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Felat Dursun

University College London, Departmant of Civil, Environmental and Geomatic Engineering, Post-Doc

The Getty, Getty Conservation Institute, Visiting Scientist

Dicle University, Mining Engineering, Faculty Member

Middle East Technical University, Department of Geological Engginnering, Graduate Student

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Noel B. Salazar

KU Leuven

Deutsches Bergbau-Museum, Bochum

Konstantin Kovler

Technion Israel Institute of Technology

Kansas State University

Marta Diaz-Guardamino

Durham University

Armando Marques-Guedes

UNL - New University of Lisbon

University of Canberra

ICCROM

Ramiro Barberena

National Scientific and Technical Research Council

University of New Mexico

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Papers by Felat Dursun

One pier with two stones: A case study on different stones used in the foundation of a Roman bridge

Dicle üniversitesi mühendislik fakültesi mühendislik dergisi, Nov 22, 2022

Perpira is a registered ancient bridge, probably constructed during the Late Roman/Early Byzantin... more Perpira is a registered ancient bridge, probably constructed during the Late Roman/Early Byzantine, to span the banks of the Batman Stream. The foundations and the piers are the surviving remains of this bridge. It is known that the bridge has not been repaired since it was discovered. Therefore, the remaining parts of the structure, especially the cut stone blocks, are original and contain precious information about the construction techniques and material selection of the period in which it was constructed. During the site investigations, it has been found that the stones used in the downstream and upstream sections seem to be different. In order to examine this unique application, samples were collected from the piers' downstream and upstream sections. The samples were then used to evaluate their petrographic, geochemical and engineering properties. At the macro scale, the questioned samples' petrophysical characteristics seem similar. The variations in the physicomechanical, petrographic, and mineralogical characteristics of stones used in these sections, however, indicate that they have noticeably different properties. The laboratory results demonstrate that the stone used in the downstream section is dolomite and has a strength of 25.21 MPa and a porosity of 25.38 percent, while the one used in the upstream section is limestone and has a strength of 59.93 MPa and a porosity of 5.80 percent. According to the experiment results, it can be stated that Romans constructed this structure using highly competent engineering knowledge and material optimization. The findings also highlight how even a single piece of artefacts may provide new insights for understanding ancient material application practices.

The Impact of Locally Available Materials on Architectural Heritage: Preliminary Findings from the Güzelşeyh Pavilion, Türkiye

European Journal of Technique, 2024

Understanding how local stones shaped material selection in historical structures is crucial for ... more Understanding how local stones shaped material selection in historical structures is crucial for preserving architectural heritage and guiding conservation strategies. The current study examines the role of local materials in the construction and preservation of the Güzelşeyh Pavilion (GP), situated in the Çınar district of Diyarbakır, Türkiye. GP is unique not only for its use of basalt and limestone but also for combining these locally sourced stones into its architectural elements. This preliminary research assesses the pavilion's current condition and proposes possible stone sources for conservation. Located at the meeting point of volcanic rocks and Eocene limestones, the pavilion uses basalt for load-bearing elements and limestone for both decorative and structural components. The contrast between dark basalt and light limestone enhances its aesthetic appeal, while their combined application strengthens its durability. Fieldwork and laboratory studies, including mineralogical, petrographic, and geochemical analyses, were conducted to investigate the materials and their sources. Site investigations revealed that the pavilion, now largely in ruins, has suffered different forms of decay, particularly in its limestone components compared to the basalt. The analysis suggests nearby volcanic units as a probable source for the basalt, reflecting characteristics that closely match those of the region. Similarly, the limestone appears to align with materials sourced from quarries in Bağacık village, suggesting these quarries as a possible source for the pavilion’s limestone. By identifying these sources, the study offers practical guidance for conservation architects working to ensure the long-term preservation of the site.

From Quarry to Monument: Considering Mardin Stone (SE, Türkiye) as the Symbol of Architectural and Cultural Heritage

Geoheritage, 2024

The cultural and architectural significance of stone becomes evident as one traces its journey fr... more The cultural and architectural significance of stone becomes evident as one traces its journey from quarry to monument. Located in southeastern Türkiye, Mardin City presents an urban landscape characterized by stone-built heritage. This transforms Mardin into an open-air museum where the final stone products are exhibited. In addition to its cultural and historical significance, the present study explores the geological, physical, mechanical, mineralogical, petrographic, and chemical properties of the Mardin Stone through the samples collected from the Artuklu, Midyat and Savur districts of Mardin. The Mardin Stone is represented by two different types of limestone deposited during the Cretaceous-Eocene period, categorized as fossiliferous micritic limestone and micritic limestone. The physicomechanical and thermal characteristics suggest that the samples collected from the Artuklu district exhibit better engineering properties than those from the Midyat and Savur districts. The study mapped ancient and modern quarries, illustrating the significance of the stone extraction and crafting techniques used to produce the Mardin Stone. Additionally, it emphasized the ongoing use of stone in contemporary structures, its vital role in heritage conservation, and its export to various countries, notably for use in the Syriac diaspora churches. The evaluations demonstrate that the Mardin Stone, with its diverse architectural applications and symbolic element of the collective memory, meets the essential standards and criteria of the International Union of Geological Sciences-Heritage Stone Subcommission (IUGS-HSS) as a potential candidate for designation as Heritage Stone.

