Papers by Sonja Podgorelec
Etnološka tribina, 2015
Odjel za sociologiju, Hrvatsko katoličko sveučilište, Zagreb
Sociologija I Prostor, Mar 15, 2010
Institut za migracije i narodnosti, Trg Stjepana Radića 3, Zagreb spodgorelec@iskon.hr SAŽETAK Pr... more Institut za migracije i narodnosti, Trg Stjepana Radića 3, Zagreb spodgorelec@iskon.hr SAŽETAK Proces urbane koncentracije stanovništva Hrvatske i njegovo starenje moguće je uspoređivati sa sličnim kretanjima u svijetu. U urbanom sustavu Hrvatske posebno se ističe Zagreb kao najveće i najvažnije demografsko, političko, gospodarsko i kulturno središte. Prvi put nakon višedesetljetnog kontinuiranog rasta Zagreb, kao i cijela Hrvatska, u posljednjem međupopisnom razdoblju 1991.-2001. bilježi smanjenje ukupnog broja stanovnika, ali i znatno povećanje starog stanovništva. Sve vrijednosti analitičkih pokazatelja sastava stanovništva prema dobi pokazuju da Zagreb na početku 21. stoljeća karakterizira intenzivno starenje stanovništva.
Polarisation processes, which began in Croatia in the 1950's, resulted in disparate socio-eco... more Polarisation processes, which began in Croatia in the 1950's, resulted in disparate socio-economic development, in an uneven spatial distribution of the population, and in a concentration of people, jobs and housing in urban settlements. Coastal cities, as hubs and agents of socio-economic development, in their regions became focal points for the concentration of the population, while islands and hinterland areas suffered depopulation and demographic ageing. Intense in-migration had a positive influence on the demographic development of coastal cities. They became hotbeds of bioreproduction and up to the most recent intercensus period (1991–2001) displayed dynamic population growth. However political and economic changes in this recent period, together with the effects of the war, deepened and accelerated increasingly unfavourable demographic processes, which were reflected in an overall reduction of the population of coastal Adriatic cities, as well as in a deterioration of its...
The process of urban concentration of the population of Croatia and its ageing can be compared wi... more The process of urban concentration of the population of Croatia and its ageing can be compared with similar trends worldwide. In the Croatian urban system, Zagreb stands out as the biggest and most important demographic, political, economic and cultural centre. After decades-long continuous growth, both Zagreb and the whole of Croatia registered a decrease in total population for the first time over the last 1991-2001 inter-census period, but at the same time a considerable increase in old population as well. All analytical indicator values of the population structure according to age show intense population ageing to be a characteristic of Zagreb at the beginning of the 21st century. The aim of this paper is to examine, on the example of Zagreb, the causes and consequences of population ageing in urban areas from a demo-geographic and sociological aspect. The age structure analysis of the Zagreb populationis based on the last three censuses held in 1981, 1991 and 2001, while spatia...
Zbornik Matice srpske za drustvene nauke, 2014
The main feature of Croatian islands, in addition to their beautiful nature, is the fact that the... more The main feature of Croatian islands, in addition to their beautiful nature, is the fact that they are demographically and sociologically one of the most threatened areas affected by ageing. The ageing of the island population is the result of a long-term depopulation caused by the continuous emigration of the younger working-active population over the past hundred years, but also by the retirement return migration in the last thirty years. The most critical situation is on small islands where the majority of population is aged over 60 and this has a significant impact on all aspects of island life.
Sociologija i prostor, 2015
U radu se iznosi dio rezultata provedenog empirijskog istraživanja koje je imalo za cilj produbit... more U radu se iznosi dio rezultata provedenog empirijskog istraživanja koje je imalo za cilj produbiti znanstvene spoznaje o kvaliteti života u ruralnim područjima Hrvatske na primjeru općine Gornja Rijeka. Analiziraju se potencijalna migracija stanovništva, procjena ekoloških prednosti i nedostataka života u promatranim ruralnim zajednicama, infrastrukturna opremljenost naselja, subjektivna procjena doživljaja pripadanja ruralnoj zajednici te prijedlozi mjera za poboljšanje kvalitete života. Istraživanje je provedeno metodom ankete tijekom studenog i prosinca 2012. godine na
uzorku od 170 ispitanika starih od 18 do 60 godina, što čini otprilike 10% ukupnog broja stanovnika općine.
