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2013
PUBLICATION SPONSORED BY
FUNDAÇÃO PARA A CIÊNCIA E A TECNOLOGIA
From Brazil to Macao
Travel Writing and Diasporic Spaces
Editors
Alcinda Pinheiro de Sousa, Luísa Flora and Teresa Malafaia
Co-editors
Ana Daniela Coelho and Inês Morais
Preface by
Tim Youngs
Introduction
Alcinda Pinheiro de Sousa and Teresa Malafaia
CD Contents / Conteúdos
Essays / Ensaios
Looking for the land in the sky and the sea: Early 16th century Portuguese
Roteiros and Diários de Navegação and the recognition of Southern
African Coast
Ana Cristina Roque ................................................... 621
E
ste simpósio sobre África e Portugal — viagens e topografias identitárias:
deslocamentos, errâncias e representações discursivas, pensado no
âmbito do Congresso Internacional DO BRASIL A MACAU: NARRATIVAS DE
VIAGENS E ESPAÇOS DE DIÁSPORA, pretendeu introduzir a vertente africana
no movimento que levou Portugal, e em última instância a própria Europa, a
(r)encontrar-se com outros homens, outras culturas, outros espaços e outras,
numa constante reinvenção de si e desses outros mundos. Participando da
intenção dos organizadores do Congresso em potenciar a transdisciplinaridade e
a diversidade temática, buscou-se neste simpósio introduzir a discussão sobre
viagens e injunções identitárias, daí decorrentes, para dar conta das relações
entre os espaços literários africanos e portugueses que se actualizam, tanto nas
literaturas africanas de língua portuguesa, como nas relações que estabelecem
com os espaços literários em português. Neste contexto, o que se pretendeu é
que neste painel se pudesse reflectir sobre os modos de inscrição literária dessas
espacialidades e temporalidades, nos seus deslocamentos (viagem, exílio,
evasão, intersecções, trânsito) e suas representações discursivas.
Mais de três décadas depois do fim do império português em África e, em
alguns casos, no rescaldo do reagenciamento pós-bélico decorrente de dinâmi-
cas pós-coloniais nem sempre celebrativas, a literatura dos países que viveram
a experiência colonial (como colonizador e como colonizados) continua a busca
e a (re)construção da imagem do Outro e do Próprio/Mesmo. Neste contexto,
e porque as cicatrizes podem lembrar-nos onde estivemos, mas não têm necessa-
riamente de dizer para onde vamos, as inscrições espaciais são entendidas
diferentemente, quer como formas de vivência de lugares (a vários níveis da
consciência humana e de injunções pessoais e colectivas em relação ao passado
84 Inocência Mata
1 Homi Bhaba. O Local da Cultura (1994). Belo Horizonte: Editora da UFMG, 1998 (p. 74).
2 Tzvetan Todorov. A Conquista da América: a Questão do Outro (1982). São Paulo: Martins
Fontes, 3ª ed., 2003 (p. 17-18).
África e Portugal — viagens e topografias identitárias 85
3 Título retirado de empréstimo de uma reflexão apresentada pelo escritor e crítico Eugénio
Lisboa, na Revista Colóquio Letras.
África e Portugal — viagens e topografias identitárias 87
Inocência Mata
Faculdade de Letras da Universidade de Lisboa
Centro de Estudos Comparatistas
A viagem na reconstrução das identidades em tempos
de guerra: uma leitura comparada entre A Costa
dos Murmúrios de Lídia Jorge e Ventos do Apocalipse,
de Paulina Chiziane
1 Os estilhaços identitários
A dinâmica que podemos encontrar nas narrativas em cotejo, em que se
alternam permanentemente a desconstrução de figuras e discursos hegemônicos
e a sua reconstrução a partir da perspectiva da margem em que está inserido o
sujeito feminino, parece-nos um movimento instaurador para a recriação do mito
e sua possível relação com a reinvenção da tradição e das identidades.
A par da desconstrução da figura do herói que ocorre nas duas narrativas, as
figuras femininas participam de modo nuclear nas respectivas tramas. Em comum,
existem as mulheres consideradas coletivamente e aquelas anônimas que se
denominam por seu pertencimento a um marido ou por uma particular condição.
Uma espécie de distorção imagética em que as mulheres — como figuras em
borrão, são deslocadas de suas próprias referências identitárias. No entanto, ao
longo das narrativas ocorre a reconfiguração dessas identidades que coexistem
e dialogam ativamente com as situações sociais que lhes servem de referência.
Nesse percurso de revelação e afirmação identitárias estão, por exemplo, as
A viagem na reconstrução das identidades em tempos de guerra 95
Conclusão
Estas duas figuras femininas centrais dos romances A costa dos murmúrios e
Ventos do apocalipse, que são Eva Lopo e Minosse, representam a busca pela
reconstrução do “eu” esmagado pela guerra, na tentativa de emergir e transpor
uma realidade de dupla opressão que é a condição da mulher inserida no contexto
do conflito armado. No tocante à construção formal dos romances, a represen-
tação fragmentada apresenta-se fortemente ligada às questões de sobreposição
A viagem na reconstrução das identidades em tempos de guerra 97
Bibliografia
ANDERSON, Benedict. Nação e consciência nacional. São Paulo: Ática, 1989.
CHIZIANE, Paulina. Ventos do apocalipse. Lisboa: Caminho, 1999.
JORGE, Lídia. A costa dos murmúrios. Rio de Janeiro: Record, 2004.
LÉVI-STRAUSS, Claude. La pensée sauvage. Paris: Pocket, 2002.
Literatura e imprensa nas relações Ibero-Afro-
-Brasileiras: percurso de uma escritora viajante.
ELISABETH BATISTA*
UNEMAT/CNPq
Tendo nascido no limiar do século XX (1899), Maria Archer viveu parte de sua vida
entre Portugal e África. Contactou direta ou indiretamente com as correntes de
pensamento que influenciaram ou afetaram de forma intensa o ambiente cultural
português até meados dos anos cinqüenta. Nosso trabalho intenta recuperar
como a produção criativa da autora, ao criar abertura para um diálogo entre a
literatura e a imprensa circunscreveu-se na construção da imagem do outro nas
relações entre as “sociedades imaginadas”.
Depois de uma viagem de dez dias a bordo do navio Santa Maria, veio Maria
Archer a desembarcar, no porto de Santos, em 15 de julho de 1955, para cumprir
uma longa estada de 22 anos no Brasil. No Consulado Geral do Brasil em Lisboa,
recebeu o visto temporário com validade por 90 dias na categoria de turista, que
a impedia de vir a exercer qualquer atividade remunerada no Brasil.
A lusitana viajada, jornalista, tradutora, conferencista, que viveu em Angola,
Guiné-Bissau, Niassa, Luanda transfere-se para a outra margem do Atlântico,
Literatura e imprensa nas relações Ibero-Afro-Brasileiras: percurso de uma escritora viajante 103
JESSICA FALCONI
Università degli Studi di Napoli “L’Orientale”
facto, como lugar de desencontros, onde entre Próspero e Caliban não há vence-
dores nem vencidos, porque cada um dos segmentos sociais e culturais presentes
reivindica a sua hegemonia no espaço colonial, o seu papel na História, recriando
uma polifonia linguística e arquitectónica que traduz a polifonia identitária e
desafia e desconstrói as próprias noções de identidade, autenticidade e pertença.
É assim que Próspero e Caliban não resolvem, para Knopfli, as complexidades
presentes no espaço colonial moçambicano, representadas através de persona-
gens como os pedreiros de Diu, vindos para trabalharem para a edificação do
Império; o Governador dom Estévão de Ataíde, «que mal percebia as indistintas
feições do reino», Jorge Mariz, voz trágica da expansão ou ainda Luís de Camões,
que fugia, «por certo, ao brasido de S. Sebastião/até ao outro extremo, na Ponta
da Ilha»2.
Herdeiro de Rui Knopfli e da sua viagem, Luís Carlos Patraquim traça o seu
roteiro no espaço já pós-colonial com uma partida que é já um regresso. Da Ilha,
e para a Ilha, a viagem começa mas nunca acaba. No poema “Muhipiti”, a Ilha
aparece na sua dimensão mítica de lugar de pacificação: «É onde deponho todas
as armas. Uma palmeira/ harmonizando-nos o sonho. A sombra./ Onde eu mesmo
estou. Devagar e nu. Sobre as ondas eternas». Mas logo, este mesmo espaço torna-
-se o teatro de uma profunda e total desestabilização do Eu e da sua identidade:
O teu nome que grito a rir do nome./Do meu nome anulado./As vozes que
te anunciam./E me perco. E estou nu./Devagar. Dentro do corpo. […]
É onde sei a maxila que sangra. Onde os leopardos/ naufragam. O tempo.
O cigarro a metralhar/ nos pulmões. A terra empapada. Golfando. (33)
Se, como afirma Margarida Calafate Ribeiro, Os Lusíadas celebram a viagem como
descoberta e afirmação da identidade portuguesa, por oposição ao Outro (34), a
poesia de Rui Knopfli e de Luís Carlos Patraquim, pelo contrário, remete para
aquela dimensão subversiva da viagem que, para além de desconstruir os mapas
e as narrativas coloniais, desafia e põe em crise a unidade e a estabilidade do
Eu. Para Eric J. Leeds, de facto, «travel is clearly subversive of the assumption
implicit in all social structures that an individual has one, real, consistent persona
and character» (p. 276), tal como John Phillips afirma que a narrativa de viagem
«concerns situations in which the stability of the self is often challenged» (p. 64).
Assim, no poema “Through the looking glass” Rui Knopfli corre atrás da sua própria
imagem e da história da Ilha através dos espelhos, interrogando-se sobre a sua
realidade e permanência:
2 No poema “Esclarecimento a certo passo obscuro de uma biografia”, Knopfli imagina a estada
de Camões na Ilha de Moçambique e sua frequentação do bairro da Ponta da Ilha, onde
costumava morar a população não-branca da Ilha.
De Muhipiti a “Lisabona”: a Inadiável Viagem da Poesia 111
É esse mesmo desnorteamento que protagoniza mais uma viagem à Ilha, recente
e feminina, para a qual se pede um passaporte, o do coração. Mais um roteiro
poético e identitário é o Passaporte do Coração de Ana Mafalda Leite, “passageiro
em livre transito” para quem a Ilha é uma declinação de memórias íntimas e
literárias: «de tanto sentir os teus lugares imaginei-os algures fora dos mapas
e perdi-me nos caminhos procurando cartas de achamento» (31). Subvertendo
o tópico ocidental da Penélope que aguarda, a poesia de Ana Mafalda Leite
empreende um novo mapeamento da paisagem física e simbólica da Ilha de
Moçambique, reconstruindo cheiros, sabores, lendas, tecidos, línguas, cores
entre os quais o Eu se perde numa sinfonia dos sentidos orquestrada pelo coração:
«vou neste desprendimento que é quase cegueira visto-me da claridade da noite
da aspereza dos dias da terrível orfandade de ser» (46).
Se para Ana Mafalda Leite o desnorteamento e esta espécie de orfandade
identitária são representadas como condições de liberdade proporcionando um
encontro descomplexado com a polifonia cultural da Ilha de Moçambique e de
todo o país, com a memória literária e com o passado, na poesia de Luís Carlos
Patraquim, entre Os Barcos Elementares e O Osso Côncavo, o desnorteamento e
a perda do Eu são estratégias para questionar constantemente a relação entre o
centro e a periferia do ex-Império português.
112 Jessica Falconi
“Ilha de nomes tantos” diria Francisco José Tenreiro, Muhipiti macua, Mulbaiuni
árabe, Moçambique lusa e índica, essa Ilha de Próspero que Luís Carlos Patraquim
herda de Rui Knopfli configura-se como espaço onde se desfaz qualquer imagem
de unidade cultural, social ou linguística, tal como qualquer noção de autenti-
cidade. A Ilha de Patraquim é o lugar onde se entrecruzam diferentes e possíveis
narrativas do passado e do presente; narrativas em português, em macua ou
swahili, que vão preenchendo os espaços deixados em branco ao passo que
corroem a imagem de unidade veiculada antes pelo discurso colonial e depois
pela retórica oficial do Estado-nação independente. Frente a estes discursos
homogeneizadores, a viagem à Ilha proporciona ao sujeito poético a oportunidade
de convocar outra memórias, outras referências geográficas e culturais, outras
línguas para, nas palavras do poeta, «afugentar as sinuosas narrativas que mal
me disseram, confundiram» (47). É através da sobreposição dos elementos,
no conjunto das máscaras («máscara kabuki», diz Patraquim, «máscara de m’siro,
máscara desnudando máscaras, a oriente prenhe planta significando os séculos,
as linguagens», 46), e no conjunto das falas e das línguas que a Ilha toma corpo
como lugar da diferença, centro e periferia de si própria, antigo centro da
colónia, nova periferia da nação a que pertence.
De Muhipiti a “Lisabona”: a Inadiável Viagem da Poesia 113
com Camões, para que a própria cidade se abra «à turba que chega, canora e
não belicosa, vadia como tu, Língua que te empoas de gramáticas de castelão
devasso»(129). A língua portuguesa e a cidade de Lisboa funcionam assim como
os falsos centros do Império e da actual ideia da lusofonia, através dos quais
denunciar a permanência de conflitos e desencontros. E tal como para a cidade,
a voz poética de Luís Carlos Patraquim apela para que a Língua de Camões se
torne lugar de criatividade e de encontro, deixando de se imaginar como centro
para se abrir ao trabalho de reinvenção feito pelas “margens”: «O camoniano
fado, em verdade rasga-me esses versos por aí, tenórios/ e leva-nos co’as pragas
e a massinguita das Ethiópias perdidas,/ Ao mal-cozinhado, ao tempero finíssimo
de oitavos e tercetos…».
Trata-se de reformular os mapas das actuais relações no ex-Império português,
das novas formas de “apagamento autista da distância”, citando Antonio Manuel
Hespanha, que perpetuam representações homogeneizadoras que repropõem os
espaços em branco para onde relegar a alteridade . A isto, parece responder
Patraquim com os últimos versos do poema: «E limpa-me esse branco tão sujo,
ó ultramarina cidade, Lisboa alvoroçada!».
Entre Muhipiti e Lisabona, portanto, a viagem da poesia constrói a sua pró-
pria narrativa de diáspora, inscrevendo, nestes antigos centros, novas relações
e uma reflexão identitária não apenas pessoal, mas colectiva, apontando para
os perigos de velhas e novas ideologias, sobretudo recusando os velhos e os novos
mapas, para talvez dizer, com Fernando Pessoa: “Viajar! Perder países”.
Obras citadas
Gonçalves, Adelto. Patraquim, Poeta da Lusofonia. Storm Magazine, Instituto do Livro e
Das Bibliotecas, http://www.stormmagazine.com/novodb/arqmais.php?id=398&
sec=&secn=
Knopfli, Rui. A Ilha de Próspero. Lisboa: Edições 70, 1989 (1ª Ed. Lourenço Marques:
Minerva. Central, 1972)
Huggan, Graham. “Decolonizing the Map” The Post-colonial Studies Reader. Bill Ashcroft,
Gareth
Griffith and Helen Tiffin. London & New York: Routledge, 1995.
Leeds, Eric J. The Mind of the Traveler. New York: Basic Book,1991.
McClintock, Anne. Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Context.
London & New York: Routledge, 1995.
Leite, Ana Mafalda. Passaporte do Coração. Lisboa: Quetzal, 2002.
Patraquim, Luís Carlos. Vinte e Tal Novas Formulações e Uma Elegia Carnívora. Linda-a-
-Velha: ALAC, 1991.