Reconstruction of an Ancient Hill Used as an On-Site Quarry: Castrum Zerzevan (SE-Türkiye)

International Journal of Architectural Heritage

The Roman period Castrum Zerzevan is on a hill 35 km south of Diyarbakır, Türkiye. Various field ... more The Roman period Castrum Zerzevan is on a hill 35 km south of Diyarbakır, Türkiye. Various field evidence (e.g. petrographic similarities, sudden changes of the topographic contours, the morphology of the nearby hills, and traces of the on-site quarry activities) suggests that the topography of the hilltop was artificially modified and used as a quarry. This study aims to introduce an approach that creates the ancient topography and calculates and verifies the volume of the on-site material required to build the fortification and associated structures by applying morphological analyses. The primary objective of the methodology is to reconstruct the site’s ancient topography and examine the difference between its former and present surfaces. The result indicates that approximately 36% of the extracted material was used in the enclosure. The overall findings and site investigations suggest quarrying and construction activities were carried out in a planned manner or concurrently at the site. In addition to the collected samples’ petrographic and geochemical similarities, the Castrum‘s topographical modifications and the suitability of the geological unit as a building material support our claim that the Romans were well aware of environmental conditions (including topography and morphology) and material performance.

A Preliminary study on material properties of the Zerzevan Castle, Turkey

IOP conference series, Nov 11, 2020

Zerzevan is a recently discovered castle, situated on a rocky hill in the province of Diyarbakır,... more Zerzevan is a recently discovered castle, situated on a rocky hill in the province of Diyarbakır, southeastern Turkey. Like many other Medieval defensive artifacts, Zerzevan Castle has also erected to protect the site against the incursions of enemies and to dominate the land. Zerzevan Castle, as a former military base of the Roman Empire, consists of such remains as churches, tombs observation towers, cisterns, arsenal, canals and city walls. The archaeological excavations conducted in the site revealed the existence of various underground structures, among them a temple of Mithraism, a mystery religion. The temple is considered as the first and unique Mithraeum located on the eastern border of the Roman Empire. The castle has been constructed by employing natural stones. Similar to that of the stone artifacts around the world, the Zerzevan Castle has also suffered from stone deterioration and stability problems. The present study aims to characterize stone used in the Zerzevan Castle as a building material. The study also aims to characterize the provenance of the stone material utilized in the monuments of that archaeological site. For this purpose, samples were collected from the building façade and stone quarry located on the site. The samples then used to determine their petrographic, chemical and some of the physico-mechanical properties. The preliminary results demonstrate that the stone employed in the construction of the Castle is calcitic dolomite. Moreover, the great similarities in chemical compositions of the samples collected from the building and the quarry indicate that the stone material employed in the construction was most probably extracted from the nearby quarries.

Moisture Compatibility of Portland Stones and other Oolitic Limestones

Approximately 30% of Europe&#39;s building stock comprises historic buildings, with the UK ha... more Approximately 30% of Europe&#39;s building stock comprises historic buildings, with the UK having a significant contribution of Portland stone structures. However, difficulties in sourcing the original material have led to the need for compatible material substitutes. Currently, the level of compatibility required between original and substitute material has not been quantified, and the approach has been to evaluate each case separately. This research aims to answer the question of how compatible is compatible enough, specifically in relation to moisture risk, and provide a guiding framework for the heritage conservation sector. The project uses a sensitivity analysis to quantify the compatibility of Portland Stone and other Oolitic limestones, considering porosity and age of the original/substitute stone as sensitive parameters when selecting compatible strategies for repair and reconstruction. Peer-review under the responsibility of the organizing committee of the ICMB23.

Reconstruction of an Ancient Hill Used as an On-Site Quarry: Castrum Zerzevan (SE-Türkiye)

by Felat Dursun, E.Deniz OĞUZ-KIRCA, and Aytaç Coşkun

International Journal of Architectural Heritage , 2023

The Roman period Castrum Zerzevan is on a hill 35 km south of Diyarbakır, Türkiye. Various field ... more The Roman period Castrum Zerzevan is on a hill 35 km south of Diyarbakır, Türkiye. Various field evidence (e.g. petrographic similarities, sudden changes of the topographic contours, the morphology of the nearby hills, and traces of the on-site quarry activities) suggests that the topography of the hilltop was artificially modified and used as a quarry. This study aims to introduce an approach that creates the ancient topography and calculates and verifies the volume of the on-site material required to build the fortification and associated structures by applying morphological analyses. The primary objective of the methodology is to reconstruct the site’s ancient topography and examine the difference between its former and present surfaces. The result indicates that approximately 36% of the extracted material was used in the enclosure. The overall findings and site investigations suggest quarrying and construction activities were carried out in a planned manner or concurrently at the site. In addition to the collected samples’ petrographic and geochemical similarities, the Castrum‘s topographical modifications and the suitability of the geological unit as a building material support our claim that the Romans were well aware of environmental conditions (including topography and morphology) and material performance.

