

WEST WEING E - W

T = 0.56

Period
(

Sec

whใน
0 0.5 1.0 1.5

Figure No. 31 - Judicial Bldg . - Vibration Spectra West Wing - E - W

500
 0.68
WESTWINGINES

Period
Sec .

‫امید‬
0 0.5 1.0 1.5

Figure No. 32 - Judicial Bldg . Virbration Spectra , West Wing N - S

SOUTH WING N - S
ကို

Period
0990
170

Sec .

0.5 1.0

Figure No. 33 - Judicial Bldg . Vibration Spectra , South Wing N - S

501
 1 + 0.40

SOUTH WING E - W
Period
Sec .

0.5 1.0

Figure No. 34 - Judicial Bldg . Vibration Spectra - South Wing E - W

Lo + 119
TOWER N - S
0.89

MИ

Perim Set
0

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

Figure No. 35 - Judicial Bldg . Vibration Spectra Tower N - S

502
 L. 1.36

TOWER

Period - sac
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

Figure No. 36- Judicial Bldg . Virbration Spectra Tower E - W

503
 VIBRATION RECORD
Vibration forced East West

NORTH WING

N -S Component

18 de 180
25mm / sec
25 mm /sec ,
E

AN
AMAAAAAAAAA

7841

WEST WING

N - S

28 ?
25 madres

E inn

AMMAM

eos

Figure No. 37 Judicial Bldg . Vibration measurements .

Forced vibrations , North Wing and West Wing
both N - S

504
 IN

A AAAAAAAA

A AA

A
1140

120

MA A

A
100 AA A

AAA
A
A A

180 A
A

60

Periods of Bidgst with R/ C FRAMES

& WALLS
A

40

20

Period - Sec !
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

Figure No. 38 - Periods of Reinforced Concrete Frame

Buildings with Reinforced Concrete Walls

505
Periods for buildings with reinforced concrete frames and walls tabulated
in the U . S . C . and G . S . Special Report No . 201 are plotted in Fig . 38 .
Although a few of these buildings (in the Long Beach area) had been repaired
after the 1933 earthquake , almost none of them had been designed to resist
earthquakes and few if any had been specifically designed to resist wind
loads . The Judicial Building could reasonably have been expected to have
idergeneral
periods falling within the abl renrange til. 38. , but
ta.y No
of Fig the above
e wings in
values represent a considerablee reduction , sstiffness This , of course ,
is to be expected in the case of the wings , since much of the original
stiffness would have been due to the hollow clay tile and partitions and
these were so greatly damaged .
In the case of the tower , most of the stiffness would be due to the corner
shear walls and to the elevator concrete enclosure walls , and the period
might reasonably have been expected to be 0 . 7 sec . or perhaps less , whereas
the east - west period is nearly double that value .
Simultaneous records of forced vibrations in two units was done in several
cases . In Fig . No . 39 , the West wing was being forced , and nearly identi
cal results were obtained . In Fig . No . 40 , the North wing was forced , and
again the records were nearly identical. In Fig . No . 41, the West wing
records from Figs . No . 39 and 40 were superimposed in the upper portion , and
North wing records in the lower portion . To a lesser degree , the same
tendency of one unit to follow another was apparent in Figs . No . 32 and 34 .

West

MAAAANNAMMANAW
---- - 25 montsec - -- ----- --
North Wing
A Seconds

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAI
T12846
Record of East - West Forced Vibrations. Input from West

Figure No . 39 - Judicial Bldg . - Forced Vibration of West Wing - North

Wing Vibrating at same frequency

506
 AAAAAAAA

NSTRUMENTS DIVISION
25 mm /set
Hort Wing

NAAA
ZA
Noath Deng

Figure No. 40 Judicial Bldg . - Forced Vibration of

North Wing - West Wing Vibrating at Same Frequency

HAMAD ANADA
A

West Wing solid'lino - laput from north . Dash Lin - West Exieitot .

AA
ALALALA AAA

MF A УМ M КТ - Уу у
North Wing - Solit Line - North Excited . Dashat Lin - laput from west .

