Abstract Large old trees are keystone ecological entities and cultural heritages that provide vit... more Abstract Large old trees are keystone ecological entities and cultural heritages that provide vital services to humans in settlements. We investigated the abundance, species diversity, distribution patterns, and environmental and anthropogenic determinants of large old trees in Wuchuan Gelao and Miao (minority ethnic groups) Autonomous County in southwest China. We examined the role of large old trees in the local culture systems and their management and protection practices through in-depth sociological interviews of local villagers. The 5105 large old trees from 80 species originated either from natural forests (28.1 %) or cultivation (71.9 %). Species distribution differed by elevation and topography units. Cultivated trees (e.g. Cupressus funebris and Phoebe zhennan) were mainly distributed at low-elevation valleys and slopes. Wild trees (e.g. Ginkgo biloba and Liquidambar formosana) mainly distributed in valleys at medium elevation. Most large old trees dwelt in artificial habitats such as house-side (25.0 %), farmland (10.4 %), graveyard (9.9 %) and roadside (8.5 %). Villages located at medium elevation, close to city and with medium human population proportion had higher tree density. Elevation and distance to city had positive effect whereas population density negative effect on wild tree proportion. Villages at medium elevation had higher species diversity, whereas distance to city and farmland-area proportion had negative effect. Local people protected large old trees mainly for cultural reasons. Cultural large old trees accounted for 71.9 % of the trees, of which 65.5 % were fengshui tree and 6.4 % sacred tree. Proportion of culturally protected large old trees was positively correlated with population density, but negatively with Han population. Protection of sacred trees depended on traditional taboos, and of fengshui trees on local customary laws and family regulations. These effective traditional beliefs and practices contributed to persistence of large old trees in artificial habitats around villages despite a long period marked by rapid cultural, political, and economic changes. Wuchuan can serve as exemplary of protecting large old trees based on local culture and regulation at the community and family levels. The findings informed that large old trees need dedicated protection measures that stress their main values and threats. In addition, local customary laws, traditional culture and ecological compensation should be integrated into conservation policies and practices.
The “spirit” in spiritual ecology is an active political force deserving sustained scholarly anal... more The “spirit” in spiritual ecology is an active political force deserving sustained scholarly analysis and public recognition. This article reports on 15 years of field research on “animate landscapes,” associated with gods and spirits in Tibetan communities, and “vital landscapes” associated with fengshui in Han Villages. Despite a century of dramatic sociopolitical change across rural areas in the People’s Republic of China, many villages maintain significant geo-phenomenological connections between body, mind, and land, comprising a body politic maintained through ritual cycles and dwelling practices that uphold the sanctity and integrity of vital watersheds. Comparative analysis of Han and Tibetan spiritual ecologies reveals that cosmological landscapes comprise the armature of relational ontologies grounding and informing everyday life, livelihood, and power relations. As dynamic, emergent, and flexible systems of socio-ecological adaptation that both shape and are shaped by reg...
Much of this book is based on extensive fieldwork in the Meihuashan Nature Reserve (and nearby pr... more Much of this book is based on extensive fieldwork in the Meihuashan Nature Reserve (and nearby protected areas) of western Fujian as well as substantial examination of relevant historical records. Its basic purpose is to explore the interaction between people (in this case Hakka) and their surrounding ecological environments as influenced by their culture. The study is set within a long-term historical context stretching in the case of the tiger over approximately 2000 years. The chronicling of the status of the tiger illustrates how culture and ecological conditions are intertwined. While the tiger is a focal point in this book, it is not the only ecological case analysed in considering how and why ecological conditions have altered in this part of China as a result of variations in local cultural, social and economic conditions.The basic thesis of this book is that culture dominates man-induced ecological change. Hence, little or no progress can be made in understanding ecological...