Općina Gornja Rijeka dijeli sličnosti s većinom ruralnih područja u Hrvatskoj, koje karakterizira ekonomska nerazvijenost i demografska regresija. Depopulacija i starenje
kao dominantni demografski procesi oblikuju malu zajednicu koju obilježava slabija obrazovna struktura stanovnika, što uz gotovo nepostojeću lokalnu inicijativu čini ograničavajuće čimbenike za pokretanje gospodarskih aktivnosti.
Usprkos brojnim ograničavajućim čimbenicima života u ovom području, ispitanici pokazuju visok stupanj zadovoljstva životom u ruralnoj sredini, ali napominju da je pojedine
sadržaje društvene i komunalne infrastrukture potrebno značajno unaprijediti. Iako su svjesni brojnih prednosti života u ruralnim sredinama kao što su očuvana priroda, čist zrak, smirenosti i jednostavnost života, manji troškovi života, ekonomskih ih razlozi tjeraju na razmišljanje o migraciji.
Island Studies Journal, May 3, 2015
The purpose of this study is to determine the levels of satisfaction with various life domains th... more The purpose of this study is to determine the levels of satisfaction with various life domains that constitute objective conditions of the quality of island life, and which influence the perception of islanders’ personal well-being among the inhabitants of three small islands (Zlarin, Kaprije and Žirje) in Croatia. The obtained results are based on a resident survey (N=141). A quality of life assessment was carried out by recognizing the specificity of an island’s surface area and its population (small communities, mostly elderly people), as well as by evaluating choices that respondents perceive to be important for their well-being. Based on applied multivariate analyses, the research suggests that life satisfaction, besides a significant correlation with material status (income), is also greatly affected by the extent of preserved social values, common to the rural communities to which the observed islands belong, such as the closeness of personal relationships (level of acceptance in the local community, solidarity) and the social order maintained through informal control (which provides a sense of security). Both islanders who have never lived off their island, as well as returnees and in-migrants, positively value the way of life in island communities.
Migracijske i etničke teme / Migration and Ethnic Themes, 2015
Rad je rezultat istraživanja osobitosti migracija i njihova utjecaja na starenje žena u specifičn... more Rad je rezultat istraživanja osobitosti migracija i njihova utjecaja na starenje žena u specifičnom prostoru otoka, uzrokâ i društvenih posljedica tih procesa te razmatranja nekih domena kvalitete života važnih starim ljudima. Uz pregled teorijskih radova autori svojevrsnim isprepletanjem podataka prikupljenih metodama analize sekundarnih podataka, promatranja i polustrukturiranog intervjua nastoje objasniti starenje u prostoru hrvatskih otoka s pozicija uloge roda. Kvalitativni podaci prikupljeni su tijekom više istraživanja u okviru projekta »Utjecaj migracija na regionalni razvoj Hrvatske« od 2003. do 2013. U fokusu analize pretežno su iskustva starijih žena koje žive u malim otočnim zajednicama, definiranim na temelju sličnosti gospodarskih, društvenih i psiholoških parametara neovisno o veličini otoka. Podaci predstavljeni u radu upućuju na to da starenje žena na otocima i kvaliteta života u starosti ovise o brojnim čimbenicima -(ne)sudjelovanju u migracijama njih samih ili članova njihovih obitelji, veličini zajednice u kojoj žive, stupnju izoliranosti otoka, kvaliteti postojeće infrastrukture, njihovu zdravlju, stupnju uključenosti u društveni život itd. Ono što je zajedničko starim ženama bez obzira na specifičnost pojedinačnoga životnog ciklusa ili otok na kojem žive visoka je razina aktivnosti do duboke starosti. Zaključak je rada da se u narednom razdoblju, na osnovi postojećih demografskih trendova, očekuje nastavak procesa starenja stanovništva hrvatskih otoka, porast broja staračkih samačkih kućanstava u kojima u znatno većem broju žive žene, nastavak ravnopravnosti u podjeli uloga između otočana i otočanki u domeni rada izvan kuće, a zadržavanje »ženskih uloga« unutar doma i u skrbi za starije (profesionalno ili volonterski), što će produbiti neke probleme vezane uz kvalitetu života stanovnika malih otočnih zajednica.