Figure No. 41 - Judicial Bldg . - Top . West Wing Records of

Figs . No. 39 & 40 combined . - Bottom - North Wing Records Combined

507
Judicial Building - Conclusions : Perhaps the most important conclusion
that can be drawn from this building and many others in Managua , as in other
earthquakes of the past , is that flexible frames should not be combined
with rigid materials unless the latter have sufficient strength to resist
the loads that may be exerted upon them , or are so isolated from the frame
as to permit deflection of the latter . The layman may be excused for think
ing of concrete as a rigid unyielding material , but engineers should remem
ber that the bending modulus of concrete is only about twice that of Douglas
Fir and that reinforced concrete structures do more .
The use of unreinforced masonry may be a source of failure due to direct
action of inertia loads upon the masonry and this was observed in this build
ing and others many times, particularly with regard to hollow clay tile .
Wall panels of hollow clay tile , set in between frame members and reinforced
with a horizontal reinforced tie at mid - height and a similar vertical tie at
mid - length failed by losing tiles in the middle of the quadrants due to
inertia forces . Hollow clay tile is particularly vulnerable because the
thin shell members cannot be well bonded together at the ends and are usually
laid up without mortar at the ends . Also they are brittle and tend to break
completely apart .

Another important conclusion is that it does little good to provide shear

elements unless the various parts of the structure are secured one to another
so that the shear elements can work . For example , in Fig . No . 7 , a wall panel
which might have developed a great deal of lateral resistance fell out of
place for lack of proper attachment to the roof slab .

The corner wall shear panels in the tower could not function as they should
because they lacked proper attachment . The concept of " drag" forces appears
not to have been considered. Beams were provided at lines 6 , 13 , G and P ;
but these were not in a position to deliver heavy lateral loads effectively .
Had beams been provided on lines 7 , 11, H and 0 , it would have been possible
to provide good continuous ties capable of delivering loads to the shear walls
effectively and causing the walls to function as piers from floor to floor .

in lieu of this , loads had to be delivered in part through a small number

of joists , bearing against a thin floor slab , and through a very small
amount of reinforcement. Such loading approximated point loading with little
restraint . As a result , these shear walls, instead of acting as piers with
restraint at floor above and floor below , acted more like cantilevers from
the foundation up with point loadings at the various floors . This, with the
fractures , probably accounts for the long periods found in the vibration
measurements .

Because the corner shear walls were without support at the second floor
level , the walls at the two front corners would not be as stiff as the two
westerly corners. If the walls were truly functioning as piers between
floors and , under the action of north - south forces , about 7 / 10 of the shear
load would go to the rear shear walls . Shifting of the center of rigidity
toward the rear would increase loads on the rear shear walls by about 10 per
cent or more . Even so , if they had been properly developed , they should have

508
been satisfactory for loading required by the 1973 Uniform Building Code .

Perhaps a detailed examination of the structure would show otherwise , but

repair of the observed damage to the structure and construction of adequate
ties and shear walls would be a reasonable undertaking with the techniques
and skills available here . This is perhaps not true in Managua . In any case ,
damage to walls and partitions is so extensive that complete demolition and
replacement would be necessary , and this would require complete removal and
replacement of nearly all items except the structural members. Therefore ,
the cost of repair would undoubtedly be prohibitive .

509
 |
A
日
」
的目
UIT
TITLEIE

510
G. OCIT URIDW
MASSEG

Figur
.No
Socia
Secur e
2 lity
4Build
F- rom
North ing
east
 Figure No . 43 Social Security Building Seen from the
Intercontinental Hotel. Beyond , Lake Managua

Social Security Building: This building, shown in Figs. No , 42 and 43, con
sisted of a flexible reinforced concrete frame structure with in - filled mason
ry walls . A penthouse machine room structure collapsed with its roof slab pro
jecting partially over the building wall , as seen in Fig . No . 43 above. The
building , constructed about 1960 or 1961, was located a very short distance
west of the fault shown in the E . E .R . l. Reconnaissance Report as originally .
mapped by G . Plafker and R . Brown , Jan . 17 - Jan . 22 , 1973 .
Fig . No . 44 , a reproduction from the original drawings for the building , is a
floor plan at the first -floor level showing size and shape of the building .
At the front , large round columns were made an architectural feature outside
the light metal and glass wall, extending two stories in height without later
al support . In this front part of the building, the second floor extended only
a short distance in front of the second line of columns . The vertical section
through the building , Fig . No . 45 , shows this condition at column line " B " .
At the fourth floor , the wings were discontinued and the building became rec
tangular .
West elevation of the building shown in Fig . No. 46 , was reproduced from the
original drawings . The extreme west wall between the second and fourth
floors was to have had textured precast material applied , but was not so con
structed .
Floor construction was a waffle - type slab as indicated in Fig . No . 44 and as
shown in more detail in Fig . No . 47. Prefabricated concrete boxes formed the
void spaces and the soffits of joists and boxes were plastered to form the
ceiling . Except for a few instances shown in Fig . No . 44 , the columns were
circular .