Moisture Compatibility of Portland Stones and other Oolitic Limestones

Moisture Compatibility of Portland Stones and other Oolitic Limestones

Approximately 30% of Europe&#39;s building stock comprises historic buildings, with the UK ha... more Approximately 30% of Europe&#39;s building stock comprises historic buildings, with the UK having a significant contribution of Portland stone structures. However, difficulties in sourcing the original material have led to the need for compatible material substitutes. Currently, the level of compatibility required between original and substitute material has not been quantified, and the approach has been to evaluate each case separately. This research aims to answer the question of how compatible is compatible enough, specifically in relation to moisture risk, and provide a guiding framework for the heritage conservation sector. The project uses a sensitivity analysis to quantify the compatibility of Portland Stone and other Oolitic limestones, considering porosity and age of the original/substitute stone as sensitive parameters when selecting compatible strategies for repair and reconstruction. Peer-review under the responsibility of the organizing committee of the ICMB23.

One pier with two stones: A case study on different stones used in the foundation of a Roman bridge

DÜMF Mühendislik Dergisi

Perpira is a registered ancient bridge, probably constructed during the Late Roman/Early Byzantin... more Perpira is a registered ancient bridge, probably constructed during the Late Roman/Early Byzantine, to span the banks of the Batman Stream. The foundations and the piers are the surviving remains of this bridge. Considering the current state, it is known that the bridge has not been repaired since it was discovered. Therefore, the remaining parts of the structure, especially the cut stone blocks, are original and contain precious information about the construction techniques and material selection of the period in which it was constructed. During the site investigations, it has been found that the stones used in the downstream and upstream sections may be different. In order to examine this unique application, samples were collected from the piers' downstream and upstream sections. The samples were then used to evaluate their petrographic, geochemical and engineering properties. At the macro scale, the questioned samples' petrophysical characteristics seem similar. However, ...

Diyarbakır kent surlarında kullanılan bazaltların bozunma mekanizmasının incelenmesi

The Diyarbakır City Walls (DCW), which were recently added to UNESCO’s World Heritage List, are a... more The Diyarbakır City Walls (DCW), which were recently added to UNESCO’s World Heritage List, are among the largest and most impressive monuments from ancient times. Basalts having such different textural properties as massive and vesicular were employed as the principal material in the construction of the DCW. Like many other historical structures, the DCW are suffering from stone deterioration. A large variety of weathering forms can be observed on the basalts used in different sections of the DCW. This dissertation investigated the causes of deterioration in the basalt with which the DCW were constructed. It also ranks the causes of deterioration and indicates proper materials and construction techniques to assist conservation studies. To accomplish this, fresh (massive and vesicular) and weathered basalts samples were collected from different sections of the study area. Throughout the study, the mineralogical, petrographic, geochemical and physico-mechanical properties of the samp...

Using satellite imagery to assess the changes in land use and land cover in Diyarbakır city (SE Turkey)

Earth Sciences Research Journal, 2022

This study aims to describe, classify, and analyze the most common anthropogenic factors that hav... more This study aims to describe, classify, and analyze the most common anthropogenic factors that have altered the landscape. For this reason, the city of Diyarbakır, one of Mesopotamia’s largest and most urbanized cities, was chosen as an example of several anthropogenic factors. Several field surveys were conducted to determine the most common anthropogenic activities in the study area. They were then classified into four categories: marble quarries, aggregate quarries, water bodies, and built-up areas. A series of satellite images spanning 1975 to 2019 were analyzed by investigating time-based anthropogenic changes. The trends, distributions, and overall impacts of 177 locations were examined and monitored through remotely sensed images. Between 1975 and 2019, a total of 25224 ha of land were transformed, according to the findings. “Water bodies” were the most extended of the studied classes. The second most rapidly expanding class was “Built-up areas.” The “Built-up areas” class was assumed to be the most effective agent that will continue to modify the land of the study area, given the need for more construction spaces. Surface mining activities can also be assumed to be an efficient agent that will continue to modify the lands of Diyarbakır in the future, considering the export potential of marble products and the demand for construction material. Water resources and building materials supply should be examined in depth throughout future development planning of such urbanized cities to minimize anthropogenic degradation.