Female Experience of Migration and Ageing – the
Perspective from the Islands
This paper is re... more Female Experience of Migration and Ageing – the
Perspective from the Islands
This paper is result of research on the specificities of migration and their influence on
the aging of women in particular island surroundings as well as on the causes and
social consequences of these processes. It also discusses certain domains of the quality
of life valued by the elderly. In addition to providing a theoretical overview, the
authors present data collected by methods of secondary data analysis, and observation
and semi-structured interviews in an effort to provide insight into aging on the
Croatian islands from a gender standpoint. The qualitative data used were collected
during several researches carried out from 2003 to 2013 within the project entitled
“The influence of migrations on the regional development of Croatia”. The analysis
focuses mainly on the experience of elderly women who live in small island communities,
defined on the basis of similar economic, social and psychological parameters
regardless of the island size. The data presented in this paper indicate that the aging
of women on the islands and the quality of their life in later years are dependent on a
number of factors – personal or family member (non)involvement in migration, size
of the community in which they live, degree of island isolation, quality of existing
infrastructure, personal health, degree of participation in social life etc. Additionally,
notwithstanding their individual specific life cycle or the island on which they
reside, a high level of activity into very old age is a common denominator for elderly
island women. In conclusion, due to current demographic trends, the authors
expect the continuation of the process of population aging on the Croatian islands,
increase in the number of predominantly female single households and continuation
of equality in the division of roles between island males and females outside the
home, with concurrent maintaining of “female roles” in the home and in caring for
the elderly (professionally or volunteer), which will strengthen some
Migracije i starenje otočnog stanovništva -pet iških priča SAŽETAK Rad se bavi analizom kretanja ... more Migracije i starenje otočnog stanovništva -pet iških priča SAŽETAK Rad se bavi analizom kretanja broja stanovnika u razdoblju od 1857. do 2001. godine, s težištem na ulozi migracija u starenju stanovništva otoka Iža. Procesi koji su presudno utjecali na demografsku sliku otoka u dvadesetom stoljeću bili su veliki ratni gubici u dvama svjetskim ratovima te snažna i kontinuirana emigracija. Depopulacija je na Ižu započela već 1921. i traje do danas. Prema rezultatima posljednjeg popisa, na otoku živi svega 557 stanovnika, što je dvostruko manje nego u doba prvog popisa. Dominantni demoreprodukcijski procesi su depopulacija i starenje. Svi pokazatelji dobne strukture govore o izrazito dubokoj starosti stanovništva. Istodobno su snažni i povratnički tokovi migranata koji su mirovine ostvarili radeći izvan otoka, pa se time povećava udio staroga u ukupnom stanovništvu. Uz analizu demografskih pokazatelja, cilj rada bio je odrediti prisutne modele povratničke migracije starog stanovništva na primjeru nekoliko tipičnih migracijskih iskustava. Utjecaj migracija na životne cikluse starijeg iškog stanovništva autorice su pokušale predočiti s pomoću pet tipičnih otočnih priča prikupljenih intervjuiranjem stanovništva starog 60 i više godina tijekom istraživanja provedenog u listopadu 2001. Ako se nastavi tendencija odlaska mladog stanovništva i ne dođe do značajnijih promjena u životnim perspektivama za to stanovništvo (otvaranje radnih mjesta, oživljavanje gospodarskih grana koje imaju budućnost na otoku i sl.) i ponašanju mlađih otočana (onih koji i danas žive na otoku, ali i iseljenika) koji bi pratili takve nove programe, Iž će ostati u skupini ugroženih otoka kojima prijeti daljnje starenje populacije i izumiranje KLJUČNE RIJEČI: depopulacija, starenje, emigracija, povratnička migracija, umirovljenička migracija
On the example of the island of Zlarin, the authors investigate fundamental socio-geographic proc... more On the example of the island of Zlarin, the authors investigate fundamental socio-geographic processes and
the most important changes in the way of life of communities on small Croatian islands from 1970s until today.
This paper presents a part of the results of a study conducted in February 2011 on Zlarin, within the framework
of researching the quality of life of the population on the islands of Šibenik. It presents partial results of research
on the quality of life of the population of Zlarin which was conducted using questionnaire and observation
methods on a sample of 67 respondents. The results show that, due to their desire to assure the demographic
survival of their community, Zlarin islanders are increasingly opening up towards foreigners – first of all to
immigrants, and then to tourists, in whom they place their hopes for demographic and economic revitalisation.