De Muhipiti a “Lisabona”: a Inadiável Viagem da Poesia 115
gonista, que preso sem saber o motivo, se vai conformando com a sua situação,
fazendo lembrar a atmosfera de alienação e de absurdo de L’Étranger, de Camus,
com as devidas diferenças: Mungau não parece pertencer a uma categoria de
assassino, ainda que o texto não esclareça devidamente esse aspecto. É, pois,
uma escrita que indaga a condição da natureza humana numa viagem ao encontro
do limbo em que se encontra o ser humano incapaz de agir, alienado e submisso.
A viagem, no sentido com que estamos mais familiarizados, encontramo-la
sobretudo no último livro deste autor, Hinyambaan, de 2008. Acompanhamos a
viagem de férias da família dos bóeres Odendaal, uma família branca da classe
média urbana (da África do Sul até Moçambique, mais precisamente de
Joanesburgo até Inhambane). O destaque recai sobretudo na viagem entre a
fronteira da África do Sul com Moçambique, em Komatiport, até Inhambane,
numa distância de aproximadamente 600 quilómetros percorridos em dois dias,
com uma paragem no Moçambique rural, onde fazem camping.
O destino, Inhambane, a que Hermann e Henrietta Odendaal teimam em
chamar de Hinyambaan, é bem definido desde o começo. O título dá-nos ab initio
o objectivo da viagem empreendida e remete para a dinâmica de criação termi-
nológica, resultante do contacto com novas realidades, na tentativa de apropria-
ção dessas realidades derivadas do contacto com o Estrangeiro, com o Outro, no
caso com outra língua. É um contacto inicial difícil na apropriação dos nomes,
não só de locais, como Inhambane e Maputo («Mapiutou», p. 22), como da
pronúncia de nomes próprios como o de Djika-Djika.
No entanto, a língua não se torna um verdadeiro obstáculo entre aqueles
que viajam e os que são visitados. Para isso, muito contribuem as traduções do
jovem Djika-Djika, o moçambicano a que a família branca dá boleia a partir de
uma parte do percurso e que se torna numa espécie de guia pelo interior do país,
que de outra forma estaria vedado à família sul-africana. Este moçambicano não
é apenas o tradutor linguístico, mas é também o tradutor entre duas realidades,
a «ponte entre os dois mundos» (p. 75). A proximidade desta personagem com a
família sul-africana é facilitada, porque já não representa somente a ruralidade
moçambicana, pois já se urbanizou.
No entanto, as traduções do jovem são muitas vezes invenções, como se
percebe pelos contextos descritos e nos comentários do narrador: «São assim as
traduções: corajosamente, atravessam caminhos pejados de armadilhas para
conseguir unir muito mais do que o mero sentido das palavras» (p. 85). A con-
fluência de línguas é facilitada pelo ambiente festivo do jantar proporcionado
pela numerosa família do jovem moçambicano: «Alegres e gordurosas palavras
ditas em mais do que uma língua, angulosas e bruscas as dos estrangeiros, enrola-
das e ariscas as dos locais» (p. 66). Daqui se constata que o que é estrangeiro é
áspero e incompreensível, porque desconhecido, e se depreende a importância
122 Lola Geraldes Xavier
1 O filme Tsotsi (que recebeu em 2006 o Óscar para o melhor filme estrangeiro) retrata a miséria
física e moral que grassa nessas aglomerações de gente sem emprego nem futuro que crescem
nas periferias das grandes cidades desde o fim do apartheid, devido ao êxodo rural e o fluxo
de imigrantes vindos sobretudo dos países vizinhos (Moçambique, Malawi, Zimbabwe). Os imi-
grantes têm vindo a substituir a minoria branca no papel de «inimigo principal». Cf. África
21, nº 18, Junho 2008, pp. 44-46.
124 Lola Geraldes Xavier
há dúvidas que seja uma novela, o adjectivo ‘burlesco’ causa algum estranha-
mento. Não vemos aqui a aplicação da terminologia clássica, no sentido de
‘paródia de textos clássicos de assunto sério’. A visão que nos é dada da socie-
dade na novela também não ridiculariza as personagens, costumes, valores, etc.
A perspectiva da realidade social é crítica, como não poderia deixar de ser numa
narrativa em que o fio condutor é o da viagem, no entanto, verifica-se alguma
condescendência quer pelas personagens no contacto com o ‘diferente’, quer
pelo narrador na descrição das situações, fruto da subjectividade daqueles que
olham, maioritariamente a família branca. É sobretudo a ironia que está presente
e que culmina no final quando os Odendaal deixam Djika-Djika junto do seu
«patrão», o dono da roda do atrelado que o jovem carregara desde que lhe deram
boleia. Se desde o início da narrativa Hermann Odendaal recorria à memória
através das opiniões do amigo Joss du Plessis para interpretar a realidade que o
circundava com base na subjectividade do amigo sem deixar interferir a sua pró-
pria avaliação dos acontecimentos, com repetidas frases como «O Joss du Plessis
diz que..» (p. 19); «O Joss du Plessis disse-me que…» (p. 22); «Como diz o du
Plessis…» (p. 31); percebe agora que a análise da mulher em relação ao amigo
estava correcta (p. 87). O casal amigo tinha progredido social e economicamente
em relação aos Odendaal e desculpam-se, inventando que partiriam mais tarde
para não fazerem em conjunto as habituais férias. A novela começa com a
referência à amizade das duas famílias e termina com o episódio do encontro
entre elas, desmascarando a mentira dos du Plessis, logo augurando o rompi-
mento dessa amizade.
Os momentos em que Djika-Djika intervém são imbuídos de algum burlesco,
é certo. É o caso do encontro no posto de polícia com os Odendaal, em que
devido ao seu depoimento irrealista a família pôde seguir viagem (p. 46); é o
caso da forma como consegue «manipular», aparentemente de forma ingénua,
esta família e levá-la a realizar os seus objectivos: consegue boleia para si e para
a roda de atrelado; consegue que os Odendaal se metam num caminho sinuoso
de terra batida para o levarem a casa e finalmente consegue a boleia final até
Inhambane. Esta manipulação é facilitada também pela cultura urbana de Djika-
Djika, que o torna expedito na forma como se apresenta e age e que, em parte,
se afasta da sua família rural para se aproximar da família sul-africana. O
episódio em que Djika-Djika traduz para os seus familiares, que se acotovelam à
porta da tenda dos Odendaal, antes de dormir, o que se diz dentro da tenda,
pela forma como inventa é um outro exemplo (p. 88). Deixa os familiares com
boa impressão dos estrangeiros, mas simultaneamente incrédulos por «os estran-
geiros usarem palavras tão ríspidas» para descrever as sensações de agradabili-
dade e beleza traduzidas por Djika-Djika (p. 88).
A viagem como criação de sentido: topografias do Sul 125
Bibliografia
COELHO, João Paulo Borges, Hinyambaan. Lisboa: Caminho, 2008.
———, «É através de Moçambique que eu vejo o mundo», Expresso África, 13/04/2006,
http://macua.blogs.com/moambique_para_todos/2006/08/joo_paulo_borge.html
(1/9/2009).
———, «A actividade científica é apenas uma das maneiras de dar conta da realidade»,
Público, 9/10/2004.
SEIXO, Maria Alzira et al. (ed.), The Paths os Multiculturalism. Travel writings and
postcolonialism. Lisboa: Edições Cosmos/International Comparative Literature
Association, 2000.
O mundo e o cais. “Cosmopolitismo periférico”
na literatura caboverdiana
ROBERTO FRANCAVILLA
Universidade de Siena
Começo com estas palavras de Artur Augusto1, citação que contém alguns
elementos paradigmáticos (inclusive do ponto de vista retórico) para o assunto
que eu queria tratar: o elemento humano que é “homem do mar” e que corres-
ponde ao eu poético de muita literatura caboverdiana, põe-se em relacionamento
dialéctico com o elemento natural, que é o mar. Existe uma correspondência
empática (alma grande / vastidão dos elementos; dolência da alma / ritmo das
ondas) cuja sublimação desencadeia o acto da criação literária.
estrutura que fica na base desta dicotomia é passível de uma continua elaboração
de experiências como negociação, imitação, parodia e, obviamente subversão e
até revolução. Em termos bachtinianos (e considerando que esta minha
contribuição refere-se ao campo literário) poderiamos falar então de formas de
dialogismo.
É fácil intuir a realização deste projecto nas páginas das revistas cabo-
verdianas dos anos ’30 e ’40. A utilização do texto como sistema de controle:
combater o inimigo com as suas mesmas armas. Parece clara a posição de
“Claridade”, mais uma vez não apenas na sua vertente mais literária (poesia e
narrativa, com a proposta dos primeiros capítulos de Chiquinho de Baltazar
Lopes, que será publicado só dez anos mais tarde) mas sim na vertente da
pesquisa antropológica que, graças a um olhar “do interior”, ou seja do sujeito
sobre si mesmo, apropria-se dum dos instrumentos mais utilizados pela cultura
colonial: a reportagem sobre o folklore, o ensaio pseudo científico de inspiração
naturalista o geográfica; a recolha de mitos e lendas. Com os estudos sobre a
tabanca publicados por Felix Monteiro a partir do numero 6 de “Claridade”, em
1948, a etnografia crioula põe em acto uma nítida diferenciação no que diz
respeito aos modelos, provocando um processo consciente de resistência (lembro
também o artigo de Teixeira de Sousa “A estrutura social da ilha do Fogo em
1940”, no quinto numero, e mais, no ambito da linguística “Notas para o estudo
da linguagem das ilhas” de Baltasar Lopes, no numero 2).
“Claridade” corresponde na realidade a um processo de auto-mitificação do
caboverdiano, uma vez saldada definitivamente a dívida com a matéria que tinha
animado a geração anterior, a do Caboverdianismo. As fontes eruditas — e excên-
tricas! — dos poetas das ilhas no final do seculo XIX remontavam para a teogonia
esiodeia e para o ciclo de Éracles para construir uma mitologia das origens: ilhas
de Atlándida onde vivem as ninfas do pôr-do-sol, filhas da noite, as Hespérides
guardiãs do jardim onde crescem maçãs douradas. Segundo a concepção antro-
pológica do mito (penso em Malinowski) poderiamos afirmar que o mito funciona
como acto institutivo da ordem social e proporciona um modelo retrospectivo
para a individuação de valores morais, para a ordem sociológica (além das
crenças mágicas), com o objectivo de consolidar a tradição e de lhe conferir
prestígio através da importância dos eventos inciais.
O evento inicial, o “descobrimento” na poesia de Jorge Barbosa “Preludio”,
em que é evidente o intertexto brasileiro da Carta de Pero Vaz de Caminha,
representa um início da disseminação, mesmo convergindo no eixo telúrico da
creoulidade como resposta ao domínio lusitano. A escolha de abrir o primeiro
numero de “Claridade”, em 1936, com “Lantunas e dois motivos de finaçom”
(ou seja o batuque) alimenta esta nítida tomada de posição, na consciência da
própria condição de subalternidade.
A quem se dirige o poema de Jorge Barbosa? Para quem cria a origem, o pró-
prio povo, o específico Volkgeist e no fundo, ainda “in nuce” o ideal de nação?
Para que um texto exista num nível colectivo é necessário que a matéria utilizada
tenha pontos de referência. O leitor reconhece a comunidade (como por exem-
plo no caso do romance burguês) e cresce o seu sentido de pertença. A contru-
ção duma literatura nacional é a elaboração desta rede de segmentos reconhe-
cíveis. Temas, sintaxe, mitos, representações, símbolos, léxico: tudo conflui
nesta completa e polimorfa matéria da qual, em vários planos, alimenta-se o
texto.
A areia das ilhas trasforma-se numa esponja que absorve tudo. Até um tema
tão endógeno como a seca, duma forma é importado do Brasil. Os poetas e os
narradores de “Claridade” acolhem o Brasil de Manuel Bandeira, Jorge Amado
de Jubiabá e Mar Morto, José Lins do Rego de O menino do engenho e di Bangue,
Graciliano Ramos de Vidas Secas e moldam-no segundo uma estética e uma
adesão quase empática ao telúrico ilheu (enquanto a geração anterior, a do cabo-
verdianismo, inspirava-se mais nos parnassianos, em Olavo Bilac, nos románticos
como Gonçalves Dias o Castro Alves). O mesmo acontece com o Modernismo por-
tuguês antes e com o Neo realismo depois. Até a leitura (de certeza esporádica,
talvez casual, mas pregnante) do Elio Vittorini torna-se fundamental para a
elaboração dum canon em que se inspirar: o do intelectual engagée e cosmopo-
lita como por exemplo o português Augusto Casimiro (já do grupo da “Renascença
portuguesa” com Raoul Proença e depois director de “Seara Nova”, desterrado
para Cabo Verde), que escreve Portugal crioulo em 1940.
No relacionamento entre “cais” e “mundo”, da simples contemplação — que
poderia bem alimentar uma poiesis de signo simbolista e mesmo decadentista —
toma forma ao contrário um discurso imaginoso baseado na construção da
viagem, na ideia de desafio também físico e geográfico (pensemos por exemplo
no epos dos navios baleeiros do New England e dos valiosos marinheiros crioulos).
Se è verdade que muita da poesia caboverdiana — mas especialmente a
ligada à primeira fase de “Claridade” e a “Certeza”, adia-se voluptuosamente
no ritual do adeus, é verdade também que o dado poético realiza-se no momento
seguinte, nuna dimensão de luta (pela elevação social no plano material, pela
liberdade no plano político, pela construção do retorno para a Heimat no plano
íntimo, sentimental), numa dimensão “futura” e “realizada” embora, obviamen-
te, cheia do outrotanto endógeno aparato nostálgico.
SHEILA KHAN**
1 Sobre este conceito ver Curtius (1979); Garin (1989); Green (1969); e Abellan (1979-1984).
2 No brilhante romance de João de Melo, O Homem Suspenso (1996), encontramos a narrativa
do exílio da nação, da pátria portuguesa que se enuncia mediante o solilóquio da personagem
principal, mediante o qual se transfere para a superfície da diegese registos bem esculpidos,
por um lado, sobre a questão do exílio pátrio: “o pai perdeu o tempo, ainda que pense tê-lo
guardado como se guarda ou se esconde uma certeza no bolso. Perante ele, possuo apenas a
minha infância, nenhum outro conhecimento. De certa forma, vim ao encontro do meu pai,
do meu velho doente vencido e desmemoriado pai, porque só no bolso dele continuam guarda-
dos o tempo e o sentimento de um país anterior, de um país que ambos gostávamos de invocar
— e isso era ele voltar a ser o homem e eu voltar a ser o doce belo diligente menino dele”
(Melo 162). E, por outro lado, sobre o problema do exílio identitário na pós-colonialidade
portuguesa: “Perdi o mapa e o território daquilo em que aprendi a acreditar: o amor o casa-
mento o trabalho o meu país, o destino de um mundo a que bem se pode dar o nome de pátria,
digo, de exílio [sublinhado meu] no sentimento de família” (49).
Moçambique Mon Amour: O Mito do Eterno Retorno 141
3 Ainda que, por razões de economia de espaço, não seja possivel calcorrear as várias reflexões
teóricas e propostas de trabalho desenvolvidas sobre os conceitos de colonialidade do poder
142 Sheila Khan
(Anibal Quijano 2007, 2000), colonialidade do ser e do saber (Nelson Maldonado-Torres 2004,
2007), de-colonial thinking e border-thinking (Walter Mignolo 2007; Mignolo e Tlostanova 2006;
Ramon Grosfoguel 2007); importa salientar, nomeadamente, a fecundidade dos conceitos de
colonialidade do poder (Quijano, 2000), por um lado, e por outro, o de colonialidade do saber
(Maldonado-Torres 2007), para um melhor entendimento da sobrevivência, até aos nossos dias,
do espectro do colonialismo e dos discursos modernistas (Dussel 2002) sobre a superioridade
da Europa face aos territórios conquistados pelo ímpeto imperialista e colonialista. Nesse
sentido, segundo Mignolo e Tlostanova (2006) “the logic of coloniality is one side (the hidden
and darker side) of imperial governance. Imperial governance was and continues to be
predicated on the rhetoric of modernity (reluctant imperialism, light imperialism, e.g.
justification for the invasion of Iraq). The rhetoric of modernity is a rhetoric of salvation
(conversion, civilization, development, market democracy) while the logic of coloniality is the
logic of land appropriation, exploitation of labour, control of gender and sexuality, of
knowledge and subjectivity” [sublinhado meu] (219). No epicentro teórico destas abordagens
conceptuais e metodológicas, torna-se claro que os estudos coloniais e pós-coloniais têm de
tomar em consideração que, quer a modernidade, quer o imperialismo/colonialismo das nações
europeias deixaram reminiscências bem presentes e vivas, pois, como asseveram Mignolo e
Tlostanova (2006) “today the shaping of subjectivity, the coloniality of being/knowledge is
often described within the so-called globalization of culture, a phrase, which in the rhetoric
of modernity reproduces the logic of coloniliaty of knowledge and of being” (208).