A Preliminary study on material properties of the Zerzevan Castle, Turkey

IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 2020

Zerzevan is a recently discovered castle, situated on a rocky hill in the province of Diyarbakır,... more Zerzevan is a recently discovered castle, situated on a rocky hill in the province of Diyarbakır, southeastern Turkey. Like many other Medieval defensive artifacts, Zerzevan Castle has also erected to protect the site against the incursions of enemies and to dominate the land. Zerzevan Castle, as a former military base of the Roman Empire, consists of such remains as churches, tombs observation towers, cisterns, arsenal, canals and city walls. The archaeological excavations conducted in the site revealed the existence of various underground structures, among them a temple of Mithraism, a mystery religion. The temple is considered as the first and unique Mithraeum located on the eastern border of the Roman Empire. The castle has been constructed by employing natural stones. Similar to that of the stone artifacts around the world, the Zerzevan Castle has also suffered from stone deterioration and stability problems. The present study aims to characterize stone used in the Zerzevan Castle as a building material. The study also aims to characterize the provenance of the stone material utilized in the monuments of that archaeological site. For this purpose, samples were collected from the building façade and stone quarry located on the site. The samples then used to determine their petrographic, chemical and some of the physico-mechanical properties. The preliminary results demonstrate that the stone employed in the construction of the Castle is calcitic dolomite. Moreover, the great similarities in chemical compositions of the samples collected from the building and the quarry indicate that the stone material employed in the construction was most probably extracted from the nearby quarries.

$Research paper thumbnail of Effect of Weathering Tests on Microfracture Properties of the Massive and Vesicular Basalts$

Effect of Weathering Tests on Microfracture Properties of the Massive and Vesicular Basalts

Monument Future: Decay and Conservation of Stone. Proceedings of the 14th International Congress on the Deterioration and Conservation of Stone, eds. S. Siegesmund and B. Middendorf, Oct 3, 2020

Petrographic investigations not only provide knowledge on the mineralogical state and provenance ... more Petrographic investigations not only provide knowledge on the mineralogical state and provenance of rock materials, they also can be used as a strong tool for evaluating its weathering potential and durability. It is known that the type, amount, dimension, orientation and density of cracks have a great influence on the weathering of the stone material. The chemical agents, for instance, that cause weathering in rock materials, use cracks to penetrate their depths. This study aims to understand how accelerated weathering tests (wetting-drying; freezing-thawing and salt crystallization) affect the behavior of the microfractures. To conduct microfracture studies, a total of nine massive and vesicular basalt samples were ques¬tioned. Thin and polished sections were prepared and investigated using optical microscopy and back-scattered views obtained from the Electron Probe Microanalyser (EPMA). Through the investigation, type, amount, orientation and density of the microfractures were examined. Overall results of this examination suggest that aging tests have different impacts on the microfracture properties of the basalts. It can be easily stated that the pore pressure, especially after the freezing-thawing cycles and salt crystallization, triggers microfracture development. Additionally, this study indicated that the crystal boundaries of olivine and pyroxene are the weakest zones for the microcrack formations.

Diyarbakır kent merkezi için sıcaklık verilerinin istatistiksel analizi

Calismada, Devlet Meteoroloji Isleri Genel Mudurlugu’nden temin edilen 1972– 2005 yillarina ait D... more Calismada, Devlet Meteoroloji Isleri Genel Mudurlugu’nden temin edilen 1972– 2005 yillarina ait Diyarbakir kent merkezi gunluk ortalama, maksimum ve minimum sicaklik verileri ile gunluk olcumlerden elde edilen aylik, mevsimlik ve yillik ortalama, maksimum ve minimum sicaklik verilerinin kapsamli bir istatistik analizi yapilmistir. Bu amacla, 1972–2005 yillarina ait aylik ve mevsimlik ortalama, maksimum ve minimum sicaklik verilerinin tum istatistikleri hesaplanmistir. Ayrica aylik ve mevsimlik olarak 1972–2005 yillarini kapsayan toplum degerleri ile son bes yili kapsayan bir ornegin 5. mertebeye kadar ic bagimliliklari, -ortalama, maksimum ve minimumlar icin- ayri ayri hesaplanmistir. Yine her ucu icin aylik ve mevsimlik zaman serileri, histogramlari ve uzun yillar toplum degerleri ile son bes yili kapsayan ornegin kontur haritalari elde edilmistir. Bunun yani sira, GAP’in ve kuresel isinmanin kent sicakliklari uzerindeki etkisini arastirmak icin 1972–2005 yillarina ait aylik ve mev...