However, the islanders still show a strong sense of affiliation to their relatively homogeneous and intimate island
community, to which they still have a strong sense of belonging.
Polarisation processes, which began in Croatia in the 1950's, resulted in disparate socio-economi... more Polarisation processes, which began in Croatia in the 1950's, resulted in disparate socio-economic development, in an uneven spatial distribution of the population, and in a concentration of people, jobs and housing in urban settlements. Coastal cities, as hubs and agents of socio-economic development, in their regions became focal points for the concentration of the population, while islands and hinterland areas suffered depopulation and demographic ageing. Intense in-migration had a positive influence on the demographic development of coastal cities. They became hotbeds of bioreproduction and up to the most recent intercensus period (1991–2001) displayed dynamic population growth. However political and economic changes in this recent period, together with the effects of the war, deepened and accelerated increasingly unfavourable
demographic processes, which were reflected in an overall reduction of the population of coastal Adriatic cities,
as well as in a deterioration of its structure. Decreasing fertility, demographic ageing and changes in life values
brought about a transformation of the family, and hence changes in the size of households and in the relations
among family members. The general trend today involves a gradual reduction in the number of household members, and a continuous increase in the number of two and one-member households.
Starenje i depopulacija temeljni su demografski procesi razvoja stanovništva Hrvatske. U ukupnome... more Starenje i depopulacija temeljni su demografski procesi razvoja stanovništva Hrvatske. U ukupnome stanovništvu 2001. godine dobna skupina 65 i stariji činila je 15,7% ukupnoga stanovništva. Dobna struktura stanovništva jedna je od bitnih odrednica kvalitete života pojedinaca, posebice unutar obitelji. Cilj ovoga rada jest analizom demografskih pokazatelja (biološki sastav, koeficijent feminiteta, indeks starenja, koeficijent starosti, prosječna starost, koeficijenti dobne ovisnosti, bračno stanje) i kratkim pregledom migracijske povijesti druge polovine 20. stoljeća procijeniti kvalitetu neformalne skrbi o starima u odnosu na potencijalne pružatelje skrbi. Starenjem ukupnoga stanovništva Hrvatske, sve manjim brojem djece u obitelji i odvojenim stanovanjem odrasle djece i njihovih ostarjelih roditelja smanjuje se krug glavnih pružatelja skrbi starijima. Smanjenjem broja članova i sve češćim oblicima nepotpunih obitelji te zaposlenošću žena, koje su tradicionalno najvažniji pružatelji svih oblika neformalne skrbi, javlja se problem nedostatka skrbi o starijim članovima unutar obitelji. Usprkos
promjenama u načinu života, obitelj je i dalje osnovni izvor emocionalne, informativne i praktične potpore starim ljudima. Prijateljska pomoć i potpora starima podjednaka je u gradu i na selu, dok je dobrosusjedska pomoć nešto veća u izvangradskim područjima (primjerice u Istri i na otocima). Ipak, istraživanja potvrđuju da se socijalna mreža potpore i pomoći među seoskim stanovništvom promijenila od devedesetih godina prošloga stoljeća. Prijateljska i dobrosusjedska potpora mogu u određenoj mjeri nadomjestiti nedostatak skrbi djece, ali slabija mreža domova za starije i nemoćne u izvangradskim prostorima, a time i slabije organizirana izvaninstitucionalna pomoć, zahtijevaju bolju organizaciju formalne skrbi o starim ljudima, i to posebice u slabije naseljenim i manje razvijenim područjima.
Revija Za Socijalnu Politiku, 2009
Books by Sonja Podgorelec
Due to all the mentioned geographic, economic, sociological and psychological parameters, and in ... more Due to all the mentioned geographic, economic, sociological and psychological parameters, and in the hope of avoiding the flaws of whichever typology, the five selected Šibenik islands were examined as small Croatian islands, and the results of the conducted research confirmed that it is only correct to view the population of each of them as a small island community.
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Papers by Sonja Podgorelec
uzorku od 170 ispitanika starih od 18 do 60 godina, što čini otprilike 10% ukupnog broja stanovnika općine.