4 Bachelard, 1994: 6-7; tradução de Paulo de Medeiros, citado por Medeiros, 2003: 134.
Moçambique Mon Amour: O Mito do Eterno Retorno 143
Santos salienta que: “É sobretudo a diversidade epistemológica do mundo que causa incer-
teza no tempo actual. O saber que ignora é o saber que ignora os outros saberes que com ele
partilham a tarefa infinita de dar conta das experiências do mundo” (2008, 27).
7 Construtos teóricos impulsionados e glorificados pela modernidade ocidental. Como bem
salienta, Enrique Dussel “Modernity appears when Europe affirms itself as the ‘center’ of a
World History it inaugurates: the ‘periphery’ that surrounds this center is consequently part
of its self definition” (citado por Mignolo, 2007: 453; veja-se reflexoes sobre a questao da
relacao entre modernidade e colonialidade em Enrique Dussel, 1995, 2000 e 2002).
8 O trabalho de entrevistas durante o meu projecto de doutoramento, com o titulo ‘African
Mozambican Immigrants: Narrative of Immigration and Identity, and Acculturation Strategies
in Portugal and England’, foi efectuado em Londres, entre 2000 e 2001. Durante este período
de trabalho, entrevistei moçambicanos e moçambicanas que tinham imigrado para Portugal
após a independência de Moçambique e, posteriormente, para Londres, após a entrada de
Portugal na União Europeia.
9 Actualmente, encontro-me no meu projecto de pós-doutoramento, sob uma perspectiva pós-
colonial, cujo o objectivo é definir o rosto da pós-colonialidade portuguesa, a partir de
narrativas de vida e de identidade de moçambicanos habitantes, apenas, em Portugal. Este
projecto tem como título, ‘African Mozambican Immigrants in the former ‘motherland’: The
portrait of a postcolonial Portugal’.
Moçambique Mon Amour: O Mito do Eterno Retorno 145
10 Os nomes reais dos entrevistados foram substituídos por outros nomes, pela intenção de manter
protegida as suas identidades.
146 Sheila Khan
11 Retomando o paralelismo entre esta minha reflexão e o romance de João de Melo, O Homem
Suspenso (1996), gostaria de sublinhar que, mesmo ao nível de um registo literário, o escritor
tece observacões assaz pertinentes no que concerne a postura geopoltica e identitária de
Portugal, no espaço e tempo da sua pós-colonialidade: “A Europa chegou aqui, entrou, perdeu-
-se da vista e do coração de quem já antes a amava; correu a fechar-se e a trair-nos, trancada
a sete chaves no aquário rosado do Centro Cultural de Belém. Ela dar-nos-á uma nova bússola,
o sextante, as naus e o silêncio da renúncia, da traição, do consentimento” (26); “A condição
humana de Lisboa é o murmúrio destes anos e anos para cima e para baixo, da periferia para
o centro e do centro para a periferia, com regresso diário aos dormitórios mais feios, tristes
e desabrigados do mundo” (65).
Moçambique Mon Amour: O Mito do Eterno Retorno 147
e posturas deste prefixo ‘pós’, em que deixa claro a sobrevivência dos espectros,
ou fantasmas de um passado ainda remanescente nos registos narrativos de vida
e de identidade dos sujeitos pós-colonizados, no tempo e espaço do pós-colo-
nialismo de expressão portuguesa. Mais do que construtos teóricos, olhar para a
realidade humana do retorno e do exílio leva-nos a uma consciência lúcida da
vida, e que Edward Said soube tão sabiamente explanar nas seguintes palavras:
“grande parte da vida de um exilado é ocupada em compensar a perda desorien-
tadora, criando um novo mundo para governar. O exilado sabe que, num mundo
secular e contingente, as pátrias são sempre provisórias. O exilado atravessa
fronteiras, rompe barreiras do pensamento e da experiência” (Said, 2003: 54
e 58).
Referências bibliográficas
Abellan, José Luís. Historia crítica del pensamiento español. Madrid: Espasa Calpe
(4 volumes), 1979-1984.
Castelo, Cláudia. O modo português de estar no mundo — o lusotropicalismo e a ideologia
colonial portuguesa (1933-1961). Porto: Afrontamento,1998.
Curtius, Ernest-Robert. European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages. Londres: Routledge
& Kegan Paul, 1979.
DUSSEL, Enrique. ‘World-system and ‘Trans’ Modernity’. Nepantla. Views from South,
vol.2, no.3, 2002, pp. 221-245.
Garin, Eugénio. Idade Média e Renascimento. Lisboa: Estampa, 1989.
Green, Otis H. España y la tradicíon occidental: el espíritu castellano en la litteratura
desde “El Cid” hasta calderón. Madrid: Editorial Gredos, 1969.
Grosfoguel, Ramón. ‘The epistemic decolonial turn’. Cultural Studies, 21:2, 2007 pp.211-
233.
Magalhães, Isabel Allegro de. ‘Capelas Imperfeitas: Configurações identitárias da iden-
tidade portugues’. Entre ser e estar — Raízes, Percursos e Discursos da Identidade.
Ed. Maria Irene Ramalho and António Sousa Ribeiro. Porto: Afrontamento, 2001,
pp.301-348.
Maldonado-Torres, Nelson. ‘The topology of being and the geopolitics of knowledge —
Modernity, empire, coloniality’.City, Vol.8, No.1, April, 2004 pp.29-56.
Maldonado-Torres, Nelson. ‘On the coloniality of being. Contributions to the development
of a concept’. Cultural Studies, 21:2, 2007, pp.240-270.
Mata, Inocência. ‘Estranhos em permanência: a negociação portuguesa na pós-colonia-
lidade’.Portugal não é um país pequeno. Ed. Manuela Ribeiro Sanches. Lisboa: Ed.
Cotovia, 2006, pp.285-315.
Medeiros, Paulo de.‘Memórias Pós-Coloniais’, in Ana Gabriela Macedo e Maria Eduarda
Keating (eds.). Colóquio de Outono, Estudos de Tradução — Estudos Pós-Coloniais.
148 Sheila Khan
VICKY HARTNACK
Faculdade de Letras da Universidade de Lisboa
Introduction
Journeying has been a constant throughout African history. Ever since 1500
BC when the Niger Basin saw the departure of the Bantu peoples southwards and
eastwards, Sub-Saharan Africa has been in a constant state of coming and going.
What is relatively new however, is recording for posterity in written form the
sagas of these journeys. There has been a long history of recording movement and
migrations in graphic form as the symbolic language of, for example, the Zulu
peoples shows. In his film, Pau de Sangue (1996), Flora Gomes, the film director
from Guinea-Bissau, ends off his narrative of the clan’s migration and return to
where it began, by showing a mural to depict the journey in visual language. It
acts as a statement, legitimising the history of the clan and its will to survive
radical change as well as threats to its livelihood. Furthermore, although the
mural is drawn by a deaf mute, considered the token village idiot, but who
characteristically perceives and understands more about human nature when
faced with the threat of globalisation than the clan’s leadership, it is a small girl
who explains the mural to us (viewers) and lets us know that somehow the clan
will survive in a new world order partly through her good offices. The combi-
nation of the textual record of the journey of discovery, the cohesion of the clan
and the voice of the girl is a good introduction to what this paper hopes to show.
My aim, therefore, is threefold: to understand that the history of Africa is
the history of migration — mobility, and that women on the move today is a most
important phenomenon in understanding Africa’s dynamic; to look at the way
some women have broken their double subaltern silence and journeyed out in
post-colonial times to explore their own identities as African women (in order to
do so, they have been forced to move — to migrate); and finally, to see how the
stories they are telling are no longer tales told around the village fire. Rather,
they are written down in the language of the former colonisers (English and
152 Vicky Hartnack
Portuguese, for example). In writing them down, these women are legitimising
the history of their struggle to be heard as African women the world over1.
1 To some readers, what I am about to write may be suspect and there could be questions raised
about my own competence to broach the topic because I am writing as an outsider: African
born and raised to be sure, but a Westerner, a descendent of the colonizer. However, it is
hoped that my condition as a woman and my own origins and life in Africa will not invalidate
the claims I am about to make.
See Audre Laud’s Sister Outsider, Crossing Press, 1984 where she vehemently argued in favour
of the difference among women, seeing the struggle waged by black women as distinct from
that of white women. Also see Jukiana Makuchi Nfah-Abbenyi, Chapter 1 when she discusses
the difference between Western feminism and African feminism. She asserts that due to widely
different ethnic/racial, historical and cultural factors, it is difficult for a Westerner to perceive
many phenomena affecting the emancipation of African women.
2 Cf.Heine, B. & Nurse, D. (2000): African Languages — An Introduction, Cambridge, CUP, Ch. 2
& 11;
Also: Asante, Melefi Kete (2007). The History of Africa — The Quest for Eternal Harmony,
London, Routledge, Parts 2 & 3; Phillipson. D.W. (2005) African Archaeology, Cambridge, CUP,
Ch. 7 & 8; and D.W. Phillpson (1979) in B. Davidson (1966), Guide to African History,
Northampton. John Dickens Publishing. Chs. 1-5
On another road: women travelling to other centres 153
the 19th and 20th century colonial process. But there is an additional factor about
women on the move in this patriarchal system: upon her marriage, it was normal
for the young wife to leave her own family and go and live with her husband’s
family. It was always the woman to uproot and strike out in a new direction
whether she liked it or not. She was obliged at an early age to confront new
realities and live through new experiences often alone, despite the presence of
other women around her. The tradition continues in rural Africa, which all said
and done still makes up more than 40% of more highly urbanised Southern Africa
and 60%-80% in Northern Sub-Saharan Africa3.
The reasons above are of course valid today for the individual migrant and
more particularly since the early 1960s. When African countries achieved their
hard-won independence, it was believed that many of the woes hitherto suffered
would automatically disappear as new political and social orders took root. The
fact that this has not happened in most cases, and the tendency leading to
urbanisation in a globalised world as rural communities are unable to cope
economically, has given rise to a non-stop exodus to the cities over the last 50
years and hence to other social, economic and cultural environments. However
many negative factors this economic migration has caused in the unruly sprawling
cities of developing Africa, the new setting has nevertheless provided the chance
for another voice, another presence to emerge, hitherto only heard intermittently
as an undercurrent. It has given women the chance to be heard in some small
way. It is not so much writing back to the empire — a man’s world, all said and
done (whether we are talking about the former white colonial masters or those
wielding the power today) — as striking out along a different path to self-
discovery, self-assertion and emancipation.
What is new in the profile of the migrant is the lone woman migrant or groups
of women who migrate within the same country and to/from other, mostly neigh-
bouring, countries. The reasons for women migrating are also largely economic.
According to a 2006 UN study, women make up one third of all the regular
migrants to richer African states4. They are usually married and older, or more
experienced single women. Their main aim is sending remittances back regularly
to their homes and communities so as to feed and educate their children, provide
health care, and generally improve the living standards of their loved ones left
behind. These migrant women work in traditionally ‘female’ occupations (such
as domestic work, care-giving and informal trading) and as a result earn lower
wages, enjoy fewer social benefits and services and are forced to accept worse
working conditions than male migrants. They are also exposed to higher HIV-AIDS
risks and suffer more unemployment than their male counterparts. Moreover,
they are often self-employed and, as many have entered neighbouring countries
illegally and are undocumented, their living conditions are extremely precarious.
This is not to mention the fact that 50% of all cross-border refugees are women
and children (where cases of rape, hunger and infectious sexually-transmitted
diseases are high) and that 80% of the human trafficking involve women and girls
(of whom, 50% are children). Finally, a word should be said about highly educated
African women who have migrated. Their movement is mostly going abroad in a
veritable brain drain. They figure largely among the legal 20,000/year highly
educated African immigrants mostly heading towards Europe and the USA5.
5 Taken from “African Immigrants in the United States are the Nation's Most Highly Educated
Group” in The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, No. 26. (Winter, 1999-2000), pp. 60-61.
http://www.nigeriaknowledgecenter.net/mybboard/Upload/attachment.php?aid=6
Nearly 8 million women migrated in 2000 (about 47% of the total African migration that year).
Source: United Nations press release — 3 march 2005 — Beijing at Ten: http://www.un.org/
womenwatch/daw/Review/documents/press-releases/Beij_Migration_stats_Eng_1.pdf
On another road: women travelling to other centres 155
6 Cf: Three scholars and novelists from South Africa, Nigeria and Kenya who defend engaged
writing in African literature are: M.W. Serote (2000), C. Achebe (2000) and N. wa Thiong’o
(1986).
7 Taken from: Morning Yet on Creation Day— Essays by Achebe (1975), London, Heinemann.
As regards Durkheim’s theories, I do not mean here the interpretation moved by the nostalgia
for an earlier, simpler, and more cohesive age and neither his positivist stance relying on
observable empirical knowledge. Rather I refer to Durkheim’s belief that people mostly act
according to the standards and rules already laid down by the society in which they live and
interact with each other, although subjective choice and free will also play their part.
156 Vicky Hartnack
8 J.I. Onkonkwo’s definition of African allegory stresses the edifying, moral aspect of it and the
relevance of symbols. According to Aijaz Ahmad (1987), Frederic Jameson’s explanation of
allegory, distinct from the Western concept of allegory as something fixed and eternal, implies
fluidity and breadth, covering a wide range of subjects that all point to a national allegory
covering political, social and cultural aspects.
9 Basing his definition on Audre Lauds’s new genre when describing her writing process in, Zami:
A New Spelling of My Name (1983), see Ted Warburton, Theater Arts Department, University
of California, Santa Cruz, http://www.nyu.edu/classes/gilbert/collaboration/pdf/newarts
praxis.pdf
158 Vicky Hartnack
10 Miriam Tlali first published the book under the title Muriel at Metropolitan in 1975 with Raven
Press, and was obliged to make substantial cut to the original. The 2004 edition is unabridged.
11 Mia Couto in an interview in Colina 8, November 2008 (attached to Público 5/12/08) — “A
literatura é uma mentira que não mente. Enquanto escritor eu sou verdadeiro na medida em
que não escrevo senão aquilo que invento”.
Emily Dickinson’s poem: Tell all the Truth but tell it slant (Tell all the Truth but tell it slant—
/ Success in Circuit lies / Too bright for our infirm Delight / The Truth's superb surprise / As
Lightening to the Children eased / With explanation kind / The Truth must dazzle gradually /
Or every man be blind—). Source: http://nongae.gsnu.ac.kr/~songmu/Poetry/TellAllThe
TruthButTEllItSlant.htm .