Fengshui forests, also known as fengshui woods or fengshui woodlands, are culturally preserved re... more Fengshui forests, also known as fengshui woods or fengshui woodlands, are culturally preserved remnant groves of natural forest or small plantations that are common in southern China. Similar forests known by other names are prevalent in many parts of East Asia, including Korea and Japan, where they have long helped sustain rural livelihoods and ecosystems. However, as is the case with research on the origins of fengshui philosophy, research on the origin, diffusion, present-day distribution, and conservation status of fengshui forests remains relatively sparse. Much of the research into fengshui forests has been published in Chinese, and is not accessible to a global scientific audience because the manuscripts are not easily discoverable or because of language barriers. This paper provides a quantitative review of 57 original papers on fengshui woods written in Chinese since the 1990s. Content analysis of Chinese-language papers on fengshui forests demonstrates a geographic bias towards case studies from southern China, and a predominance of methodologies representing vegetation surveys conducted by forestry specialists. Published field results and previously published research on fengshui forests report very high floristic diversity. Our own field research in 57 villages in five provinces shows that these locally protected woodlands are components of common property regimes (CPRs) that have been better preserved than the other forests in southern China and usually represent the only forest remnants adjacent to villages and other settlements. However, fengshui forests face threats from industrial pollution, urbanization, and other forms of economic development. We briefly report on our own preliminary field results and suggest that more research is required to develop interdisciplinary and comparative perspectives on the historical and cultural factors that support the persistence of fengshui forests across China and East Asia as a whole, and to integrate these woodlands within sustainable rural development strategies. These remnants of southern China's subtropical broadleaf evergreen forests are especially important in light of current efforts by the national government to promote urban forestry, ecosystem conservation, cultural heritage protection, and ecotourism, and to increase the capacity of natural carbon sinks within the country's borders.
For those who have conducted research on the fauna and flora of China and who have been curious a... more For those who have conducted research on the fauna and flora of China and who have been curious about the " Reeves " in Muntiacus reevesi (the Chinese muntjac) or the " Cunningham " in Cunninghamia lanceolata (the Chinese fir), this book is a great revelation. More than a few wild plants and animals from China bear scientific names honoring Western naturalists, and this book is the first historical analysis of how Westerners conducted natural history research in China from the mid-eighteenth to the early twentieth century. By focusing on British naturalists during a period of dramatic change in the relationship between China and the West, the author has developed a richly textured account of the encounter between vastly different systems of knowledge and representation of the natural world. As such, this work is sure to be of great interest for scholars of the social sciences, cultural studies, and the social construction of nature. Drawing on a vast and diverse array of scientific journals, personal correspondence, memoirs, and administrative records from the period, the author convincingly ties British natural history research to larger imperial demands for useful information on natural resources in a vast area that was scarcely known by outsiders before the Opium War (1839-1842). The connection between commerce and natural history is exemplified by the English East India Company's interest in botanical, biogeographic, and horticultural information on tea trees. Of greater significance still, according to the author, was the way in which knowledge of the natural world was produced through an elaborate network of relationships between British naturalists and Chinese people of all walks of life. The latter included not only the bureaucrats who monitored the already highly circumscribed lives of British expatriates in Canton at the beginning of the nineteenth century, but also collectors, who often made long trips into the interior in search of specimens, painters, who had to learn an entirely new repertoire in order to provide scientific drawings to British patrons from the factories of Canton to Kew Gardens, and many others. Indeed, one of the primary goals of the book is to " explain the formation of scientific practice and knowledge in cultural borderlands during a critical period of Sino-Western relations. " The author sets himself a difficult task, to reconstruct the economic and cultural lineaments of " scientific imperialism " without ignoring " the indigenous people, their motivations, and their actions. " Not only does the book succeed in this effort, it avoids facile demonization of the main Western actors in this drama. Instead we see a compelling set of portraits of British men of widely different backgrounds and interests who often made great sacrifices in their quests for scientific knowledge. Generally these men were keenly aware of the degree to which they relied on local Chinese experts and their knowledge for the success of their own endeavors. In a chapter called " " Sinology and Natural History, " the author shows that " Western scientific knowledge " about Chinese nature was not only produced through the labors of multiple Chinese and European actors but that it also quickly became subsumed within the discursive formations of both sinology and biology. Western naturalists capable of conducting textual research using classical Chinese sources were few and far between
ABSTRACT. The subtropical forests, grasslands, and wetlands of Southeast China's Wuyi-Daiyun Moun... more ABSTRACT. The subtropical forests, grasslands, and wetlands of Southeast China's Wuyi-Daiyun Mountain Range provide essential habitats for diverse wildlife, including a dwindling population of tigers. Three primary protected areas, the Meihuashan, Wuyishan, and Longxishan Nature Reserves, contain varied wildlife habitats and also provide natural resources for 7,000 people in several dozen villages. A field-based study of land use and habitat quality in these reserves shows that anthropogenic bamboo forests are among the least valuable habitats for wildlife but that, as the primary source of household income, bamboo monoculture is spreading rapidly and replacing habitats of greater ecological value. Although authorities in Meihuashan have demarcated the many broadleaf forest patches for strict protection, household income and bamboo-management research in all three reserves suggests that successful habitat conservation may ultimately depend on more equitable systems of land tenure, improved cooperative cottage industries, and greater local economic diversification.