511
 0.140
.0
"46
5.3 0 01..230 5.3 0
5.1[1 *0 5.11

.
‫ר קווד‬
36.90
121,1 "

512
‫تعز‬
‫بالحب‬ .. ." ;
‫ 'י‬. :

- -- .- . 0 .

.5
30 0.4=1 090
1e 5
.3 0
1.5 e1.02=136 5
.11
5 6. 00‫מ‬
184
FIRST
FLOOR
FRAMING
PLAN
Figure
4No
4
Social
Security
.Bldg
 15. 7
4 . 79
3.06 = 21.54
31. 5 m
103.5 ft.

513
9
106 - 06
ze
1.11

.
TWY

45ongitudinal
No
.-LFigure
Bldg
Security
Social
Section
 NII
1
10 = 60'
6 w98*8 | = 90 € 9

514
9 @ 3.0 6 = 27 .5 4 m
,06 5 ,01 06

.
57 :
J. U 6 _ 3.06
101 101 10'

WEST
ELEVATION

Figure
No
.46 Social
Security
Bldg
.Rear
Elevation
 .09
.20
20
,25 .85
25
4.85
.75
1.5
ko
way
2per
each
block

20
21

85
E
so

.20
.85
refabricated
boxes
concrete

20
58°
.35
13 %

22
24 O

.85
21
variest

.75
2913295
333
3
)
°
3333
3'373344
(359
"

]
"24
244 89 32
THRU
SECTION JOIST
)С
(
PARTIALPLAN JOISIS
OF

515
B

12
A

0 2 (3 4 (5) 8
6

FLOOR
-3RD
PLAN REINFORCEMENT

Security
Social
47
No.
Figure
for
K
.-
Bldg
Plan
ey
Reinforcement
Floor
Third
In the front of the building, columns had been furred out and damage , which at
first glance appeared to be splitting of a column , was only plaster damage as
seen in Fig . No . 48 . There was much glass damage in the front two - story wall .

Exterior and interior walls at the lower levels, including walls at the ele
vator , were of brick ma sonry . At the seventh floor , hollow clay tile interior
walls were found . Where the change from brick to hollow clay tile occurred
was not determined . The brick was set in between floors and columns . Motion
of the frame loaded brick walls to failure in many places as shown in Fig .
No . 49 . At the rear of the building , where brick walls were almost solid ,
the flaking of paint at floor lines revealed where differential movement of
frame and walls had occurred . Also , at the southwest corner where the fourth
floor projected beyond the walls , paint markings on the soffit of the floor
slab showed that there was a final displacement of the wall with respect to
the slab of perhaps three inches measured normal to the wall .
in the lower stories, flexing of the columns had caused some cracking and loss
of plaster , but there did not appear to have been significant damage to the
columns . In the sixth story , greater damage was observed and , in the ninth
story , a number of columns had cracks which extended about half -way through
as in Fig . No . 50 .
The stairways at the elevators were severely damaged and shoring had been in
stalled at several levels. In Fig . No . 51, longitudinal reinforcing appears
to have been bent to conform to the shape of the bottom of the stair slab at
the landing and a section on the drawings showed such a condition without
provision for resisting stress components that would tear the reinforcing out
of the slab . The stair slab was fractured entirely through the slab at the
top step tearing out the reinforcing .
At each of the lower levels up through the third floor , there was a north
south crack in the floor immediately in front of the elevators extending
across the building . The fourth and fifth floors had cracks showing in the
ceiling that appeared to extend entirely through joists and slab . These
north - south cracks occurred about four feet west of the second column line
west of the elevator with a second such crack about four feet further west .
These also extended across the width of the building .
Typical joist dimensions are shown in Fig . No . 47 and joist numbers are shown
on the plan which is for the third floor . Other floors were similar . Fig .No .
52 is a reproduction of a portion of the original drawings showing the rein
forcing for the longitudinal joists . The length of top bars at lines " D " and
" E " is : # 5 bars , 16 . 5 ft . and # 15 bars , 18 ft .
Columns were circular or square as shown on the drawings , but in all cases
were spirally reinforced with 3 / 8 inch spirals at unstated spacing . Column
sizes varied from approximately 33 to 43 inches in diameter at the first
inches at
18 inches
floor to" 18 at the ninth floor . Reinforcing at the first floor varied
the ninth
bars 14 diametern diameter plus 2
inch diameter
17 inch
from 30 bars 1 inch diameter to 455 bars . At the ninth floor
it varied from 10 bars 1 inch diameter to 12 bars 1 ] inch diameter plus 2
bars 1 inch diameter .