12 In “O feminine da escrita. Espinhoso marfim” in I.Mata & L. Padilha (Eds.) 2008, p.532.
On another road: women travelling to other centres 159
There are however, exception to this clarity and linear quality. Like Bessie Head’s
allegorical biography, the Zimbabwean author, Yvonne Vera’s allegory, Under the
Tongue (1996), is highly symbolic with the river and the inability of both Zhizha
and her grandmother to liberate their trauma by formulating torrents of words
to flow seaward. Furthermore, it in no way mythologises the author. And in this
way, it shares something in common with Kenyan author, Marjorie Macoye’s
Coming to Birth (1986). Rather, both narratives seem to reflect upon themes that
have long been taboo. In writing about their heroines, they give voice to the
unspeakable (incest and rape in Under the Tongue; a wife’s adultery and male
sterility in Coming to Birth).
Similar taboo topics that have yet to be broached on a broader scale by
African writers, are dealt with by the courageous Mozambican author, Paulina
Chiziane in her two novels studied here: Niketche: Uma História de Poligmia
(2002) and O Alegre Canto da Perdiz (2008). Chiziane refuses to call herself a
novelist (romancista), thus demarcating her writing from Western genres. She
states that she is a story-teller. In the same way, Zenzele’s mother in the episto-
lary novel Zenzele (1996) by J. Nozip Maraire takes on the role of the traditional
story-teller of tales and parables in the letters she writes her daughter, studying
medicine at Harvard (like Maraire herself). While Chiziane’s irony is in flagrant
contrast with the earnest, almost self-righteous tone of an Ellen Kuzwayo or the
intense lyricism of Yvonne Vera, she verbalises for all to hear, what has been
common, although unpublicised, knowledge among people in this part of the
world13; she ironically forces recognition of the old patriarchal rationale of
polygamist practices which has its codes of behaviour and responsibility in
contrast to the immune urban philandering and avoidance of family duties Rami’s
husband Tony has been guilty of. She subverts the idea of kuchinga, that brings
Rami sexual gratification and she opens new avenues in making the niketche —
an initiation dance heralding womanhood — the symbol of female sexuality in a
new urban setting. Furthermore, in O Alegre Canto she takes up Fanon’s premise
involving the perverse collaboration between the colonised victim and the
colonial power, and miscegenation as an ironical way out — not to speak of
prostitution and the mythical matriarchal system of the Zambezi women
13 Cf. This account: “During her time in the northern region of Mozambique, one Danish
anthropologist observed that unlike her own experiences learning about women’s sexuality in
a European, Christian context, sexualities were openly discussed and expressed in Mozam-
bique society. A woman’s sexuality was something of her own, part of her personality and
identity as a woman, not defined in relation to, or ‘opened up’ by men” in: African Women
Writers — Yvonne Vera — http://africanwomenwriters.typepad.com/my_weblog/sexualities/
160 Vicky Hartnack
a first wife or had many male children). But it also restricted her field of
manoeuvre if she wanted to change an intolerable situation (as for example, non-
compliance by the males of the family to live up to their side of the marriage
bargain, domestic violence, excessive male promiscuity, etc.). And it also kept
her in her place — as a dependent, as a subaltern, often denying her education
and giving her the means whereby she was able to emancipate herself.
This was the strength of the traditional community and was the main reason
of its survival. But it was also the community’s weakness because in order to
challenge her subaltern state, it was necessary for a woman to break free, leave
and possibly never return. Naturally, women in the inner centre found ways of
fulfilling themselves as women, as wives and mothers and as members of the
community. Paulina Chiziane gives a glimpse when elaborating upon the position
of the matriarch in Tony’s family, women’s heightened awareness of their sexual-
ity and attraction in an unambiguous polygamous arrangement and the safeness
of a moral order. Indeed, looking at some of the cases in these women’s writing
— as we shall see further down — there was even a longing to retrace footsteps
into the traditional community. It indicates that there was something to be said
for its certainties, roots and shared community experience. Nevertheless, my
interest lies in the cases recorded in literature about the women who wanted to
go beyond this point to get to other centres.
trust very few. Lack of money was a constant worry and even if they did not
lack in qualifications, finding work was an on-going headache. Only in very few
journeys away from the reprimanding, restricting circle or community was finan-
cial independence not a problem, simply because the young women in question
were going to other cities to study (e.g. Kambili in Purple Hibiscus). The physical
duress suffered almost seems beyond the understanding of Western readers:
where the next meal was coming from, how to look presentable for a job interview
when she only had one change of clothes; how to scrape up enough money for a
bus fare; how to pay for tuition so as to better her situation, etc. Although little
talked about, the journeys themselves were fraught with danger — whether it
was going by donkey cart to the nearest bus terminal, catching the train (3rd
class), or a getting a lift in a hair-raising taxi ride. Unlike the Western traveller
of today, where the journey itself is the target for the experience it affords, to
the migrant, the shorter the time spent on the physical journey, the better.
A journey such as this is not for savouring but is a necessary step that must taken
to get to the much-dreamt of destination — as any migrant washed up on a
Mediterranean beach after a hazardous piroga voyage will tell you. Very often,
domestic violence lay at the bottom of the desire to flee, a point we shall be
looking at further on.
But there were more levels attached to the act of journeying. The social and
cultural implications of the journey cannot be underestimated as the hitherto
unambiguous condition of their lives, now became far more complex in the way
that the structure of their world fell away. It involved them in the struggle to
find a new niche in a new community life with its different social and cultural
values, modes of organisation and rules and regulations.
All the women striking out along new routes had to learn to deal with new
communicative modes of expression. They did not only have to learn the language
of the coloniser if they did not know it fluently enough, but they had to under-
stand and learn how to handle a new semiotic system that extended beyond
the linguistic system and influenced social and cultural codes and behaviours.
They also had to learn to handle new forms of appropriate behaviour, suppressing
emotions in more cosmopolitan societies or in circumstances where direct
contact was made with the white population (as Sindiwe Magona discovered when
she saw how far liberal white activists would go when the anti-apartheid struggle
reached its peak in the 1980s). As naïve country women, they also had to learn
how not to be duped when meeting up with street-wise 2nd or 3rd generation
African city-dwellers. Being young in practically all cases, the women had to
overcome their hopelessly inadequate education that had failed to prepare them
for the life they were going into.
On another road: women travelling to other centres 163
Many were mission educated within the strict confines of Church doctrine.
They had to struggle to understand the difference between the traditional concept
of sin and the mundane business of living within the close confines of township
and ghetto life and its resulting promiscuity, violence and petty criminality. They
had to learn to seek new spiritual counselling as they confronted crises of faith
in other realities. Paulina in Coming to Birth and Nyabera/Maria in River at the
Source join evangelical organisations, although her brother Peter is a Catholic
bishop14; Ellen Kuzwayo, a fervent Catholic becomes regional head of the YWCA,
and even the modern city girl, Zazah Khuwayo becomes a born-again Christian
for a time. On the other hand, Sindiwe Magona’s mother in the sprawling slums
outside Cape Town turns back to her roots and becomes a sangoma/traditional
healer, while Delfina in O Canto Alegre seeks out the witchdoctor’s powers to
satisfy her greed for money and status. It is interesting to note the role of the
Church in these instances. While serving as a spiritual prop, and in some cases
as a vanguard denouncing poverty and humiliation particularly during colonial
times, it also delivered its pious message of submission, replacing clan authority
and pagan mysticism with the authority of the church fathers allied to the state.
It therefore did little to change women’s subservient role, except, perhaps to
extend them a modest mission education provided the male head of the household
agreed. The influence the church was, in fact, fundamental for its role attempt-
ing to replace rural religious beliefs by providing girls with a rudimentary mission
education. However, in Zazah’s case in Never Been Home, and owing to the
climate of fear and repression in her household due to an abusive, drunken father
who, as a policeman, collaborated with the Apartheid system, she went through
a stage in which she despised the church and God for not coming to her rescue.
Not so with Tsitsi Dangarembga’s Tambudzai, whose struggle to become educated
and escape her rural background with its limited opportunities for women, saw
her embrace Church-led routine at least temporarily; she won a scholarship in
the all-white Sacred Heart College of Umtali run by the nuns in a pre-independent
Zimbabwe. In spite of its segregation policy, the college would do its best to
alienate Tambudzai from her African heritage.
Furthermore, despite the fact that Chimamanda Adiche brings up the question
of a de-Christianised Europe seeking vital new human resources in a Christianised
Africa when a young black Igbo priest is sent to a new parish in Germany, she
also gives us a 21st century setting in Eastern Nigeria, where the Achike household
in Purple Hibiscus is held in the quasi neo-colonial grip of the Catholic ritual and
dogma as represented by an Irish priest. Nothing seems to have changed since
Achebe’s Things Fall Apart. Indeed, colonial rule not only perpetuated this state
of helplessness and lack of autonomy, but enforced it so that women ended up
by being doubly disenfranchised. So how else was she able to find new openings
and new identities unless she broke away physically and culturally from her
entrapment?
Finally, interacting with and influencing the physical journey and the social
and cultural passage to independence, came the feminine journey to self-discov-
ery and empowerment through finding her own mode of expression. This in turn
led to new modes of social interaction in the new scenario and a new sense of
self-achievement and satisfaction. After all, was not this newly found sense of
self-worth the basic reason of a woman’s journey in the first place? In all cases,
she had to quickly throw off her ingenuousness and her restricted world view to
tackle the ambiguities of cosmopolitan life in mixed communities, where hardship,
variety and challenge rubbed shoulders and where a state of preparedness and
being informed was essential. But more than that, it meant finding her voice
and finding the conditions in which she was able to exercise the right to speak
and the right to be heard.
From Nigeria to Zimbabwe and Botswana, and from Kenya to Mozambique
and South Africa, the finding of the feminine voice has not only meant that
characters in fiction are heard to utter words which until then, were held under
the tongue, to use Yvonne Vera’s title. Rather, it is that women have started to
write about themselves and about other women like them.
We need to look at the narratives a little more closely to see how the first
step in finding their voices — the act of migrating, of physically moving from the
rural area to the town — was dealt with by some of the writers. It marked the
very first decisive step in triggering off the process leading to self-discovery and
self-expression. It meant that this was the most crucial stage, where breaking
out of the secure inner circle was the most difficult thing to do simply because
it involved the greatest courage, the greatest challenge. It was usually done
alone where facing formidable obstacles became even more daunting. Once the
rural area had been left, it was easier to make the transition to the large city
far away, and hence to a neighbouring country or abroad.
All of the three South African autobiographies describe how the writers, Ellen
Kuzwayo, Sindiwe Magona, Zazah Khuzwayo went from the rural area to the
nearest city, despite their different reasons. Ellen, coming from a former
educated ruling class of landowners who been disposed by the colonial masters,
was a teacher in her husband’s rural village. His constant physical aggression
made her fear for her life. Thus, with great misgivings, she decided to leave him
and her two young sons and head for Johannesburg, for safety and for political
involvement. Sindiwe and Zazah had come as children together with their mother
On another road: women travelling to other centres 165
and other siblings from the poverty-stricken rural backwaters of the Cape
Province and the Natal respectively to be their fathers in Cape Town and Durban.
The narratives speak of the ensuing hardships suffered by these migrant families
living in the outlying poverty-stricken and crime-ridden slums of the large cities.
Marjorie Macoye’s Paulina went through a similar uprooting. She was also a
rural Luo girl who married young and went off to the capital, Nairobi, to be with
her young husband. Nevertheless, as her childless marriage failed, she went back
to her home near Lake Victoria, to learn how to do needlework and become a
crafts teacher. She won her economic independence this way. It is ironical, that
she returned to Nairobi years later, after the death of her young son born from
an adulterous relationship to become a glorified servant. Far from pursuing her
independence as a small business woman in a now independent country, she
preferred the “safety” of domestic service as a nanny, taking back her errant
husband and discovering she was pregnant at nearly forty with his first child.
Coming to Birth makes no shattering claims: it merely ends in Paulina’s loss of
illusions and the fact that previous suffering has made her less demanding with
herself and less judgemental of her husband; with this new equanimity, she
slowly moves outside her small world as she gains confidence and becomes more
politicised and active in her community. It is a modest, but thoroughly realistic
finale. It is also different from Margaret Ogola’s narrative which stretches down
through the generations, setting off from the source: a royal marriage in pre-
First World War Luo country that only brings disaster to subsequent generations
as they move away in search of a new beginning and spiritual fulfilment after
their power has been treacherously usurped first by rivals and then by the
colonial government. Old gods are replaced by the more powerful white-man’s
God who accompanies the children, grandchildren and great grandchildren
through another world war and a liberation struggle. As the descendents of this
original royal family moves with the times, it becomes urbanised, educated and
eventually makes part of the new black ruling class of independent Kenya. The
original royal blood now comes out as society acknowledges the brilliant doctor,
Wandia, and her exemplary family; it is a success story in itself. The weak links
in the family — those who cannot resist the pull of the futile, godless consumer
culture with its false cosmopolitanism, disappear (such as Wandia’s wayward
sister, Becky). Unlike Macoye’s intention, Ogola’s narrative, which could be the
story of her own life and family, is morally uplifting and uses family history/status
as a prop when defining merit.
Perhaps the most wretched of rural existences is symbolised in Yvonne Vera’s
young protagonist, Zhizha, and her grandmother who never managed to flee the
spectre of the father’s rape of his small daughter. Even moving from one rural
place to another eking out their subsistence, they seemed live in a suspended
166 Vicky Hartnack
state waiting for the day Zhizha’s mother would emerge from jail after having
served her sentence for killing her unnatural husband. We are left in doubt
whether she would find the wherewithal to take charge of the direction of their
lives. Rather they are as three waifs meandering this way and that in a hostile
world, surviving the best they can. Despite having found their voices, they are
nevertheless never heard above a whisper.
Rami in Niketche, as well as four of his other concubines were fetched by
Tony, also a policeman, either from the Zambezi or the north of Mozambique
where obedient rural women were taught how to gratify their husbands and live
in polygamous households. But theirs is not so much the journey from the north
to Maputo, as making their way around Maputo and learning the ways of a large
urban centre while traversing routes to economic independence. Each of the
narratives is set against a stark colonial background where the main characters
are in complicity with the authoritarian regime in some way. Tony’s wives survive
the city (and his neglect) by forming an alliance to empower themselves within
a polygamous environment by discovering their own capacity for setting seductive
stratagems while providing for their families. The same could be said of
Chiziane’s Delfina in O Alegre Canto. Her journey is from the quayside where she
is a prostitute catering to white sailors in the 1950s, to crossing the invisible line
segregating the white suburbs from the black, only to head north to the Namuli
Mountains after she finds that her black skin will never assimilate her into the
white world of the colonist; the call of her own history and culture as a black
African woman is too strong to be denied.
This «going back» is part of a personal and ethnic liberation process. It
means going back and accepting the wisdom of the ancestors, valuing the
community cohesion forged in the playing out of rites and rituals, as well as the
social bonding that some age-old customs represent — and this at a time when
the rest of the world seems bent on casting away its history as rushes out to live
the here-and-.now. Going back also features in Nosip Maraire’s epistle where the
mother, Shiri, urges her daughter, Zenzele, to learn about her own personal
history in Chakwa where the maternal roots are. She needs to confirm her
identity before she loses sight of herself when she goes off to Columbia University
to study. She should listen when her illiterate but charismatic grandmother tells
her who she is and what the meaning of a woman's life is. She should see her
grandmother’s calloused hands, thus demonstrating how a woman’s power is
more pragmatic in keeping her family and her community together. The hybrid
life of cosmopolitan Harare and the language of the coloniser cannot replace the
symbols, rituals and identity of the Shona people, and Zenzele needs to be made
aware of this before she chooses her path in life. However, going back did not
really work for Elizabeth in A Question of Power. Like her author, Bessie Head,
On another road: women travelling to other centres 167
Elizabeth has a mental breakdown as she struggles to find a niche for herself in
rural Botswana. Her refuge into madness, not only caused by her own traumatic
personal history is a way of rejecting her birth-country's vicious repressive system
and the centuries of suffering caused her indigenous people. It is also a protest
against her host country’s coolness towards her. All this is examined in a long
and excruciatingly painful allegoric journey played out in Elizabeth’s own
imagination.