DİYARBAKIR'IN TARİHİ SESLERİ Diyarbakır Suriçi Bölgesi'nde Akustik Mirasın Belgelenmesi ve Değerlendirilmesi

Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 2020

Günümüzde kültürel miras algısı yalnızca somut kültür varlıklarıyla temsil edilmekten çıkıp, somu... more Günümüzde kültürel miras algısı yalnızca somut kültür varlıklarıyla temsil edilmekten çıkıp, somut olmayan kültür varlıklarını da içermeye başladığından akustik mirasın önemi daha belirgin hale gelmiştir. Kentsel ve kültürel seslere olan farkındalığı arttırmaya ve bu seslerin korunmasına yönelik uygulamalar ışığında yürütülen bu çalışmada, Diyarbakır Suriçi Bölgesi'ni içeren Miras Alanındaki akustik mirası oluşturan sembol seslerin tespiti, belgelenmesi ve dijital bir ortamda paylaşılması amaçlanmıştır. Yapılan gözlemler, ses yürüyüşleri ve kullanıcılarla gerçekleştirilen görüşmeler ile Miras Alanı içerisinde yer alan sembol sesler tespit edilmiştir. Sürdürülebilirliğin sağlanmasında önemli bir aşama olan ses kaynaklarının belgelenmesi sürecinde, sembol sesler kaydedilerek belgeleme işlemi gerçekleştirilmiştir. Sembol seslerin, kullanıcıların katkıda bulunup geliştirebileceği dijital bir ortamda paylaşılmasının da hedeflendiği bu çalışmada sembol sesler, Soundsslike dijital platformuna yüklenmiştir. Çalışmanın devamında dijital arşivin genişletilmesi planlanmaktadır. Akustik mirasın sürdürülebilirliği açısından, Diyarbakır Suriçi Bölgesini de içeren Miras Alanına özgü, korunması öncelikli ses kaynaklarının belirlenmesi ve bu seslerin yeni araştırmalarla kayıt altına alınması büyük önem taşımaktadır.

Durability assessment of the basalts used in the Diyarbakır City Walls, Turkey

Environmental Earth Sciences, 2019

The Diyarbakır City Walls (DCW), which were recently added to UNESCO’s World Heritage List, are a... more The Diyarbakır City Walls (DCW), which were recently added to UNESCO’s World Heritage List, are among the largest and one of the most impressive monuments from ancient times. The history of the DCW stretches back more than 4000 years, therefore making the extant City Walls a combination and reflection of influences of the various civilizations that settled in the region. Basalts having such different textural properties as massive and vesicular were employed as the principal material in the construction of the DCW. Like many other historical structures, the DCW are suffering from stone deterioration. A large variety of weathering forms can be observed on the basalts used in different sections of the DCW. The behavior of the basalt under different cyclic environmental conditions is not known. In this study, deterioration mechanisms of the basalts were investigated with field and laboratory studies. It is found that iddingsite is a common weathering product developed through the crystal boundaries of olivine. Accelerated weathering tests show that salt crystallization is the most effective deterioration mechanism. The field and laboratory studies indicate that both massive and vesicular basalts are durable; however, the massive basalts are more durable than the vesicular ones. It is also observed that although chemical processes slightly trigger the deterioration mechanisms of the rocks, most of the weathering forms on the DCW are controlled by the physical factors affecting the parameters of the basalts such as porosity, water absorption and uniaxial compressive strength.

Material Properties of Basalt used in the Diyarbakır City Walls

S The Diyarbakır City Walls is a significant historical and cultural example of common human desi... more S The Diyarbakır City Walls is a significant historical and cultural example of common human design. It was constructed by using natural stones. Although the City Walls were subjected to numerous past interventions and scientific studies, studies on long-term activity of stone material and its deterioration mechanisms have yet to be launched. The Diyarbakır City Walls reveal some forms of weathering, including cracks, detachments, material losses, discoloration, and deposits. Such weathering forms are affecting the durability of the material used in the Diyarbakır City Walls. INDEX Geographical index: Diyarbakır, Turquie

A Preliminary study on material properties of the Zerzevan Castle, Turkey

Zerzevan is a recently discovered castle, situated on a rocky hill in the province of Diyarbakır,... more Zerzevan is a recently discovered castle, situated on a rocky hill in the province of Diyarbakır, southeastern Turkey. Like many other Medieval defensive artifacts, Zerzevan Castle has also erected to protect the site against the incursions of enemies and to dominate the land. Zerzevan Castle, as a former military base of the Roman Empire, consists of such remains as churches, tombs observation towers, cisterns, arsenal, canals and city walls. The archaeological excavations conducted in the site revealed the existence of various underground structures, among them a temple of Mithraism, a mystery religion. The temple is considered as the first and unique Mithraeum located on the eastern border of the Roman Empire. The castle has been constructed by employing natural stones. Similar to that of the stone artifacts around the world, the Zerzevan Castle has also suffered from stone deterioration and stability problems. The present study aims to characterize stone used in the Zerzevan Castle as a building material. The study also aims to characterize the provenance of the stone material utilized in the monuments of that archaeological site. For this purpose, samples were collected from the building façade and stone quarry located on the site. The samples then used to determine their petrographic, chemical and some of the physico-mechanical properties. The preliminary results demonstrate that the stone employed in the construction of the Castle is calcitic dolomite. Moreover, the great similarities in chemical compositions of the samples collected from the building and the quarry indicate that the stone material employed in the construction was most probably extracted from the nearby quarries.