516
 ノ
Figure No. 48 Social Security Bldg . Figure No. 49 Social Security Bldg .
Column Furred - Crack in Furring Damaged Unreinforced Brick Wall

Figure No. 50 Social Security Bldg . Figure No. 51 Social Security Bldg .
Cracked Column Damaged Stairway

517
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‫ܝܫܐܘܐ‬ ‫&‬ ‫‪, €.‬‬ ‫‪eit‬‬

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‫‪52‬‬
‫‪No.‬‬
‫‪Figure‬‬ ‫‪Social‬‬
‫‪Security‬‬
‫‪Bldg‬‬
‫‪.‬‬ ‫‪R‬‬
‫‪:c einforcement‬‬
‫‪Joi‬‬
 Figure No . 53 . Social Security Bldg .
Buckled reinforcing bar exposed in the
soffit of the third floor slab .

Figure No . 54 . Social Security Bldg . Penthouse Collapse

519
Where the roof of the south two - story wing joined the third floor of the
rectangular section , differential motion had done some damage as shown by the
buckled reinforcing bar exposed in the soffit of the third - floor slab in Fig .
No . 53 (H ) .

The penthouse roof slab was of the same waffle type as the floors . It was
supported by four columns and the space enclosed with brick walls . Evidently
at the time of observation our attention was almost exclusively on the rein
forced concrete members , and little or no attention was given to reinforce
ment of the ma sonry. The extensive destruction of the latter left the im
pression that it was unreinforced . Careful examination of the photographs
has shown that there was some reinforcement , but it appears to have been
small bars widely spaced , i .e . , less than minimal by our standards here .
Examination of a photo of the roof slab shows that the walls were let into
the edge of the slab perhaps 4 inches and the thickness of the wall and that
there may have been small bars , perhaps ļ inch spaced perhaps 6 feet apart
anchored in the slab . No information regarding reinforcing of masonry walls
was found on the drawings . At the east and west , the wall was about 3 feet
outside the column lines and it was about 5Ż feet outside at north and south .
The penthouse columns on line " B" were shown on the drawings to be approxi
mately 14 inches in diameter and those on line " C " the same size but square.
As constructed , all were square with 4 vertical bars 1 inch diameter and 3 / 8
inch spirals at unstated spacing .

As the picture shows, the destruction of the penthouse was complete . The walls
were thrown down on all sides and the columns broken . It appeared that there
may have been insufficient lap of dowels with column bars and that at the top,
the spirals may not have been extended up into the slab . Vertical column
bars had broken with brittle - type failure after being bent 90 degrees or more .
Some of the bars bore the word " Belgium " (Fig . Nos . 55 and 56 ) .

A balustrade , consisting of a low brick wall with reinforced strips top and
bottom and reinforced posts spaced about 8 feet center to center , was con
structed around the roof . This was shown on the architectural elevation
sheet, but not detailed on the structural drawings . Horizontal reinforcing
was shown , but no size given . At the ninth floor , near the elevators , there
was a spot where a hole had been punched through ceiling plaster and concrete
box form . Projecting through the slab above were four reinforcing bars , evi
dently for one of the balustrade posts where the penthouse roof had fallen .
Apparently the posts were spaced without regard to joist locations .

The roof slab of the penthouse had fallen onto the elevator machinery and
a four - to - six - foot diameter steel water tank . The slab and joists were
fractured in many; places .