Abstract Large old trees are keystone ecological entities and cultural heritages that provide vit... more Abstract Large old trees are keystone ecological entities and cultural heritages that provide vital services to humans in settlements. We investigated the abundance, species diversity, distribution patterns, and environmental and anthropogenic determinants of large old trees in Wuchuan Gelao and Miao (minority ethnic groups) Autonomous County in southwest China. We examined the role of large old trees in the local culture systems and their management and protection practices through in-depth sociological interviews of local villagers. The 5105 large old trees from 80 species originated either from natural forests (28.1 %) or cultivation (71.9 %). Species distribution differed by elevation and topography units. Cultivated trees (e.g. Cupressus funebris and Phoebe zhennan) were mainly distributed at low-elevation valleys and slopes. Wild trees (e.g. Ginkgo biloba and Liquidambar formosana) mainly distributed in valleys at medium elevation. Most large old trees dwelt in artificial habitats such as house-side (25.0 %), farmland (10.4 %), graveyard (9.9 %) and roadside (8.5 %). Villages located at medium elevation, close to city and with medium human population proportion had higher tree density. Elevation and distance to city had positive effect whereas population density negative effect on wild tree proportion. Villages at medium elevation had higher species diversity, whereas distance to city and farmland-area proportion had negative effect. Local people protected large old trees mainly for cultural reasons. Cultural large old trees accounted for 71.9 % of the trees, of which 65.5 % were fengshui tree and 6.4 % sacred tree. Proportion of culturally protected large old trees was positively correlated with population density, but negatively with Han population. Protection of sacred trees depended on traditional taboos, and of fengshui trees on local customary laws and family regulations. These effective traditional beliefs and practices contributed to persistence of large old trees in artificial habitats around villages despite a long period marked by rapid cultural, political, and economic changes. Wuchuan can serve as exemplary of protecting large old trees based on local culture and regulation at the community and family levels. The findings informed that large old trees need dedicated protection measures that stress their main values and threats. In addition, local customary laws, traditional culture and ecological compensation should be integrated into conservation policies and practices.
The “spirit” in spiritual ecology is an active political force deserving sustained scholarly anal... more The “spirit” in spiritual ecology is an active political force deserving sustained scholarly analysis and public recognition. This article reports on 15 years of field research on “animate landscapes,” associated with gods and spirits in Tibetan communities, and “vital landscapes” associated with fengshui in Han Villages. Despite a century of dramatic sociopolitical change across rural areas in the People’s Republic of China, many villages maintain significant geo-phenomenological connections between body, mind, and land, comprising a body politic maintained through ritual cycles and dwelling practices that uphold the sanctity and integrity of vital watersheds. Comparative analysis of Han and Tibetan spiritual ecologies reveals that cosmological landscapes comprise the armature of relational ontologies grounding and informing everyday life, livelihood, and power relations. As dynamic, emergent, and flexible systems of socio-ecological adaptation that both shape and are shaped by reg...
Much of this book is based on extensive fieldwork in the Meihuashan Nature Reserve (and nearby pr... more Much of this book is based on extensive fieldwork in the Meihuashan Nature Reserve (and nearby protected areas) of western Fujian as well as substantial examination of relevant historical records. Its basic purpose is to explore the interaction between people (in this case Hakka) and their surrounding ecological environments as influenced by their culture. The study is set within a long-term historical context stretching in the case of the tiger over approximately 2000 years. The chronicling of the status of the tiger illustrates how culture and ecological conditions are intertwined. While the tiger is a focal point in this book, it is not the only ecological case analysed in considering how and why ecological conditions have altered in this part of China as a result of variations in local cultural, social and economic conditions.The basic thesis of this book is that culture dominates man-induced ecological change. Hence, little or no progress can be made in understanding ecological...