Općina Gornja Rijeka dijeli sličnosti s većinom ruralnih područja u Hrvatskoj, koje karakterizira ekonomska nerazvijenost i demografska regresija. Depopulacija i starenje
kao dominantni demografski procesi oblikuju malu zajednicu koju obilježava slabija obrazovna struktura stanovnika, što uz gotovo nepostojeću lokalnu inicijativu čini ograničavajuće čimbenike za pokretanje gospodarskih aktivnosti.
Usprkos brojnim ograničavajućim čimbenicima života u ovom području, ispitanici pokazuju visok stupanj zadovoljstva životom u ruralnoj sredini, ali napominju da je pojedine
sadržaje društvene i komunalne infrastrukture potrebno značajno unaprijediti. Iako su svjesni brojnih prednosti života u ruralnim sredinama kao što su očuvana priroda, čist zrak, smirenosti i jednostavnost života, manji troškovi života, ekonomskih ih razlozi tjeraju na razmišljanje o migraciji.
Perspective from the Islands
This paper is result of research on the specificities of migration and their influence on
the aging of women in particular island surroundings as well as on the causes and
social consequences of these processes. It also discusses certain domains of the quality
of life valued by the elderly. In addition to providing a theoretical overview, the
authors present data collected by methods of secondary data analysis, and observation
and semi-structured interviews in an effort to provide insight into aging on the
Croatian islands from a gender standpoint. The qualitative data used were collected
during several researches carried out from 2003 to 2013 within the project entitled
“The influence of migrations on the regional development of Croatia”. The analysis
focuses mainly on the experience of elderly women who live in small island communities,
defined on the basis of similar economic, social and psychological parameters
regardless of the island size. The data presented in this paper indicate that the aging
of women on the islands and the quality of their life in later years are dependent on a
number of factors – personal or family member (non)involvement in migration, size
of the community in which they live, degree of island isolation, quality of existing
infrastructure, personal health, degree of participation in social life etc. Additionally,
notwithstanding their individual specific life cycle or the island on which they
reside, a high level of activity into very old age is a common denominator for elderly
island women. In conclusion, due to current demographic trends, the authors
expect the continuation of the process of population aging on the Croatian islands,
increase in the number of predominantly female single households and continuation
of equality in the division of roles between island males and females outside the
home, with concurrent maintaining of “female roles” in the home and in caring for
the elderly (professionally or volunteer), which will strengthen some
the most important changes in the way of life of communities on small Croatian islands from 1970s until today.
This paper presents a part of the results of a study conducted in February 2011 on Zlarin, within the framework
of researching the quality of life of the population on the islands of Šibenik. It presents partial results of research
on the quality of life of the population of Zlarin which was conducted using questionnaire and observation
methods on a sample of 67 respondents. The results show that, due to their desire to assure the demographic
survival of their community, Zlarin islanders are increasingly opening up towards foreigners – first of all to
immigrants, and then to tourists, in whom they place their hopes for demographic and economic revitalisation.
However, the islanders still show a strong sense of affiliation to their relatively homogeneous and intimate island
community, to which they still have a strong sense of belonging.
demographic processes, which were reflected in an overall reduction of the population of coastal Adriatic cities,
as well as in a deterioration of its structure. Decreasing fertility, demographic ageing and changes in life values
brought about a transformation of the family, and hence changes in the size of households and in the relations
among family members. The general trend today involves a gradual reduction in the number of household members, and a continuous increase in the number of two and one-member households.
promjenama u načinu života, obitelj je i dalje osnovni izvor emocionalne, informativne i praktične potpore starim ljudima. Prijateljska pomoć i potpora starima podjednaka je u gradu i na selu, dok je dobrosusjedska pomoć nešto veća u izvangradskim područjima (primjerice u Istri i na otocima). Ipak, istraživanja potvrđuju da se socijalna mreža potpore i pomoći među seoskim stanovništvom promijenila od devedesetih godina prošloga stoljeća. Prijateljska i dobrosusjedska potpora mogu u određenoj mjeri nadomjestiti nedostatak skrbi djece, ali slabija mreža domova za starije i nemoćne u izvangradskim prostorima, a time i slabije organizirana izvaninstitucionalna pomoć, zahtijevaju bolju organizaciju formalne skrbi o starim ljudima, i to posebice u slabije naseljenim i manje razvijenim područjima.
Books by Sonja Podgorelec
uzorku od 170 ispitanika starih od 18 do 60 godina, što čini otprilike 10% ukupnog broja stanovnika općine.