The impact of cyclic loads on physicomechanical properties of the massive and vesicular basalts

Stone monuments are the most visible and essential structures of our cultural heritage; however, ... more Stone monuments are the most visible and essential structures of our cultural heritage; however, many of the historical structures around the world are now suffering from stone deterioration. Diyarbakır City Walls, which were acknowledged the status of World Heritage Site by UNESCO, are among the most extensive surviving structures from ancient times. The City Walls have also some deterioration related problems. Basalts having such different textural properties as massive and vesicular were employed as the principal material in the construction of the Diyarbakır City Walls. Weathering is strongly related to the climatic and environmental conditions of the site. In order to evaluate the physical deterioration, environmental conditions were artificially simulated in accelerated weathering tests such as wetting-drying, freezing-thawing, and salt crystallization. For this purpose, 180 massive and vesicular basalt samples were prepared. The effects of these tests were evaluated by visual examination, weight loss, effective porosity, dry and saturated unit weights, water absorptions under atmospheric and vacuum pressure, sonic velocity and uniaxial compressive strength. It is found that the salt crystallization is the most effective accelerated weathering test deteriorating the basalt samples most aggressively.

$Research paper thumbnail of Effect of Weathering Tests on Microfracture Properties of the Massive and Vesicular Basalts$

Effect of Weathering Tests on Microfracture Properties of the Massive and Vesicular Basalts

Proceedings of the 14th International Congress on the Deterioration and Conservation of Stone MONUMENT FUTURE Decay and Conservation of Stone, 2020

Petrographic investigations not only provide knowledge on the mineralogical state and provenance ... more Petrographic investigations not only provide knowledge on the mineralogical state and provenance of rock materials, they also can be used as a strong tool for evaluating its weathering potential and durability. It is known that the type, amount, dimension, orientation and density of cracks have a great influence on the weathering of the stone material. The chemical agents, for instance, that cause weathering in rock materials, use cracks to penetrate their depths. This study aims to understand how accelerated weathering tests (wetting-drying; freezing-thawing and salt crystallization) affect the behavior of the microfractures. To conduct microfracture studies, a total of nine massive and vesicular basalt samples were ques¬tioned. Thin and polished sections were prepared and investigated using optical microscopy and back-scattered views obtained from the Electron Probe Microanalyser (EPMA). Through the investigation, type, amount, orientation and density of the microfractures were examined. Overall results of this examination suggest that aging tests have different impacts on the microfracture properties of the basalts. It can be easily stated that the pore pressure, especially after the freezing-thawing cycles and salt crystallization, triggers microfracture development. Additionally, this study indicated that the crystal boundaries of olivine and pyroxene are the weakest zones for the microcrack formations.

One pier with two stones: A case study on different stones used in the foundation of a Roman bridge

Dicle üniversitesi mühendislik fakültesi mühendislik dergisi, Nov 22, 2022

Perpira is a registered ancient bridge, probably constructed during the Late Roman/Early Byzantin... more Perpira is a registered ancient bridge, probably constructed during the Late Roman/Early Byzantine, to span the banks of the Batman Stream. The foundations and the piers are the surviving remains of this bridge. It is known that the bridge has not been repaired since it was discovered. Therefore, the remaining parts of the structure, especially the cut stone blocks, are original and contain precious information about the construction techniques and material selection of the period in which it was constructed. During the site investigations, it has been found that the stones used in the downstream and upstream sections seem to be different. In order to examine this unique application, samples were collected from the piers' downstream and upstream sections. The samples were then used to evaluate their petrographic, geochemical and engineering properties. At the macro scale, the questioned samples' petrophysical characteristics seem similar. The variations in the physicomechanical, petrographic, and mineralogical characteristics of stones used in these sections, however, indicate that they have noticeably different properties. The laboratory results demonstrate that the stone used in the downstream section is dolomite and has a strength of 25.21 MPa and a porosity of 25.38 percent, while the one used in the upstream section is limestone and has a strength of 59.93 MPa and a porosity of 5.80 percent. According to the experiment results, it can be stated that Romans constructed this structure using highly competent engineering knowledge and material optimization. The findings also highlight how even a single piece of artefacts may provide new insights for understanding ancient material application practices.