This descent in madness — or at least obsessive behaviour — is also patent
in Nyaha, Dangarembga’s other heroine, who is the reverse side of Tambudzai
and her eagerness to acquire a Western education. Nyasha is also a hybrid having
lived her childhood in England. She is no longer able to speak her native language
Shona or identify with Shona cultural values; she rejects the strong patriarchal
behaviour and narrow Christian values of her father; she has grown weary of the
conflicts she causes at home by questioning her mother’s and her own subservient
position. Thus, she silences herself almost to death by starving herself while
obsessively throwing herself into her studies and alienating herself from those
around her. The journey back has disempowered her in much the same way that
Buchi Emecheta’s Kehinde was silenced and oppressed by an Igbo culture grown
foreign to her (particularly the polygamous condition she finds herself in on
her return to Nigeria after almost 17 years in London). She returns to London to
start over again, alone, fighting against the odds, acquiring further education,
changing her profession, earning the respect of her children and finding love
again. She becomes self-sufficient and an active member of the (migrant)
community on the fringe of standard British society. But all this has to happen
away from her birth place.
Hence, we find that although immigrating to another country comes with
financial comfort whether in the form of wealthy parents or a scholarship, the
return is generally traumatic. Muriel/Miriam in Between two Worlds, does not
go back to her home country, Lesotho. She stays in Johannesburg, her adopted
city, the microcosm representing Apartheid South Africa. She discovers she is not
the only immigrant working in the electrical appliance firm. Most of her co-
workers are migrants; her boss is a Jewish refugee Europe; the Italian mechanics
who want to hire her are white economic immigrants. She knows that ultimately
speaking, white immigrants to a racist regime work against her as surely as if
they were the Boers in power, represented in this microcosm by the white female
clerical workers and the white electricians repairing the appliances. As an
educated black woman, her dignity and independence is preserved when she
chooses to walk out of the door into unemployment.
Without a single exception, one of the driving forces behind all the journeys
made by these women lies in acquiring an education or using the education they
168 Vicky Hartnack
15 Ellen Kuzwayo, Sindiwe Magona, Bessie Head’s Elizabeth, Tsitsi Danagremba’s Babmakuru and
Maiguru who are Nyash’a parents and Tambudzai’s uncle and aunt, Nozip Maraire’s Shiri who
is Zenzele’s mother, Chimamanda Adichie’s Ifeoma, who is Kambili’s. beloved aunt, Margaret
Ogola’s Elizabeth Owiti (Wandia’s mother); Marjorie Macoye’s Paulina who is a crafts teacher.
On another road: women travelling to other centres 169
San (Basarwa) in Botwana are also singled out for harassment and repression.
Kambili’s father, an influential Igbo newspaper editor is poisoned presumably by
a federal Government agent and Aunt Ifoema is forced into exile for her outspoken
criticism of the regime. Ellen Kuzwayo lands up in prison for supporting Steve
Biko, her son’s friend, and joining in the Soweto children’s protest. Sinde Magona
is held for questioning by the feared ‘special branch’ of the Apartheid police as
she joins in the slum clearance protests and school-children’s strikes. Cousin
Linda in Rhodesia in Zenzele, goes to Tanzania for freedom-fighter training and
Elizabeth/Bessie Head crosses the border to Botswana and never returns, so
hateful has her persecution by the South African secret police been.
Tambudzai, on the other hand, has seen that she has to «cross over» and
take advantage of the opening white society gives her, just as Delfina’s daughter
Maria Jacinta does when she marries a white man in colonial Mozambique. Delfina
herself has become assimilated because of the benefits it will bring her. She
has been the driving force behind José dos Montes, her first black husband’s
assimilation and integration into the feared and fearsome colonial police force
bent on wiping out all hostile black faces. But Delfina’s rationale is interesting
in its contradiction: she thinks if no one were black, the killing, repression and
segregation would stop. She only realises how wrong she has been in her dream
of a hybrid mestiço when she sets off to find her black daughter, Maria das Dores,
whom she had sold into a polygamous marriage to an old man. Even after
independence, the destruction of social and cultural barriers does not happen
because new classes are established and the divide line continues to be economic
and political. Only Zazah Khuzwayo seems blithely unaware of class, colour or
ethnic group — befitting in a country that prides itself on the epithet of Rainbow
nation.
multiple wives; his male children may take precedence over his wife/wives; he
may demand his daughters undergo clitorodectomy and have his wife killed if
she commits adultery; he may entirely disregard the wishes and aspirations of
the female family members and enforce his own desires. But he must do so within
the limits of the community laws. He may not commit incest, sell his children
into prostitution, abandon his family or jeopardise the health and lives of its
members by committing excesses. However, when the good governance of the
clan breaks down due to dispersion, war, catastrophe or abnormal states such as
colonialism, then violence may become way of life — particularly if it helps an
outside hegemonic power. Bessie Head makes this clear in A Question of Power,
where Dan — the virile but lewd black man with his 71 concubines who lives in
her temporarily insane imagination, represents South Africa’s violent and
repressive colonial history. And Margaret Ogola’s matriarchal figure,
Nyabera/Maria, in River at the Source shows that divided clans with tyrannical
chiefs such as Otieno Kembo, also crumble into anarchy. Hence, when order is
absent because the community has failed to function as such, women have to
safeguard their own and their family’s protection on an individual basis, as
witnessed when Zhizha’s mother in Under the Tongue kills her rapist husband.
The degree of abnormality is made more obscene when women help to
subjugate other women. Paulina Chiziane in O Canto Alegre da Perdiz, describes
how Delfina sold her 13 year-old daughter, Maria das Dores, into a polygamous
marriage for the sake of a small sum of money which was promptly spent on
liquor. Kambili, Nyasha and Zazah’s mothers passively looked the other way or
went silent when their husbands beat or sexually abused their daughters. Paulina,
Kehinde and Ellen Kuzwayo, received the cold shoulder from their families when
they decided they could not live with the intolerable situations their husbands
had created. Nonetheless, the extended families of the male partners still came
out in favour of errant husbands and fathers even if they failed to live up to their
duties, abandoning or neglecting their families as happened with Sindiwe
Magona, or Rami and the other informal wives in Niketche, with Kehinde and
with Zazah Khuzwayo’s mother.
Fortunately, not all fathers and husbands fall into these categories but
perhaps only Muriel’s husband and Zezele’s father come out in a favourable light.
When set against the younger generation of women, the men appear less in
control, almost passive, somewhat silent. After all, the colonial situation made
victims out of all black men as well. The only man to get up and move off in his
own direction is Delfina’s white common-law husband when he has had enough
and goes back to his white wife in Portugal. He can afford to. He represents the
white colonist — albeit benevolent father to his half-caste children — with his
roots in his homeland.
On another road: women travelling to other centres 171
Despite the odds, all the narratives are success stories showing how the main
female protagonists making the outward journey have arrived at their own inner
selves. Because their bodies, their identities are not static sites of oppression,
they have been able to create their own conditions for building their otherness.
They have shattered the destinies that were fixed for them in patriarchal
contexts and have gone out alone to find their new, less shackled womanhood.
The physical journey to other localities to be educated or to work, the social and
cultural journeys leading to cosmopolitanism and learning how to survive in other
realities, and the psychological journey to consolidating notions of their own self-
worth and self confidence have led to self expression. Thus, rather than being
hindered by the myths, the politicised explanations and the historical content,
the moral, pedagogical note is heightened. The story-telling seems to spur other
women to journey out and find their voices, too.
Conclusion
Whether it is in writing their autobiographies, their mythobiographies,
biomythographies, allegories, epistles or stories, the authors who have written
about these women and their struggle to break their alterity and be heard, have
also recovered their historical space once occupied by oral story-telling. The
writers’ journeys, therefore, just as their heroines’ journeys, have been in the
sense of creating their own space, destroying what seemed to be the hegemonic
male presence in African literature. Their work has come up with some refreshing
alternative views as they themselves made their way from the rural areas to the
city and thence, very often, to other worlds in the great the Diaspora. Far from
adopting Western stances related to gender issues, they have worked within the
storehouse of their own memories, experiences and struggles in colonial and
post-colonial settings. Furthermore, they have fashioned surprising new aesthetic
patterns into which they have woven new linguistic uses and symbolic meanings.
It is not so much writing back to a man’s world, as striking out along a different
path to self-discovery, self-assertion and self-expression.
“(…) it is the concept of silence, not any specific cultural concept of
meaning, which is the active characteristic linking all post-colonial texts.
It is the same silence which also challenges metropolitan notions of
polysemity, and which resists the absorption of post-colonial literatures
into the new universalist paradigms which emerge in the wake of post-
structuralist accounts of language and text."
The Empire Writes Back (1989,2004: 184-5)
172 Vicky Hartnack
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On another road: women travelling to other centres 173
A
s comunicações reunidas nesta secção tratam de turismo e de expedições
e do modo como essas duas formas de viagem modelam a experiência
humana do espaço e a imagem que se faz do mundo. Talvez possa parecer
insólito juntar sob o mesmo foco turistas e exploradores e os discursos por eles
produzidos. A verdade, porém, é que há bastante mais em comum neles do que
à primeira vista se julga. É a curiosidade, traduzida num desejo de descobrir e
de revelar, que normalmente motiva turistas e exploradores e os lança na viagem.
A relação entre viajar, conhecer e desvendar é também, por isso, o principal
traço de união entre os nove textos que se seguem.
Dois artigos com a capacidade de nos desafiarem a pensar teoricamente as
relações que há entre o viajar, o descobrir e o revelar abrem esta secção. O pri-
meiro é um artigo de José Ramiro Pimenta que escolhe as viagens de S. Paulo
para tema. O segundo, um artigo de Emilia Ljungberg sobre o livro de François
Maspero Les passagers du Roissy-Express. São dois textos que, de certa forma,
questionam a ontologia da viagem e o sentido que a descoberta tem nela,
colocando para isso o turismo e as expedições ao espelho, diante das suas
próprias imagens invertidas. As viagens espirituais de S. Paulo são expedições a
contrario sensu, nascidas de uma necessidade de revelar e não de uma vontade
de descobrir, e o mesmo se passa até certo ponto no caderno de viagens de
François Maspero dedicado à gente vulgar que circula nos comboios dos subúrbios
de Paris e à paisagem ferroviária do RER, onde o longínquo e exótico cedem lugar
ao ordinário e banal.
Os cadernos de viagem são o tópico de dois outros artigos desta secção, um
da autoria de Ana Francisca de Azevedo e o outro de Anna Maj. Trazendo a público
excertos dos seus próprios apontamentos de viagem, Ana Francisca de Azevedo
178
Eduardo Brito-Henriques
Centro de Estudos Geográficos
IGOT, Universidade de Lisboa
Travel books and scientific explorations: from body
to theory
and acts of negociation take shape, and where excentric and subaltern identities
fractures the logic of a coherent and objective space.
And this is a great challenge for a discipline traditionally worried with
questions of diversity and diffusion, redirected now to questions of diference
and to identity politics that open the possibility for more inclusive institutions
and public debates, having into account an idea of culture not as an organic
whole but as a structure of feelings. Thinking space in those terms implies having
it as an articulation of collisions between speech, fantasy and corporeality,
between representations and material reality. Such a formulation upgrades the
complexity of space, allocating this notion as a potentially unstable and contro-
verse construct. Having into account the relations between conceptualized,
perceived and lived space, this formulation, in a certain sense, accentuates the
dominant logics of power, truth and knowledge, but at the same time, it functions
as a force which continually gets at stake with the generative logics of differential
practices of space.
Bibliography
Azevedo, A. F. (2001). ‘A ideia de paisagem. Contributos de um discurso viajante’. Margens
e Confluências, 3, p. 721.
Azevedo, A. F. (2002). ‘Investigação geográfica em Cinema. Fragmentos de uma outra
narrativa espacial’. Comunicação apresentada nas IV Jornadas de Geografia e Planea-
mento. Guimarães: Universidade do Minho.
Azevedo, A. F. (2004b). ‘Representação de espaço e paisagem no cinema de Manoel de
Oliveira’. Comunicação apresentada nas Actas do V Congresso da Geografia Portu-
guesa. Guimarães: Universidade do Minho.
Azevedo, A. F. (2005a). ‘A ideia de paisagem: pré-figurações geográficas de uma experiên-
cia estética da modernidade’. Actas do X Colóquio Ibérico da Geografia — A Geografia
ibérica no contexto europeu. Évora: Associação Portuguesa de Geógrafos e Universi-
dade de Évora.
Azevedo, A. F. (2005b). ‘Silencing the land: Portuguese cinema of the silent period’. Actas
of IGU Commission: The Cultural Approach in Geography — Geographies and the
Media. Leipzig: International Geographical Union.
Azevedo, A. F. (2006). ‘Geografia e Cinema’. In J. Sarmento, A. F. Azevedo e J. R. Pimenta,
coord., Ensaios de Geografia Cultural, p. 5980. Porto e Lisboa: Figueirinhas.
Azevedo, A.F. (2008). A Ideia de Paisagem. Porto e Lisboa: Figueirinhas.
Bruno, G. (2002). Atlas of Emotion. Journeys in Art, Architecture, and Film. New York:
Verso.
Deleuze, G e F. Guattari (1988). A Thousand Plateaus: capitalism and schizofrenia. London:
Athlone.
Deleuze, G. (2002). Cinema. 1 — The Movement Image. London: The Athlone Press.
Derrida, J. (1993). Aporias. Stanford: University Press Stanford.
Haraway, D. (1991). Simians, cyborgs and women: the reinvention of nature. New York:
Routledge.
Haraway, D. (2004). The Haraway Reader. London e New York: Routledge.
Kracauer, S. (1997). Theory of film: the redemption of physical reality. New Jersey
e Chichester: Princeton University Press.
Panofsky, E (1982). Meaning in the visual arts. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Sobchack, V. (1994). ‘Phenomenology and the Film Experience’. In Williams, L., ed.,
Wiewing Positions. Ways of Seeing Film, p. 36-58. New Brunswick (N.J.): Rutgers
University Press.
Whatmore, S. (2002). Hybrid geographies. London, Thousand Oaks e New Delhi: Sage
Publications.
Paradise, plenitude, savagery, and sin: traveller’s
tales of Amazonia, 16th century to the present
incorporated into grand narratives2, stories that sequentially relate events, and
which may come to constitute histories of particular places. Grand narratives
also transmit concepts about places, if ‘place’ is considered as a locale that is
lived-in, experienced, and is understood as historically contingent3. In so far as
places demand a participant in order to hold meaning, places and people are co-
constitutive.
Returning from Amazonia, early travellers described places, remote and
exotic, that became fixed in the Western imaginary as wild, pristine, and above
all, alien to Western culture, values, and knowledge. The present study explores
how Europeans’ initial encounters with the Amazon as a place have contributed
to modern conceptions of the Amazon as static, homogenous, exotic, and
untamed, and how this discourse has featured in the construction of three
Amazonian places: the bountiful and exuberant forest; the fierce, untamed
jungle; and the beautiful and exotic paradise.
2 Grand narratives can be distinguished from local or particularistic narratives, which address
problems referring to specific times and places without reference to general models, and can
be presented as instances of general rules.
3 This conception of ‘place’ has been inspired by the reading of a number of humanistic geogra-
phers: Tim Cresswell, Place: A Short Introduction (Oxford: Blackwell, 2006), D. Parkes and Nigel
Thrift, "Putting Time in Its Place," In Making Sense of Time, eds. T. Carlstein, D. Parkes and
Nigel Thrift (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1978), Alan Pred, Making Histories and Constructing
Human Geographies (Boulder, Co.: Westview Press, Inc., 1990), Edward Relph, Place and
Placelessness (London: Pion, 1976).
Paradise, plenitude, savagery, and sin: traveller’s tales of Amazonia, 16th century to the present 193
America as a place in which a state of war could be observed. In the very act of
defining man’s state of nature as condition of constant war, Hobbes constructs
Amazonia as a savage place.