This was generally the extent of the damage observed . Ceiling damage was
not great , as it had been in the Judicial Building , since here the soffit of
the joists and concrete form boxes was the base of the plastered ceiling .
Some minor damage was observed in basement walls . No indication of any soil
bearing problem was observed .

520
Figure No . 55 . Social Security Bldg . Figure No . 56 . Social Security Bldg .
Bottom of Penthouse Column Top of Penthouse Column

Social Security Building - Conclusions . This building has the same fault
noted in the Judicial Building, i . e . , the combining of a flexible struc
tural frame with a rigid material of insufficient strength to function as
shear walls .

Although damaged , the structural frame withstood the earthquake forces with
out danger of collapse , but in doing so deflected more than the masonry
could withstand . The concept of concrete as an elastic material which will
deform cannot be ignored in designing for earthquake loading , even as it is
frequently important in designing for gravity loads .
The frame deflection was also responsible for the severe damage to the stair
way at the elevators although poor detailing of the reinforcing steel con
tributed to damage in several locations . This is particularly true where
reinforcing steel was bent at the same re - entrant angle as the soffit of the
stair slab and no provision was made for resistance to tearing when the steel
was stressed .

521
The transverse cracks observed in the floors west of column line " D '', (esti
mated to have been about 4 feet and 8 feet west of column line ) , were evi
dently just beyond the column capital and just beyond the first transverse
joist west of the capital . They are no doubt part of the damage which in
cluded cracked columns (Fig. No . 50 ) . These cracks are within the area re
inforced by the # 15 bars shown in Fig . No . 52 .
Brick masonry in the walls, although damaged in many places , performed far
better than the hollow clay tile in the Judicial Building. It was noted
that some reinforcing seems to have been incorporated in the walls of the
penthouse . Although the drawings do not indicate any requirement for rein
forcing in masonry , some may have been provided and may have contributed to
better performance . Also , exterior walls were not located close to columns
and there was a greater possibility for the structural members to adjust to
the masonry by deflection of the cantilever ends of the joists .
The penthouse consisted of two structural systems: One was an inverted
pendulum consisting of a heavy mass , the roof slab , supported on four light
ly - reinforced columns ; and the other was a shear wall structure with low
shear capacity . The latter was vulnerable, particularly for motion normal to
the walls , to battering by the pendulum structure. This combined structure
was subjected to quite high accelerations . Since it was a small and simple
structure , it affords an opportunity to illustrate some of the essentials of
earthquake design . In this case , constructing the frame with sufficient
rigidity to limit its deflections to a value compatible with the masonry
would not have been reasonable . However , it would not have been difficult
to have provided sufficient resistance in the masonry , provided that brick
and mortar had adequate compressive , shear and bond strength ; that sufficient
reinforcement had been provided for loads both in the plane of the walls
and normal to the walls and that means of causing the two systems to work to
gether had been provided by keying and reinforcing ties of one unit to
another . Perhaps the last item , the tying together of all of the units of a
structure, is one of the most important and also the most neglected of the
things that can be done to assure resistance to earthquake forces and also
to other unusual loadings such as very strong wind loads .

522
 =

523
PROTEC
LA
SEGUROS TO
47

57
No.
Figure Protectora
La
Building
 La Protectora Building - Description of Damage . This is also a reinforced
concrete frame building with hollow clay tile walls and partitions . It was
located northeast of Lake Tiscapa quite close to the American Embassy . It
was between the two major fault traces which extended from Lake Managua to
and beyond Lake Tiscapa .

The building was situated on sloping ground with the front entrance at the
upper level. This part of the building was five stories high above the
street , as may be seen in Figs . No . 57 and 60 . The rear portion of the
building extends one story lower and most of it is only three stories high .
Fig . No . 58 shows only a portion of the lower story, but the relation of
the upper stories to the front part of the building may be seen . Only a
part of this lower floor , that portion cut into the hill toward the front is
in the nature of a basement , since the rest is all above the adjoining grade.