Fengshui forests, also known as fengshui woods or fengshui woodlands, are culturally preserved re... more Fengshui forests, also known as fengshui woods or fengshui woodlands, are culturally preserved remnant groves of natural forest or small plantations that are common in southern China. Similar forests known by other names are prevalent in many parts of East Asia, including Korea and Japan, where they have long helped sustain rural livelihoods and ecosystems. However, as is the case with research on the origins of fengshui philosophy, research on the origin, diffusion, present-day distribution, and conservation status of fengshui forests remains relatively sparse. Much of the research into fengshui forests has been published in Chinese, and is not accessible to a global scientific audience because the manuscripts are not easily discoverable or because of language barriers. This paper provides a quantitative review of 57 original papers on fengshui woods written in Chinese since the 1990s. Content analysis of Chinese-language papers on fengshui forests demonstrates a geographic bias towards case studies from southern China, and a predominance of methodologies representing vegetation surveys conducted by forestry specialists. Published field results and previously published research on fengshui forests report very high floristic diversity. Our own field research in 57 villages in five provinces shows that these locally protected woodlands are components of common property regimes (CPRs) that have been better preserved than the other forests in southern China and usually represent the only forest remnants adjacent to villages and other settlements. However, fengshui forests face threats from industrial pollution, urbanization, and other forms of economic development. We briefly report on our own preliminary field results and suggest that more research is required to develop interdisciplinary and comparative perspectives on the historical and cultural factors that support the persistence of fengshui forests across China and East Asia as a whole, and to integrate these woodlands within sustainable rural development strategies. These remnants of southern China's subtropical broadleaf evergreen forests are especially important in light of current efforts by the national government to promote urban forestry, ecosystem conservation, cultural heritage protection, and ecotourism, and to increase the capacity of natural carbon sinks within the country's borders.
For those who have conducted research on the fauna and flora of China and who have been curious a... more For those who have conducted research on the fauna and flora of China and who have been curious about the " Reeves " in Muntiacus reevesi (the Chinese muntjac) or the " Cunningham " in Cunninghamia lanceolata (the Chinese fir), this book is a great revelation. More than a few wild plants and animals from China bear scientific names honoring Western naturalists, and this book is the first historical analysis of how Westerners conducted natural history research in China from the mid-eighteenth to the early twentieth century. By focusing on British naturalists during a period of dramatic change in the relationship between China and the West, the author has developed a richly textured account of the encounter between vastly different systems of knowledge and representation of the natural world. As such, this work is sure to be of great interest for scholars of the social sciences, cultural studies, and the social construction of nature. Drawing on a vast and diverse array of scientific journals, personal correspondence, memoirs, and administrative records from the period, the author convincingly ties British natural history research to larger imperial demands for useful information on natural resources in a vast area that was scarcely known by outsiders before the Opium War (1839-1842). The connection between commerce and natural history is exemplified by the English East India Company's interest in botanical, biogeographic, and horticultural information on tea trees. Of greater significance still, according to the author, was the way in which knowledge of the natural world was produced through an elaborate network of relationships between British naturalists and Chinese people of all walks of life. The latter included not only the bureaucrats who monitored the already highly circumscribed lives of British expatriates in Canton at the beginning of the nineteenth century, but also collectors, who often made long trips into the interior in search of specimens, painters, who had to learn an entirely new repertoire in order to provide scientific drawings to British patrons from the factories of Canton to Kew Gardens, and many others. Indeed, one of the primary goals of the book is to " explain the formation of scientific practice and knowledge in cultural borderlands during a critical period of Sino-Western relations. " The author sets himself a difficult task, to reconstruct the economic and cultural lineaments of " scientific imperialism " without ignoring " the indigenous people, their motivations, and their actions. " Not only does the book succeed in this effort, it avoids facile demonization of the main Western actors in this drama. Instead we see a compelling set of portraits of British men of widely different backgrounds and interests who often made great sacrifices in their quests for scientific knowledge. Generally these men were keenly aware of the degree to which they relied on local Chinese experts and their knowledge for the success of their own endeavors. In a chapter called " " Sinology and Natural History, " the author shows that " Western scientific knowledge " about Chinese nature was not only produced through the labors of multiple Chinese and European actors but that it also quickly became subsumed within the discursive formations of both sinology and biology. Western naturalists capable of conducting textual research using classical Chinese sources were few and far between
ABSTRACT. The subtropical forests, grasslands, and wetlands of Southeast China's Wuyi-Daiyun Moun... more ABSTRACT. The subtropical forests, grasslands, and wetlands of Southeast China's Wuyi-Daiyun Mountain Range provide essential habitats for diverse wildlife, including a dwindling population of tigers. Three primary protected areas, the Meihuashan, Wuyishan, and Longxishan Nature Reserves, contain varied wildlife habitats and also provide natural resources for 7,000 people in several dozen villages. A field-based study of land use and habitat quality in these reserves shows that anthropogenic bamboo forests are among the least valuable habitats for wildlife but that, as the primary source of household income, bamboo monoculture is spreading rapidly and replacing habitats of greater ecological value. Although authorities in Meihuashan have demarcated the many broadleaf forest patches for strict protection, household income and bamboo-management research in all three reserves suggests that successful habitat conservation may ultimately depend on more equitable systems of land tenure, improved cooperative cottage industries, and greater local economic diversification.
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