La Condamine’s journey is a scientific venture, but his descent of the river
is in part motivated by mythical appeal. The scientist’s pursuit of the myth of El
Dorado betrays his commercial interest in the land, as does his keen eye for
Amazonia’s natural resources. The land’s fertility, floral and faunal diversity, and
the presence of semi-precious stone make this fierce jungle a land of plenty, a
place that must be subdued so that its riches can be reaped.
Scientific study of the Amazon matured in the 18th and early 19th Centuries,
through the work of naturalists such as Alexander von Humboldt and Carl
Friedrich Phillip von Martius. In the absence of historical texts, and with archaeo-
logical investigations still far in the future, Amazonia’s past could only be studied
within the context of its present. Working at the mouth of the Casiquiari in the
Guianas, Humboldt recorded the course of the river, the nature of flora and
fauna, and the practices and material culture of indigenous peoples (Barreto and
Machado; Hemming). The first to consider the origins of Amazonian peoples,
Humboldt postulated the existence of a primitive race that might have descended
from Asia (Barreto and Machado).
Von Martius composed what can be termed the first evolutionist narrative
of Amazonian origins (Barreto and Machado). Von Martius’ ethnographic work
correlated linguistic and socio-cultural data from across the Brazilian Amazon to
arrive at a model of great antiquity for the occupation of South America. Relying
on Humboldt’s one-race theory, von Martius proposed that South American groups
devolved from an ancient high culture, evidenced by Andean ruins, and possible
undiscovered lowland ruins (Barreto and Machado). Von Martius and Humboldt
were the first to propose that Amazonia had a deep history, and thus for both,
Amazonia was a complex and dynamic place.
Enter the Archaeologist. Both the idea of cultural devolution and that
of foreign introduction of cultural aspects were picked up by archaeologist Betty
J. Meggers in the 20th Century. Meggers explained the presence of materials
indicative of high culture in Amazonian archaeological remains through theories
of diffusion from other regions or continents. The lack of such attributes in
ethnographic data was explained by devolution (Meggers "A Pre-Columbian
Colonization of the Amazon"; Meggers Amazonia: Man and Culture in a Counterfeit
Paradise; Meggers "Judging the Future by the Past: The Impact of Environmental
Instability on Amazonian Populations"; Meggers "The Continuing Quest for
El-Dorado: Round Two"). By attributing evidence of social complexity to foreign,
long-lost cultures, Meggers was able to claim that contemporary Amazonian tribes
Paradise, plenitude, savagery, and sin: traveller’s tales of Amazonia, 16th century to the present 195
General trajectories
Of noble savages and pristine parklands. The attitudes of Carvajal and
Acuña echo Marshall Sahlins’ survey of European missionaries’ conceptions of
Native Hawaiians, ca. 1820-40, as either “heathens” to be saved, or “stupid
heathens” to be civilized (6). This distinction is somewhat analogous to the that
between Rousseau’s noble savages, who exist in an innocent state of nature, and
Hobbes’ savages, whose brutish lives consist of war. These seemingly contra-
dictory conceptions share a common point of departure: that Indigenous peoples,
considered uncivilized before European ideals, were ruled by, and a part of,
nature.
The idea that indigenous peoples’ impact on environments is negligible is
ubiquitous in European thought (Locke; Rousseau; see also Mann). This notion,
expressed by Acuña in his desire to tame the Amazon, was already embedded in
European thought by the time of Locke’s discourse on property, written ca. 1681,
196 Anna T. Browne Ribeiro
which sets down criteria by which land can be said to be one’s property: “as
much land as a man tills, plants, improves, cultivates, and can use the products
of, so much is his property” (Locke 276). The examples used to contrast this
civilized act of tillage include gathering acorns and shooting deer, food
procurement strategies associated in the text with the “Indian” (Locke 275).
This early instantiation of the concept of mastery over nature, phrased in
Locke’s treatise as the duty to “subdue the earth,” became the touchstone
of European evaluation of Indigenous effect on, and possession of, land (Mann;
Williams). Notably, this dichotomy suggested by Locke is reminiscent of the
anthropological categories of hunter-gatherer and agriculturalist, which in the
time of V. Gordon Childe (What Happened in History; Man Makes Himself) were
associated with “savagery” and “civilization”, respectively. When Childe wrote
his thesis on the beginnings of civilization, hunter-gatherers were considered
savages, who passively extracted products from natural environments.
Agriculturalists, on the other hand, were seen as peoples who had found ways to
control nature. Although explicit philosophical or theoretical links between
agriculture and civilization were never made, dominant anthropological tropes
that explained civilization as the result of an evolutionary progression from
savagery (dependence on the environment), through barbarism (some environ-
mental control), and to civilization (total environmental control) effectively
cemented this relationship. The idea of control over nature as a necessary quality
of civilization, indeed, of civilization as the rejection of nature, has been so
fundamental in anthropological thought that it has been invoked as recently as
the 1970s (Levi-Strauss). The terms savage and civilized were eventually replaced
by simple and complex, but the basic dichotomy remains in use today.
Notions of the Amazon as pristine parkland have come under fire in the
last two decades, particularly through the efforts of geographers and archaeolo-
gists working in the region. Erickson and Balée (Balée; Balée and Erickson;
Erickson "Lomas De Ocupación En Los Llanos De Moxos"; Erickson "The Domesticated
Landscape of the Bolivian Amazon") have determined that certain parts of Bolivia
consists of landscapes almost entirely constructed by human hands. Heckenberger
("Manioc Agriculture and Sedentism in Amazonia: The Upper Xingu Example"; "Of
Lost Civilizations and Primitive Tribes, Amazonia: Reply to Meggers"; The Ecology
of Power: Culture, Place, and Personhood in the Southern Amazon, A. D. 1000-
2000) and Neves ("Twenty Years of Amazonian Archaeology in Brazil (1977-1997)";
"Changing Perspectives in Amazonian Archaeology"; "Duas Interpretações Para
Explicar a Ocupação Pré-Histórica Na Amazônia") working in the Upper Xingu and
Central Amazon, respectively, have discovered monumental earthworks, plazas,
and ditches that reveal that much of what is seen today is likely secondary cover,
not primary forest as had been thought for decades. Furthermore, such earthworks
Paradise, plenitude, savagery, and sin: traveller’s tales of Amazonia, 16th century to the present 197
Works Cited
Balée, W. "Indigenous Transformation of Amazonian Forests — an Example from Maranhao,
Brazil." Homme 33.2-4 (1993): 231-54.
Balée, W., and C. Erickson, eds. Time and Complexity in Historical Ecology. New York:
Columbia University Press, 2004.
Barreto, Cristiana, and Juliana Machado. "Exploring the Amazon, Explaining the Unknown:
Views from the Past " Unknown Amazon: Culture in Nature in Ancient Brazil. Eds.
Colin McEwan, Cristiana Barreto and Eduardo Goes Neves. London: British Museum
Press, 2001. 232-51.
Carneiro, Robert L. "The Cultivation of Manioc among the Kuikuru Indians of the Upper
Xingu." Adaptive Responses of Native Amazonians. Eds. R. Hames and W. T. Vickers.
New York: Academic Press, 1983. 65-111.
———. "Slash-and-Burn Cultivation among the Kuikuru and Its Implications for Cultural
Development in the Amazon Basin." The Evolution of Horticultural Systems in Native
South America: Causes and Consequences, a Symposium. Ed. J. Wilbert. Caracas: Socie-
dad de Ciencias Naturales La Salle. Antropológica, Supplement Publication 2., 1961.
———. "Subsistence and Social Structure: An Ecological Study of the Kuikuru Indians."
University of Michigan, 1957.
Childe, Vere Gordon. Man Makes Himself. England, 1936. New York: New American Library
of World Literature, 1951.
Paradise, plenitude, savagery, and sin: traveller’s tales of Amazonia, 16th century to the present 199
Neves, E. G., et al. "Historical and Socio-Cultural Origins of Amazonian Dark Earths."
Amazonian Dark Earths: Origins, Properties, Management. Eds. J. Lehmann, et al.
Dordrecht: Kluwer Academics, 2003.
Parkes, D., and Nigel Thrift. "Putting Time in Its Place." In Making Sense of Time. Eds. T.
Carlstein, D. Parkes and Nigel Thrift. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1978. 119-29.
Pred, Alan. Making Histories and Constructing Human Geographies. Boulder, Co.: Westview
Press, Inc., 1990.
Raleigh, Sir Walter. Discovery of Guiana. Voyages of Elizabethan Seamen to America.
London: E. J. Payne, 1880.
Relph, Edward. Place and Placelessness. London: Pion, 1976.
Roosevelt, Anna Curtenius. Amazonian Indians from Prehistory to the Present:
Anthropological Perspectives. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1994.
———. "Chiefdoms in the Amazon and Orinoco." Chiefdoms in the Americas. Eds. R. D.
Drennan and C. Uribe. Boston: University Press of America, 1987. 153-85.
———. Moundbuilders of the Amazon: Geophysical Archaeology on Marajó Island, Brazil.
San Diego: Academic Press, 1991.
———. Parmana: Prehistoric Maize and Manioc Subsistence Along the Amazon and Orinoco.
New York: Academic Press, 1982.
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. Political Writings: Discourse on Inequality. Indianapolis: Hackett,
1987 [1755].
Sahlins, Marshall. Historical Ethnography. Anahulu: The Anthropology of History in the
Kingdom of Hawaii 1. 2 Vols. . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992.
Williams, Jr., Robert A. The American Indian in Western Legal Throught: The Discourses
of Conquest. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.
The discourse of high-tech tourists and the change
of perceptual paradigm in travel writing
ANNA MAJ
University of Silesia, Katowice, Poland
1 Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (A School of American Research
Advanced Seminar). Ed. J. Clifford, G.E. Marcus. University of California Press. Berkeley, Los
Angeles, London 1986; J. Clifford: The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography,
Literature, and Art. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA 1988.
206 Anna Maj
of Web 2.0 trend and the methods of communications such as social bookmarking,
social tagging or grassroots journalism.
Today Internet has become the reason why people travel. While for some
globetrotters the possibility of writing a blog or creating their own website and
online gallery is only a travelling aid, a substitute for telephone conversations
with the family, for others it becomes the whole point and aim of the trip. This
other group can be described as high-tech travellers’ due to the high degree of
mediatisation of that sort of travel. The Internet reflects the state of travelling
consciousness characteristic of the contemporary tourist-generating societies.
They have easier access to new technologies than most host societies receiving
guests. The division of the world delineated above can also be seen very clearly
in the many travel blogs, frequently created in the very places where connecting
to the Internet requires some effort and research, or is sometimes simply impossi-
ble, delaying communication.2 Typically, backpackers’ dreams are paradoxical:
they would like to travel through countries that are at the same time wild and
fully connected to the Net. No Internet access and no possibility of presenting
information in a blog, sending pictures or writing a note to the website often
becomes a reason to worry for the sender and recipients involved, it becomes
synonymous with not being able to communicate. Some interesting remarks on
the subject, in the context of the tsunami in Thailand, are to be found, for instance,
in Alex's Travel Blog.3 “Silence” makes readers worry about the bloggers fate.
It is to be noted, however, that problems with communication form a part of the
paradigm of backpacking with a laptop, making it dynamic and adventurous.4
It is also one of the important topics of the stories communicated from afar.
By using the laptop, blogging travellers create the discourse of an uneven devel-
opment of the world in the era of globalisation. Its media appeal is very low and
so it is virtually absent from mass media as such.
2 This problem is highlighted, by, among others, Christina Valhouli in her article on travel blogs
that accompanies their ranking in “Forbes Magazine”. C. Valhouli: Travel Feature. Best Travel
Blogs. “Forbes Magazine” 10.02.2003. URL: http://www.forbep.com/2003/10/02/cx_cv_ 1002
blog.html.
3 Koh Phi Phi, Thailand. W: Alex's Travel Blog. URL: http://www.alexasigno.co.uk.
4 See posts in blogs such as: Hypertext Journal (the first travel blog). URL: http://www.
somewhere.org.uk/hypertext/journal/proj.info/index.html;
Hobo Traveller. URL: http://www. hobotraveller.com/blogger.html;
Four on Tour. URL: http://geocitiep.com/fourontour/;
Ed's Gone South. URL: http://www.edsgonesouth.com/blog/;
Global Walk for Breast Cancer. URL: http://www. globalwalk.org;
V-A-G-A-B-O-N-D-I-N-G. URL: http://www.vagabonding.com.
The discourse of high-tech tourists and the change of perceptual paradigm in travel writing 207
Backpackers are a group of travellers that make the best use of the Internet.
It becomes their basic source of information, a means of communication as well
as the main medium of describing their travel. However, destinations popular
with Western travellers quickly generate new shopping centres in the form of
shops and stalls with a local colour, or even entertainment districts and cheap
hotels, cybercafés, small restaurants and tourist attractions (different, however,
from those aimed at organised tourist groups).5 Outside these districts there are
no high-tech travellers, there is no reason why they should visit places where
“there is nothing”.6 The “nothing” refers, among others, to no Internet access,
Internet being for backpackers the main means of communication as well as a
form of presenting their journey while it is still going on. “Internet equals
civilisation”, this slogan could well become the motto of modern-day travellers,
who feel they must relate the freshly acquired tourist and mystical experiences
in their own blog, or else they will lose some of their value.
“Backpacking with a laptop” theme is very popular on the Thorn Tree Forum,
the main contact point for backpackers from all over the world. It was founded
as an element of the website of Lonely Planet and it brings together the world
backpacker community.7 There are nearly two thousand posts to be found there
related to problems with a laptop while travelling as well as responsibilities
associated with that sort of travelling. The prevailing topics are of a special type,
e.g. visits to cybercafés, equipment tips, dangers connected with carrying around
expensive equipment, methods of preventing any loss of the gear, travel
difficulties linked to the need to carry the laptop, spare memory carriers and
equipment to produce multimedia. Backpackers form a varied group — from
accidental low-budget long-distance travellers to nomadic website designers,
bringing to life ideals of post-geographical mobility.
A laptop is a great travelling companion if you can tolerate the extra
weight & potential theft. Peregrine. Posted: 31
March 2006 6:48 am.
I think carrying a laptop on a backpacker trip would be a load of bricks
that would tie you down and keep you watching for potential theft.
5 M. Cegielski: Niebia ńska pla a, bananowe placki i z odzieje mocy. Travellersi (Heavenly Beach,
Banana Pancakes and Power Thieves. Travellers.) “Du ży Format” — a supplement to “Gazeta
Wyborcza”. 28 September 2003, p. 28-32.
6 Cegielski points to Lonely Planet publishing house as the main “culprit” of the state of affairs.
He writes, among other things: “Lonely Planet finished off Asia […] Undoubtedly, it transformed
hippie paths into «tourist highway»”. Ibid., p. 29-30.
7 Thorn Tree Forum. Lonely Planet. URL: http://thorntree.lonelyplanet.com.
208 Anna Maj
And so the computer moves you away from sensations that have always been
fundamental to the experience of travelling. Many backpackers advise on the
forum not to tell anyone about the equipment you are carrying, rent your own
room and take the laptop out only when the door is locked so that nobody can
see it. By doing so, the traveller puts up a barrier against the outside world (the
one that they have come there to see), because of their mission to inform the
world (the one that they have left behind) about what is going on outside (where
they are not, as they have just put up a barrier against it). This type of travelling
can be called “diary writing in an exotic setting”. It is worth noting that most
8 The thread Backpacking with a Laptop, In: The Thorn Tree, Travel Forum part of the Lonely
Planet website. URL: http://thorntree.lonelyplanet.com.
9 The thread 'Bomb Proof' protection for laptop when travelling. In: The Thorn Tree, Travel
Forum on the Lonely Planet. website. URL: http://thorntree.lonelyplanet.com.