Općina Gornja Rijeka dijeli sličnosti s većinom ruralnih područja u Hrvatskoj, koje karakterizira ekonomska nerazvijenost i demografska regresija. Depopulacija i starenje
kao dominantni demografski procesi oblikuju malu zajednicu koju obilježava slabija obrazovna struktura stanovnika, što uz gotovo nepostojeću lokalnu inicijativu čini ograničavajuće čimbenike za pokretanje gospodarskih aktivnosti.
Usprkos brojnim ograničavajućim čimbenicima života u ovom području, ispitanici pokazuju visok stupanj zadovoljstva životom u ruralnoj sredini, ali napominju da je pojedine
sadržaje društvene i komunalne infrastrukture potrebno značajno unaprijediti. Iako su svjesni brojnih prednosti života u ruralnim sredinama kao što su očuvana priroda, čist zrak, smirenosti i jednostavnost života, manji troškovi života, ekonomskih ih razlozi tjeraju na razmišljanje o migraciji.
Perspective from the Islands
This paper is result of research on the specificities of migration and their influence on
the aging of women in particular island surroundings as well as on the causes and
social consequences of these processes. It also discusses certain domains of the quality
of life valued by the elderly. In addition to providing a theoretical overview, the
authors present data collected by methods of secondary data analysis, and observation
and semi-structured interviews in an effort to provide insight into aging on the
Croatian islands from a gender standpoint. The qualitative data used were collected
during several researches carried out from 2003 to 2013 within the project entitled
“The influence of migrations on the regional development of Croatia”. The analysis
focuses mainly on the experience of elderly women who live in small island communities,
defined on the basis of similar economic, social and psychological parameters
regardless of the island size. The data presented in this paper indicate that the aging
of women on the islands and the quality of their life in later years are dependent on a
number of factors – personal or family member (non)involvement in migration, size
of the community in which they live, degree of island isolation, quality of existing
infrastructure, personal health, degree of participation in social life etc. Additionally,
notwithstanding their individual specific life cycle or the island on which they
reside, a high level of activity into very old age is a common denominator for elderly
island women. In conclusion, due to current demographic trends, the authors
expect the continuation of the process of population aging on the Croatian islands,
increase in the number of predominantly female single households and continuation
of equality in the division of roles between island males and females outside the
home, with concurrent maintaining of “female roles” in the home and in caring for
the elderly (professionally or volunteer), which will strengthen some
the most important changes in the way of life of communities on small Croatian islands from 1970s until today.
This paper presents a part of the results of a study conducted in February 2011 on Zlarin, within the framework
of researching the quality of life of the population on the islands of Šibenik. It presents partial results of research
on the quality of life of the population of Zlarin which was conducted using questionnaire and observation
methods on a sample of 67 respondents. The results show that, due to their desire to assure the demographic
survival of their community, Zlarin islanders are increasingly opening up towards foreigners – first of all to
immigrants, and then to tourists, in whom they place their hopes for demographic and economic revitalisation.
However, the islanders still show a strong sense of affiliation to their relatively homogeneous and intimate island
community, to which they still have a strong sense of belonging.
demographic processes, which were reflected in an overall reduction of the population of coastal Adriatic cities,
as well as in a deterioration of its structure. Decreasing fertility, demographic ageing and changes in life values
brought about a transformation of the family, and hence changes in the size of households and in the relations
among family members. The general trend today involves a gradual reduction in the number of household members, and a continuous increase in the number of two and one-member households.
promjenama u načinu života, obitelj je i dalje osnovni izvor emocionalne, informativne i praktične potpore starim ljudima. Prijateljska pomoć i potpora starima podjednaka je u gradu i na selu, dok je dobrosusjedska pomoć nešto veća u izvangradskim područjima (primjerice u Istri i na otocima). Ipak, istraživanja potvrđuju da se socijalna mreža potpore i pomoći među seoskim stanovništvom promijenila od devedesetih godina prošloga stoljeća. Prijateljska i dobrosusjedska potpora mogu u određenoj mjeri nadomjestiti nedostatak skrbi djece, ali slabija mreža domova za starije i nemoćne u izvangradskim prostorima, a time i slabije organizirana izvaninstitucionalna pomoć, zahtijevaju bolju organizaciju formalne skrbi o starim ljudima, i to posebice u slabije naseljenim i manje razvijenim područjima.