The Impact of Locally Available Materials on Architectural Heritage: Preliminary Findings from the Güzelşeyh Pavilion, Türkiye

European Journal of Technique, 2024

Understanding how local stones shaped material selection in historical structures is crucial for ... more Understanding how local stones shaped material selection in historical structures is crucial for preserving architectural heritage and guiding conservation strategies. The current study examines the role of local materials in the construction and preservation of the Güzelşeyh Pavilion (GP), situated in the Çınar district of Diyarbakır, Türkiye. GP is unique not only for its use of basalt and limestone but also for combining these locally sourced stones into its architectural elements. This preliminary research assesses the pavilion's current condition and proposes possible stone sources for conservation. Located at the meeting point of volcanic rocks and Eocene limestones, the pavilion uses basalt for load-bearing elements and limestone for both decorative and structural components. The contrast between dark basalt and light limestone enhances its aesthetic appeal, while their combined application strengthens its durability. Fieldwork and laboratory studies, including mineralogical, petrographic, and geochemical analyses, were conducted to investigate the materials and their sources. Site investigations revealed that the pavilion, now largely in ruins, has suffered different forms of decay, particularly in its limestone components compared to the basalt. The analysis suggests nearby volcanic units as a probable source for the basalt, reflecting characteristics that closely match those of the region. Similarly, the limestone appears to align with materials sourced from quarries in Bağacık village, suggesting these quarries as a possible source for the pavilion’s limestone. By identifying these sources, the study offers practical guidance for conservation architects working to ensure the long-term preservation of the site.

From Quarry to Monument: Considering Mardin Stone (SE, Türkiye) as the Symbol of Architectural and Cultural Heritage

Geoheritage, 2024

The cultural and architectural significance of stone becomes evident as one traces its journey fr... more The cultural and architectural significance of stone becomes evident as one traces its journey from quarry to monument. Located in southeastern Türkiye, Mardin City presents an urban landscape characterized by stone-built heritage. This transforms Mardin into an open-air museum where the final stone products are exhibited. In addition to its cultural and historical significance, the present study explores the geological, physical, mechanical, mineralogical, petrographic, and chemical properties of the Mardin Stone through the samples collected from the Artuklu, Midyat and Savur districts of Mardin. The Mardin Stone is represented by two different types of limestone deposited during the Cretaceous-Eocene period, categorized as fossiliferous micritic limestone and micritic limestone. The physicomechanical and thermal characteristics suggest that the samples collected from the Artuklu district exhibit better engineering properties than those from the Midyat and Savur districts. The study mapped ancient and modern quarries, illustrating the significance of the stone extraction and crafting techniques used to produce the Mardin Stone. Additionally, it emphasized the ongoing use of stone in contemporary structures, its vital role in heritage conservation, and its export to various countries, notably for use in the Syriac diaspora churches. The evaluations demonstrate that the Mardin Stone, with its diverse architectural applications and symbolic element of the collective memory, meets the essential standards and criteria of the International Union of Geological Sciences-Heritage Stone Subcommission (IUGS-HSS) as a potential candidate for designation as Heritage Stone.

Reconstruction of an Ancient Hill Used as an On-Site Quarry: Castrum Zerzevan (SE-Türkiye)

International Journal of Architectural Heritage

The Roman period Castrum Zerzevan is on a hill 35 km south of Diyarbakır, Türkiye. Various field ... more The Roman period Castrum Zerzevan is on a hill 35 km south of Diyarbakır, Türkiye. Various field evidence (e.g. petrographic similarities, sudden changes of the topographic contours, the morphology of the nearby hills, and traces of the on-site quarry activities) suggests that the topography of the hilltop was artificially modified and used as a quarry. This study aims to introduce an approach that creates the ancient topography and calculates and verifies the volume of the on-site material required to build the fortification and associated structures by applying morphological analyses. The primary objective of the methodology is to reconstruct the site’s ancient topography and examine the difference between its former and present surfaces. The result indicates that approximately 36% of the extracted material was used in the enclosure. The overall findings and site investigations suggest quarrying and construction activities were carried out in a planned manner or concurrently at the site. In addition to the collected samples’ petrographic and geochemical similarities, the Castrum‘s topographical modifications and the suitability of the geological unit as a building material support our claim that the Romans were well aware of environmental conditions (including topography and morphology) and material performance.