The discourse of high-tech tourists and the change of perceptual paradigm in travel writing 209
blogs carefully conceal the act of writing and the fact that the traveller spends
many hours in cybercafés and locked rooms. Contemporary people seem to find
it increasingly difficult not so much to move away from home, as to move away
from semiosphere and iconosphere, which are a part of everyday life in the
globalised world. The trip itself is not a problem. It is tearing your thoughts away
from home that is difficult. Paradoxically, for those who travel the Net it does
not stand for the world but more for the home. The Internet is becoming a new
electronic environmental bubble.10 It allows to maintain a certain continuity
between everyday life and living on the go. This could prove an advantage as
well as a disadvantage.
The most common problem is finding an answer to the fundamental travelling
question: “Bring the Laptop? Or not?” (which can be seen as a modern-day
paraphrase of Hamlet’s dilemma).11 Both radically pro-technology and anti-
technology attitudes can be observed on The Thorn Tree Forum, but it is positive
opinions on travelling with media that prevail. Further doubts arise as to whether
to take laptop along, especially if the trip is going to be long, possibly un-
comfortable and dangerous or involve activities that may have a disastrous effect
on the condition of the equipment (natural factors such as dust, humidity, frost
or high temperature; factors linked to the traveller’s activity: rafting, trekking,
sailing, climbing, mountain biking, horse riding, mountaineering, etc.). The
problem high-tech travellers face is how to reconcile a wide range of activities
with the desire to record their experience by means of new media. In fact the
question is: “Is it better to travel without limits, but have no means to describe
it, or is it better not to be able to travel everywhere you wish but be able to
recount your adventures without limits?”
Most people I know who own laptops don't travel with them. The reasons
cited: risk of theft, extra space, and just a need to get away from technol-
ogy. Of course, I heard all the same arguments about digital cameras,
electronic dictionaries, PDAs, and mp3 players, and most of the people
who refuse to travel with laptops carry all that gear. Endless_Summer.
Posted: 06 April 2005 00:10 pm.12
Leave the technology at home and travel live in your surroundings. If
necessary, take a few notes and then visit a cybercafe every now and
10 D. Boorstin: The Image. A Guide to Pseudo-Events in America. Harper, New York 1964.
11 The thread Bring the Laptop? Or not? In: The Thorn Tree, Travel Forum on the Lonely Planet
website URL: http://thorntree.lonelyplanet.com.
12 The thread Trekking with a Laptop II. W: The Thorn Tree, Travel Forum on the Lonely Planet
website. URL: http://thorntree.lonelyplanet.com.
210 Anna Maj
The reasons why people decide to take such equipment with them while they
travel are interesting too. Sometimes it is just the habit of reading one’s e-mails
and search the Net on a daily basis. More often, however, it is the desire for self-
expression together with the refusal to suffer a documentary defeat (e.g. the
necessity to see large zooms of your own photos and verify their technical
quality). Being so far-sighted gives one a chance to come back to the given place
and retake some of the photos. It can be seen as a process of professionalising
bloggers’ attitudes towards photography and other content. It can also be seen
as a form of grassroots journalism or citizen journalism, which are an important
element in the development of the information society. This type of journalism
is not usually engaged in by professional journalists or “full-time” travellers,
more typically it is “amateur” (in the sense of positive dilettantism), individual,
unorganised and fully independent social journalism or personal travel publishing.
This grassroots journalism is one of most fundamental phenomena associated
with Web 2.0.
Some of us shoot a hundred or hundreds of photos per day. We need some
way to store our files other than buying thousands of dollars worth of
memory cards or looking for a place to burn CDs every day. And some of
us are quite involved with our photography. We really want to see what
we are getting, not wait until we're home weeks or months later. And
some of us are writers and need to be able to work in the quiet and
privacy of our rooms. We're looking for the best way to deal with our
needs (addictions, if you will ;o). PDAs work for writing to a degree. But
not for photo editing. PHDs with screens work for storage and viewing but
not for editing or critical viewing. Laptops do the job but they're big and
heavy. So that's what some of us are lugging along. It's not for everyone,
but for some. BobTrips Posted: 05 April 2006 08:07 pm.14
There are blogger-travellers who reduce all their tourist gear to the absolute
minimum in order to be able to take along equipment they use to document their
travels. A radical approach to this problem is presented by Michael Pugh, an
American who travelled through Asia and East Africa for over a year (2002-2003).
Pugh took it all very seriously. Equipped with a good deal of media gear, he sets
out and realises a truly journalistic passion, creating a new media journey in the
13 The thread Taking a Laptop for the Rugged Travel. W: The Thorn Tree, Travel Forum on the
Lonely Planet website. URL: http://thorntree.lonelyplanet.com.
14 The thread Backpacking with a Laptop. W: The Thorn Tree, Travel Forum on the Lonely Planet
website. URL: http://thorntree.lonelyplanet.com. Own translation, original spelling.
The Discourse of high-tech tourists and the change of perceptual paradigm in travel writing 211
form of a blog called V-A-G-A-B-O-N-D-I-N-G. The blog has won many prestigious
awards including among others, a “Forbes Magazine” award. With time, it has
become a website containing a rich archive documenting the author’s travels. It
is a multimedia archive, like the travel it recounts. Equipment is a very important
element of this expedition, its importance proven by the fact that it is devoted
a separate section of the website.
Equipment
What equipment do I use to produce Vagabonding.com? What about
software? How do I carry everything? What about security? Why am I
always wearing a blue shirt and grey pants? Read on, curious traveller.15
The blogger cites all the equipment he used to create the travelog. It is a terrify-
ingly long list for a journey summed up in the following motto: “one person, one
year, one world”. It is worth noticing that it was a solitary expedition, without
any external logistical support. There is no need to quote the list in its entirety
and discuss in detail particular items, it is enough to enumerate them to get
an idea of what a new media journey is. The blogger took along a laptop, a
camcorder, a cordless microphone, a camera and camcorder tripod with an extra
head, a digital camera for underwater photography together with extra batteries
and a memory card, external memory, an optical mouse, as well as a set of cables
and adaptors. To protect his equipment Pugh used a laptop cover, a waterproof
camera cover, a protective net with an option to padlock the equipment to a
piece of furniture and a set of waterproof bags. Also, the equipment was insured.
When it comes to software, one should mention professional software packages
to create websites, manage their content, handle a photo gallery, edit video
files, compress video files to formats suitable for the Internet, edit photos and
edit sound.
Apart from all this equipment and software, the high-tech backpackers’
backpack contained a set of things according to the list that will be quoted in its
entirety because of its radicalism. It is to be remembered here that the trip
lasted for over a year:
Clothing
I balance out my big electronics rig with a minimalist clothing kit:
3 collared shirts
1 pair pants
1 swimsuit/shorts
two pair socks
two pair underwear
While blog communication on the whole obscures the ideas of private and
public, individual and group and ideas of fact and fiction, the moblog, in
turn, enlarges the idea of the shared instant experience. The very
characteristic of the moblogging is instantaneous, since it provides a place
and possibility to send personal views and flashes of one’s instant moments
in a world around him and share these experiences by communicating with
other people.19
Koskela and Arminen distinguish four types of moblogs in view of two basic
elements, their attractiveness and responsiveness.20 The first of the features is
assessed on the basis of visit statistics (the number of hits, that is, visits to the
page), the other is connected with the statistics of comments following posts
(the number of users’ comments in reaction to posts, that is, blogger’s contribu-
tions). The moblog taxonomy presented by Finnish researchers is an example of
communicative and ethnographic approach. The four types of moblogs described
display functions differing according to the type of interaction they provoke.
The function of the first type of blog is to store data, the second type — to
share, the third type — publish, the fourth type — to communicate.21 A blog that
does not attract readers and so does not generate any sort of commentary, is a
monologue blog, functioning as a sort of archive. A blog giving rise to some sort
of reaction among the blogger’s close ones, and sometimes their commentaries,
is the blog of the second type. Its ability to attract attention of people from
outside is very limited, but a small group using the blog as a means of communi-
cation can have short conversations. The main aim here is to share experiences
and photographs in a small group of friends or family. The third type of moblog
is characterised by a larger audience (watching and reading) but a low level of
audience activity (no or occasional commentary). It performs a function similar
to other types of personal websites supporting self-expression or exhibitionism
— of the contributor. The last type is a blog that is fully dialogue-based, allowing
a large group of interested persons to communicate (it is both attractive and
conducive to discussions). It is this type of blog that the majority of popular blogs
belong to. They generate a community discussing a given subject. This typology
could be applied to other types of blogs. In the case of moblogs, however, the
dynamics of communication is higher, for their mobile character increases
the instantness and triggers emotions or is connected with the blogger’s isolation.
19 Ibid., p. 74-75.
20 Ibid., p. 77.
21 Ibid., p. 77-88.
214 Anna Maj
What is interesting, as well as surprising, is the fact that the Finnish re-
searchers do not discuss the cases where moblogs are used while travelling,
although this communication tool is most suitable in those circumstances. Many
cases of mobile phone put to similar use could be found. It is worth mentioning
here Rod Baber’s moblog The Call of the Mountain reporting on the expedition
to Mount Everest. The author sent to the blog website short notes as well as
photos and sound recordings documenting the process of going to the top. It is
worth noticing the slogan that advertised this project as “the world highest
moblog” as well as the idea of creating the blog in order to break communication
barriers using a mobile telephone (the blog is sponsored by Motorola). What is
also interesting is the climber’s motivation. He wrote: “I’m heading for to the top
of Mount Everest to make a telephone conversation and send a text message from
the highest point in the world”.22 This is an example of a complete subjection
of travelling motivation to technology and means of communication available.
Information sent to the website is scant, it forms a sort of micro-traces. It might
even sound like information waste, signs from the mountaineer’s “high mountain
rubbish heap”.
It is all the more significant in view of the fact that millions of blogs available
on the Net are electronic rubbish, abandoned by its owners. In 2004 editors of
Merriam-Webster found that “blog” is the most commonly searched word in the
website; as a consequence this lexeme was added to the printed version of the
dictionary. However, as early as June 2007 over 200 million authors called them-
selves ex-bloggers, and one blog in four turned out to be a “one-day miracle”.23
Microblogs are a material that can be analysed from the perspective of micro-
logical research. In his sketch concerning the scope of such research, Aleksander
Nawarecki does not exclude waste and incidental forms from the area of interest
of micrology. And so both microblogs and moblogs could make an interesting
reading for a micrologist, researching marginalities, particles and “dissipation of
dispersed information”.24
Bibliography
Boorstin, Daniel: The Image. A Guide to Pseudo-Events in America. Harper, New York 1964.
Brady, Mark: Blogging, personal participation in public knowledge-building on the web.
Chimera Working Paper 2005-02. Colchester 2005, p. 10.
URL: <http://www.essex.ac.uk/chimera/publicationp.html>.
Burkot, Stanis awł: Polskie podróżopisarstwo romantyczne. (Polish Romantic Travel
Writing) Warszawa 1988.
Cegielski, Max: Niebiańska pla a, bananowe placki i z odzieje mocy. Travellersi (Heavenly
Beach, Banana Pancakes
żłand Power Thieves. Travellers.) „Du ży Format” — a supplement to „Gazeta Wyborcza”.
28 September 2003, p. 28-32.
Clifford, James: The Predicamentof Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature,
and Art. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA 1988.
Clifford, James, George E. Marcus (eds.): Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics
of Ethnography (A School of American Research Advanced Seminar). University of
California Press. Berkeley, Los Angeles, London 1986.
Koskela, Inka, Arminen Illka: Attractiveness and Responsiveness of Moblogs. “Observatorio
(OBS*) Journal”, 2007, nr 3, p. 73-91.
Millions of Dead Blogs Won't Stop Blogging, 6 June 2007. [In:] Bloggers Blog.
URL: <http://www.bloggersblog.com/cgi-bin/bloggersblog.pl?bblog=606071>.
Nawarecki, Aleksander: Mikrologia, genologia, miniatura. (Micrology, genology and
miniature) [In:] Miniatura i mikrologia.(Miniature and micrology) T. 1. Ed. Aleksander
Nawarecki. Katowice 2000.
Stokes, Trevor: Dead Blogs. Cyberspace Filling up with Online, Abandoned Diaries. [In:]
“Times Daily” [online] 2007, 4 June.
URL: <http://www.timesdaily.com/apps/pbcp.dll/article?AID=/20070604/NEWS/
706040314/1/BUSINESS01>.
Valhouli, Christina: Travel Feature. Best Travel Blogp. “Forbes Magazine” 10.02.2003. URL:
<http://www.forbep.com/2003/10/02/cx_cv_1002blog.html>.
Sources:
BliinYourLIVE! URL: <http://www.bliin.com>.
Ed's Gone South. URL: <http://www.edsgonesouth.com/blog>.
EveryTrail. URL: <http://www.everytrail.com>.
Four on Tour. URL: <http://geocitiep.com/fourontour>.
Global Walk for Breast Cancer. URL: <http://www.globalwalk.org>.
Hobo Traveller. URL: <http://www.hobotraveller.com/blogger.html>.
The Discourse of high-tech tourists and the change of perceptual paradigm in travel writing 217
EMILIA LJUNGBERG
Centre for Media, Communication and Journalism, Lund University
provides parody. The idea of conventional tourism, but also earlier journeys, is
used as a contrast to their planned journey and thus comes to emphasise the
oddity of their project. When waiting for the train that will take them to the
airport, a foul smell reaches them. Maspéro compares the smell to that of the
sea breeze which reached earlier day seafarers. He writes;
François likes the moment in accounts of great ocean voyages when the
author breathes for the first time the smell of unknown lands […] Jean-
Louis Vaudoyer, heading for Havana on a handsome steamer sixty years
ago, tells how ‘once we crossed the Tropic of Cancer, the breath of
the West Indies filled the air with an organic fragrance.’ But you don’t
have to cross a Tropic to enjoy such a sensation: an organic aroma wafts
permanently around Châtelet-Les Halles […] Anaïk is sure that it’s the
sewers. (Maspéro 4)
This parodic comparison between other journeys and that of Maspéro and Frantz
is repeated when they reach the first hotel. The view of the highway that their
hotel room offers is compared to the typical touristic ocean view. Maspéro writes:
“in the morning they return to their cherished sun-soaked terrace. Speeding past
just a few metres away behind the glass screen, the stream of HGVs is still
dizzying…This hotel, says Anaïk, is by the motorway as others are by the sea. The
terrace is the beach. The roar of the cars is the ocean. This blue sky even seems
to contain a shade of Atlantic grey. And the traffic fumes sting your eyes like sea
spray.” (Maspéro 46) This can be seen both as another way of emphasising the
oddity of their journey and simultaneously as an attempt to make it an anti-tour
that differs from the desires of tourists to seek the beautiful and comfortable.
Tourism thus functions in two ways; conventional travel is evoked as a
reassuring context while it is simultaneously used as a means of parody. These
two functions are intimately connected; their journey through the Paris suburbs
is a “real” journey but it is one in which the parody is always present. Maspéro
also distances them from tourism more explicitly, in order to define their role as
Parisians in the banlieue, when he states that they are not “wide-eyed tourists”.
(Maspéro 15)
The French Studies scholar Katherine Gantz has commented on the fact that
Maspéro and Frantz are somewhere between being professionals and amateurs.
Maspéro takes notes and Frantz takes pictures but they don’t want to be tied to
this professional practice, they want to be free not to take notes and photos if
they choose to. They also choose not to bring the tape recorder that Maspéro
usually carries with him in his job for Radio France. Maspéro also states that their
journey might turn into a book, and then again it might not. There is also a
conflict between the ideal of covering one station a day and the wish of not being
in a hurry (Gantz 87). Gantz also comments on the fact that they prefer casual
224 Emilia Ljungberg
Her gaze is gendered female, and almost domestic with its origin in meals and
shared confidences, it is decidedly non-commercial and comparable to the time-
consuming practices of non-western storytellers. Frantz’s gaze and open attitude
If this is Thursday then this must be Aubervilliers 225
(Maspéro 16) Maspéro goes to the suburbs searching for “the real”, that which is
unpolluted by the logic of the so called hypermarket and that is rooted in local
life.