No plans of the building were available . The plan shown in Fig . No . 61 is

based on a few rough measurements taken at the building and the photographs .
The plan is for the first story above street level .
Floors were of reinforced concrete with joists formed by the use of clay tile
fillers . East -west beams between lines " B " and " C " as seen from the stair
way area at the street level are probably prestressed , as the ends of the
beams were marked in a way indicating tendon anchorage . Columns were of con
crete and all walls and partitions were hollow clay tile . The roof over the
high portion and probably over the remainder was a steel -roof deck carried
on open -web steel joists .

Figure No . 58 La Protectora Bldg . Figure No . 59 La Protectora Bldg .

View from the Southeast View from the Northeast

524
 The severity of the damage to the ex
terior walls is very evident in the
pictures . The large sections of hol
low clay tile , broken and tilted but
still hanging in place make one won
der what was holding them up . At the
time of examining the building , bro
ken hollow clay tile had become such
a common sight and our interest in
the concrete members so great that
we didn ' t look for support for the
broken wall sections . It is inter
esting to note that this damage oc
curred between the second and third
levels above the street .

There appeared to have been little

structural damage below the street
floor level. Books and paper had
been thrown to the floor and a tile
wall to the first floor had tile
breaking at the first floor level
Figure No . 60 La Protectora Bldg . with pieces falling on the suspended
View from the Northwest ceiling
.5/11,I|21

| 18 ft. li 38 32 . 5

Figure No . 61 . La Protectora Building . Plan at floor above street level .

This Plan was Prepared from a Few Rough Measurements at the
Building and from the photographs .

525
On the second floor , at the east wall , the center column showed distress at
top and bottom and there was complete separation of the outside wall from
each of the three outside columns . Some spalling of concrete at the beams
was found in a number of places (Fig . No . 62) . At the entrance to the build
ing, where the stair beam connected into the beam along line " B !', the beam
appeared to have a square end with no provision for shear transfer . At the
bottom , only two bars extended into the beam on line " B" although their po
sition and spacing suggests that a third was intended (Fig . No . 63) .
The three columns on line " D" were broken just below the fourth floor above
the street . The corner columns are shown in Figs . No . 58 and 59 (see arrows ) ,
and in Figs . No . 64 and 65 . It appeared that the loads above were being
carried by unintended cantilever action off of line " C " .

At the roof level, the slab and beam over the elevator and stair well was
cantilevered about two feet past line " B " and open web steel joists were
bolted to them . On the south side of the stairway , the steel joist had pulled
away from the concrete a number of inches (Fig . No . 66 ) , but on the north
side it had not . The latter joist had pulled away fromthe concrete at its
east end . The failure was in the concrete rather than in the bolted connec
tion . We did not have access to the roof and the insulation prevented view
ing most of the steel deck . That which could be seen appeared to have
functioned well .

Figure No . 62 La Protectora Bldg. Figure No . 63 La Protectora Bldg .

Beam - to - Column Connection Beam at stairway

526
Figure No. 64 . La Protectora Bldg . Figure No. 65 . La Protectora Bldg .
Column D - 5 Column D - 3

Conclusions : The damage observed in

La Protectora points to the same
problems noted in the other two build
ings . All
*All of these have been dis
cussed so much in past earthquakes
that it would seem to be unnecessary
to say them again . These three
buildings were built in relatively
recent years , ( Plans for Social Se
curity dated 1960 , Judicial Bldg .
1965 and La Protectora surely no old
er ) and still the faults were there .

The 1933 Long Beach , California earth

quake brought an end to the use of un
reinforced masonry for anything struc
tural in that area and ended the use
of hollow clay tile for walls and
partitions .

It also taught the need for join

parts of a structure together in a
Figure No. 66 La Protectora Bldg . manner that would make them work to
Steel roof joist pulled away from
gether . California engineers have
concrete support

527
 gone to great lengths to be certain that this would be done . It was also
found very important to provide details for such things on the drawings . It
is not sufficient to assume that the contractor provide the proper reinforc
ing in a floor slab because a code requires it . In fact , no item necessary
for proper structural performance should be left to the contractor . Further ,
provision for that which is required by code may not be sufficient , for the
codes only establish minimum requirements .

Finally , the destruction seen in Managua should tell the engineer that good
engineering consists of more than careful designing and detailing , for it is
of greatest importance for the engineer to assure himself that the work is
constructed as he intended .

UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN

3 9015 04308 8742

30 262AM 1099 og

17/ 9
S 4-0192GBC571
BR-013 528

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