Another similarity between Maspéro’s text and the theories of Augé is that
the airport is described as one of the most inauthentic places. In Maspéro's initial
presentation of the journey he recounts meeting a friend at the airport and
writes: “That morning he had got a call from Roissy: a friend was between flights.
She had arrived from one continent and was leaving for another. He had gone to
meet her for such a short time, in that space outside of real time and space.”
(Maspéro 7) This experience of the inauthenticity of the airport, and the ennui
that comes from a travelling lifestyle, leads to the decision to tour the suburbs.
He writes: “he’d had enough of great intercontinental journeys; enough of
clocking up the miles without seeing any more than you would through the
misted-up windows of the Trans-Siberian Express; enough of droning through skies
above the clouds and the ocean. All the journeys have been done. They are within
reach of anyone who can afford a charter ticket. All the accounts of journeys
have been written […].” (Maspéro 8) Maspéro claims that his own journey is more
authentic because he is experiencing the local environment that he is travelling
through, by leaving the express train that makes spaces disappear.
Maspéro’s concerns with disappearing spaces are similar to what many
scholars have said about the mixing of the local and the distant that is made
possible by communication media. In the book Home Territories, David Morley
quotes John Durham Peters who writes that “the irony is that the general
becomes clear through representation, whereas the immediate is subject to the
fragmenting effects of our limited experience […] and the local environment is
often seen fleetingly” (Morley 174). Maspéro makes a similar point even though
he is discussing actual travel instead of the movement of mediated images. He
is arguing that when we have access to that which is far away the local fails to
catch our attention. The local is no longer that which we are intimately familiar
with, it becomes unknown, and therefore lived experience does not hold any
necessary correlation with a specific geographical location.
Through his journey Maspéro encounters a variety of different spaces that he
defines in a manner similar to Augé’s non-places. One such example is his critique
of the representation of space in the tourist guides that he reads. He writes:
modern guides are no longer conceived, as they used to be, on the principle
of the itinerary but in alphabetic order. Just as with a digital watch you
can no longer see time as a continuity by following the hands, but only
as an isolated fraction “displayed” second after second, which nothing
can link to those before or after — time broken into bits and pieces — so
in modern guides you can no longer see space; gone are the railway
If this is Thursday then this must be Aubervilliers 227
journeys, car itineraries and linking threads for the walker; nothing joins
together all the unconnected villages, which lie scattered like pawns at
the alphabet’s mercy-space broken into bits and pieces. (Maspéro 13)
The presentation of space in the new guides is alienating and unnatural because
it does not follow the patterns of actual journeys and thus does not represent
the actual experience of space. Maspéro describes various places that he
encounters as inauthentic, gentrified and disconnected space. There are also
places that Maspéro describes as “temporary spaces”. These are found around
the airport and are defined as being “pieces of badly stuck together space,
always giving you the feeling that a missing piece of puzzle is needed to give the
whole thing a sense. But who’s asking you to make sense of something that is
only for travelling through? And quickly. By car.” (Maspéro 20)
Another type of space that Maspéro encounters is the spaces of immobility.
In Maspéro’s description of “the 3000”, an underprivileged neighbourhood, he
writes: “The 3000 was out of the way, with no train or metro. Far from the rest
of Aulnay and everything else. The motorway cut it off like a ditch from nearby
neighbourhoods, from nearby estates, from the rest of the world.” (Maspéro 35)
However, Maspéro then uses travel as a metaphor for the immobility of the 3000.
“It’s a liner, their friend had said, on which the passengers embarked on long
motionless journeys but always remained in transit.” (Maspéro 37) The
disadvantaged neighbourhood is described as a journey that leads nowhere.
This juxtaposition of travel and immobility in the quote above is reminiscent
of Zygmunt Bauman’s theories in his book Globalization. Bauman divides humanity
into the unfortunate Vagabonds and the affluent Tourists. Both Bauman and
Maspéro come to the conclusion that everything is defined by travel, even the
lives of those who cannot travel (Bauman 74). An associated conclusion is that
the experience of space has changed both for the privileged and the
underprivileged; for the Tourist Maspéro that knows more about China than the
local environment, and for the Vagabonds he encounters in the suburbs that are
immobilized in their neighbourhoods and that rarely travel to Paris.
A comparison between Maspéro’s text and Bauman’s theories in Globalization
shows another aspect of Maspéro’s ambivalence between the established tropes
of tourism and the social critique of how space is constructed. Bauman argues
that it is the constant search for something new, new experiences and places,
that keeps the Tourists locked in a capitalist logic that they are unable to
criticize. It is the desire for something new that leads to perpetual consumption
(Bauman 79). Maspéro on the other hand lets the search for new territory, a
recurrent theme in travel narratives, be the driving force behind his journey. His
construction of himself in the text includes him being the nostalgic explorer, the
world weary traveller and the tourist; characters that are all searching for new
228 Emilia Ljungberg
sensations. Even in his role of social critic he is searching for something new, in
this case defined as authentic space and “real” people. Gantz argues that
Maspéro’s cultural studies project clashes with French studies but there is an
equally brutal clash between Maspéro’s leftist analysis and his loyalty to a
discourse of travel and exploration.
Gantz claims that despite their efforts and ambitions, Maspéro and Frantz
end up being mere tourists in the banlieues. As I have argued, tourism is not only
problematic but could also be seen as a resource for them, even though they
reject it. Tourism, and the role of the tourist, can be understood as a way to
mask their problematic role as Parisians in the suburbs. Tourism provides them
with a reason to be there without making use of a professional perspective
and without having to reflect on the more problematic aspects of their presence.
It furthermore facilitates the parody that emphasise the uniqueness and the
oddity of their journey. However, as I have also argued, a tourist discourse is
irreconcilable with Maspéro’s social critique.
Maspéro insists that there is a difference between his previous journeys to
China and his journey in the suburbs, that the geographically near has been made
inauthentic by long-haul travel and has to be, in Maspéro’s words, “rewritten”.
But even though Maspéro is consciously trying to avoid it by his rejection of
tourism, when he moves the destination for his travels from the far-away to the
near, the practices of travel are due to follow, the act of travelling is understood
in the same way even though the purpose and destination has come to differ.
Maspéro sets out to experience and describe the suburbs in the same way that
he would experience and describe what he calls “deepest China” (Maspéro 7).
This is why Maspéro and Frantz remain tourists. They are tourists, not just
because they lack a critical perspective on their practice of travelling but also
because Maspéro chooses to, as parody or not, understand their journey in terms
of tourism. Furthermore, in his search for a more authentic journey and authentic
spaces, Maspéro writes himself into a very dominant discourse in travel writing.
The difference is that from Maspéro’s leftist perspective, the new and authentic,
which is so sought after by travellers, is located in the suburbs.
Works Cited
Augé, Marc, Non-places, an introduction to the anthropology of supermodernity, London:
Verso, 1995
Bauman, Zygmunt, Globalization: The Human Consequences, New York: Polity, 1998
Gantz, Katherine, “Dangerous Intersections: The Near-Collision of French and Cultural
Studies in Maspero's Les Passagers du Roissy-Express”, The French Review, October
1999, Vol. 73, No. 1, pp. 82-93
If this is Thursday then this must be Aubervilliers 229
INÊS PESSOA*
ISCTE — Instituto Universitário de Lisboa
1 This concept brings us forward to “practical theories of the common sense”, “images built
about reality” collectively produced and shared through the interaction and communication
within social groups. Social representations configure grids of interpretation, evaluation,
classification and explanation of the reality (although not being that reality) which are able
to give a meaning to the surrounding environment, as well as to orient the behaviours and the
social relationships (Spink 117-122; Vala 353-384).
234 Inês Pessoa
2 Although our interviewees share the widespread view that Macanese people have a Luso-
Chinese affiliation, anthropologists such as Amaro (44), and Cabral and Lourenço (12-13)
defend that they descend from Euro-Asian people (including Indian, Malay, Japanese,
Philippine, Pakistani, and only more recently from Chinese people who settled in that
territory).
236 Inês Pessoa
referred to Chinese people’s rigid customs; the cultivation of traditions; the pride
in their millenary culture and civilization; the family cohesion and loyalty (not
only during life but also after death); the devotion towards their forefathers;
the obedience to the patriarchal authority; the respect and affection for elderly
people.
The long-established values and the family institution were, thus, considered
sacred principles around which Chinese life was structured, a perspective that
many authors also reinforce when referring to the “traditional China”, as well
as to the Confucianism ethic that had been profoundly embedded in the Chinese
society for a long time (Freitas 22; Mackerras 251; Amaro 110; Goody 213).
Incidentally, Gomes (19) suggests that those values, associated with the imperial
doctrine and with the respective ideals of moral behaviour, were instilled very
early in the children’s socialization with the purpose of keeping the population
submissive and under control to assure the social order and cohesion, that is, to
maintain the stability of the country.
Chinese people were also described as ambitious, entrepreneurial, excellent
traders, wheeler-dealers and hard workers to whom, as pointed out by the
interviewees, Macao owes its development. Many of these attributes have also
been underlined by Amaro (29, 109, 158) who justifies their laboriousness as a
“battle weapon” to fight against the very poor conditions they have been facing
and which are worsened by the high population density, and consequently by
intense competition.
(…) all Chinese people are kind and very hard working people. (…) in two
months these guys build a sky-scraper with almost forty or fifty floors.
(…) They work twenty four hours a day, in shifts, banging, crashing (…).
They earn nothing, it is sheer exploitation, but in general things worked
and because there are so many of them they had no choice but to do it.
(João)
The addiction to play (from mah-jong to the games of fortune and misfortune)
was also registered as being among the most representative attributes of the
locals, plus their strong consumerism and materialism, seen as a result of the
special economic and political status of Macao which has created favourable
conditions to change the life conditions of the population, awaking feelings of
ambition and expectancies of enrichment.
(…) my [Chinese] neighbours (…) used to spend hours playing mah-jong at
night, hours! You only listened to the noises of the pieces… they were
shouting, but they took this seriously (…). (…) several times I used to stand
on the balcony watching groups of people, sat on the wall playing a kind
of Draughts (…) hours and hours (…). (…) And the infinite number of
casinos that exist all over Macao, from illegal casinos (…) the story of dog
Views about Southeast Asia: social representations built by Portuguese young people 237
racing that they also play, and play seriously [sic] (…) and they really
vibrate with the game, is something that you note immediately, it really
hits you. (…) in the Portuguese school (…) Macanese [students] used to
play with spirits (…) Another thing that is very, very, very obvious is the
game of fortune, of luck and misfortune (…) therefore they believe totally
in it. (Teresa)
(…) whom did we know among Chinese People? It was the civil construction
worker, because you didn’t see a Portuguese man working in the civil
construction, it was the maid, it was the Chinese people that were living
in those very bad buildings (…) in the Inner Harbour. Of course there were
rich Chinese people (…) owners of discos (…) maybe a certain mafia (…)
but they had no academic qualifications, they weren’t educated people
that had got on in life by the legal method (…) they rose in life a bit due
to the casinos, the night clubs, the prostitution, and things like that.
Of course there are several exceptions but I don’t know personally. [sic]
(Madalena)
3.3 Stereotyping three main social groups: the elders; women; youth
Besides the general social representations referred to above, we have found
some stereotypical views on three main social groups: the elders; women and
youth.
The elders were portrayed as having the highest status in Chinese society
and in family structure, being respected, loved and cared for by the youngest.
They were also represented as being serene, spiritual, worthy, wise persons and
extremely dynamic, since they practice Tai-Chi in the gardens; take their birds
in bird-cages for a stroll; sing in small choirs; and take care of their grandchildren.
In fact, they were positively compared to the Portuguese elders: inactive and
marginalized people.
Concerning women, our male interviewees considered them beautiful,
sensual, sweet, delicate and exotic, qualities that fit into the classical stereo-
types of this group (Freitas 20; Barreira 83-85; Hongzhao 690; Oliveira 147). In
contrast, the female interviewees described them as being ambitious, calculating,
seductive and submissive due to the undervalued position women were supposed
to have in Chinese society, a position also pointed out by Gomes (159-160); Casta-
nheira (68); Cabral and Lourenço (16); Barreira (187). However, some authors
associate this idea to the past since Chinese women acquired, in the last half
century, several rights (regarding property, education, work and marriage) and
so a more equal status to men.
In the opinion of the female respondents, the attributes mentioned above
about Chinese women attracted European men who considered them ideal wives.
Besides, they were portrayed as seeing marriage with Europeans as a double
passport: geographical and social as it allowed them to rise in the social ladder
and to leave Macao. They were still considered “home wreckers”, that is, the
cause of several Portuguese marriages ending in Macao.
Relating to Chinese and Macanese youngsters, the Portuguese interviewees
agreed that they displayed different youth codes, chiefly their leisure activities
Views about Southeast Asia: social representations built by Portuguese young people 239
They were also considered a bit provocative, behaviour justified by their hybrid
identity — “ambivalent and potentially problematic” (Cabral and Lourenço 11)
— as well as to their inferiority complex of being neither Chinese, nor Portuguese.
Furthermore, Portuguese youngsters have concluded they themselves were
not models to Chinese and Macanese youth who seem to follow Anglo-Saxon
references, adapting them to their local styles. As they noticed, the dream of
the local youth was moving to the U.S, Canada, Britain or Australia, seeing
Portugal only as a platform to move on.
Indeed, despite a number of Macanese young people being well integrated
in some Portuguese networks (essentially those whose up-bringing occurred
according to the Portuguese cultural frameworks, at home and/or in school), the
majority were, like their Chinese peers, out of Portuguese young people’s groups.
of riding motorbikes; having fun playing in rock bands in rented studios, drinking
beer, smoking cannabis, together with many other practices and leisure activities
shared by youth.
5. Conclusions
To conclude, it is important to underline two main ideas. Firstly, although
recognizing that there are stereotypes about the “other” that survive for decades
or even centuries, passing through generations and generations in the form of
narratives and old myths, we defend that social representations, like identities,
should not be seen as something fixed. They do not remain unchanged forever,
because they are supported by particular scenarios of production, such as cultural
references and socio-political contexts that also vary in time. Indeed, we argue
that social representations have a dynamic, contingent and mutable character
as we have noticed regarding the Portuguese youngsters’ views built about local
people throughout the period of time spent in Macao.
Secondly, it is worth emphasizing that the analysis of Portuguese young
people’s views about the inhabitants of Macao has functioned not only as a
purpose in itself — that is, the purpose of knowing how they built the category
of “otherness”; but has also constituted a medium to study: on the one hand,
the character of the relationships these youngsters have developed with local
people (which tended to be superficial and distant); on the other hand, the
Portuguese young people’s identities, since social representations are anchors of
identity affirmation, expressing the individual’s cultural and social belongings
and thus their situation within the social structure (Vala 357-358, 363).
In fact, studying their views about Chinese and Macanese people has become
an extremely important indicator to understand the way they saw themselves as
well as the Portuguese community settled in the territory, since while talking
about the others, they are also revealing their own practices, cultural references,
values, and dispositions, as well as their feelings of belonging.
With this idea, one should conclude with a Bourdieu (135) statement, saying
that “There is nothing that classifies someone more than their own classifica-
tions” [about the other], one should add.
Works Cited
Amaro, Ana Maria. Macau: O Final de um Ciclo de Esperança. Lisboa: ICSP, 1997
Barreira, Ninélio. Ou-Mun, Coisas e Tipos de Macau. Macau: ICM, 1994
Bourdieu, Pierre. Cosas Dichas. Barcelona: Gedisa Editorial, 1996
242