A Preliminary study on material properties of the Zerzevan Castle, Turkey

IOP conference series, Nov 11, 2020

Zerzevan is a recently discovered castle, situated on a rocky hill in the province of Diyarbakır,... more Zerzevan is a recently discovered castle, situated on a rocky hill in the province of Diyarbakır, southeastern Turkey. Like many other Medieval defensive artifacts, Zerzevan Castle has also erected to protect the site against the incursions of enemies and to dominate the land. Zerzevan Castle, as a former military base of the Roman Empire, consists of such remains as churches, tombs observation towers, cisterns, arsenal, canals and city walls. The archaeological excavations conducted in the site revealed the existence of various underground structures, among them a temple of Mithraism, a mystery religion. The temple is considered as the first and unique Mithraeum located on the eastern border of the Roman Empire. The castle has been constructed by employing natural stones. Similar to that of the stone artifacts around the world, the Zerzevan Castle has also suffered from stone deterioration and stability problems. The present study aims to characterize stone used in the Zerzevan Castle as a building material. The study also aims to characterize the provenance of the stone material utilized in the monuments of that archaeological site. For this purpose, samples were collected from the building façade and stone quarry located on the site. The samples then used to determine their petrographic, chemical and some of the physico-mechanical properties. The preliminary results demonstrate that the stone employed in the construction of the Castle is calcitic dolomite. Moreover, the great similarities in chemical compositions of the samples collected from the building and the quarry indicate that the stone material employed in the construction was most probably extracted from the nearby quarries.

Moisture Compatibility of Portland Stones and other Oolitic Limestones

Approximately 30% of Europe&#39;s building stock comprises historic buildings, with the UK ha... more Approximately 30% of Europe&#39;s building stock comprises historic buildings, with the UK having a significant contribution of Portland stone structures. However, difficulties in sourcing the original material have led to the need for compatible material substitutes. Currently, the level of compatibility required between original and substitute material has not been quantified, and the approach has been to evaluate each case separately. This research aims to answer the question of how compatible is compatible enough, specifically in relation to moisture risk, and provide a guiding framework for the heritage conservation sector. The project uses a sensitivity analysis to quantify the compatibility of Portland Stone and other Oolitic limestones, considering porosity and age of the original/substitute stone as sensitive parameters when selecting compatible strategies for repair and reconstruction. Peer-review under the responsibility of the organizing committee of the ICMB23.

Reconstruction of an Ancient Hill Used as an On-Site Quarry: Castrum Zerzevan (SE-Türkiye)

by Felat Dursun, E.Deniz OĞUZ-KIRCA, and Aytaç Coşkun

International Journal of Architectural Heritage , 2023

The Roman period Castrum Zerzevan is on a hill 35 km south of Diyarbakır, Türkiye. Various field ... more The Roman period Castrum Zerzevan is on a hill 35 km south of Diyarbakır, Türkiye. Various field evidence (e.g. petrographic similarities, sudden changes of the topographic contours, the morphology of the nearby hills, and traces of the on-site quarry activities) suggests that the topography of the hilltop was artificially modified and used as a quarry. This study aims to introduce an approach that creates the ancient topography and calculates and verifies the volume of the on-site material required to build the fortification and associated structures by applying morphological analyses. The primary objective of the methodology is to reconstruct the site’s ancient topography and examine the difference between its former and present surfaces. The result indicates that approximately 36% of the extracted material was used in the enclosure. The overall findings and site investigations suggest quarrying and construction activities were carried out in a planned manner or concurrently at the site. In addition to the collected samples’ petrographic and geochemical similarities, the Castrum‘s topographical modifications and the suitability of the geological unit as a building material support our claim that the Romans were well aware of environmental conditions (including topography and morphology) and material performance.

Moisture Compatibility of Portland Stones and other Oolitic Limestones

Moisture Compatibility of Portland Stones and other Oolitic Limestones

Approximately 30% of Europe&#39;s building stock comprises historic buildings, with the UK ha... more Approximately 30% of Europe&#39;s building stock comprises historic buildings, with the UK having a significant contribution of Portland stone structures. However, difficulties in sourcing the original material have led to the need for compatible material substitutes. Currently, the level of compatibility required between original and substitute material has not been quantified, and the approach has been to evaluate each case separately. This research aims to answer the question of how compatible is compatible enough, specifically in relation to moisture risk, and provide a guiding framework for the heritage conservation sector. The project uses a sensitivity analysis to quantify the compatibility of Portland Stone and other Oolitic limestones, considering porosity and age of the original/substitute stone as sensitive parameters when selecting compatible strategies for repair and reconstruction. Peer-review under the responsibility of the organizing committee of the ICMB23.

One pier with two stones: A case study on different stones used in the foundation of a Roman bridge

DÜMF Mühendislik Dergisi

Perpira is a registered ancient bridge, probably constructed during the Late Roman/Early Byzantin... more Perpira is a registered ancient bridge, probably constructed during the Late Roman/Early Byzantine, to span the banks of the Batman Stream. The foundations and the piers are the surviving remains of this bridge. Considering the current state, it is known that the bridge has not been repaired since it was discovered. Therefore, the remaining parts of the structure, especially the cut stone blocks, are original and contain precious information about the construction techniques and material selection of the period in which it was constructed. During the site investigations, it has been found that the stones used in the downstream and upstream sections may be different. In order to examine this unique application, samples were collected from the piers' downstream and upstream sections. The samples were then used to evaluate their petrographic, geochemical and engineering properties. At the macro scale, the questioned samples' petrophysical characteristics seem similar. However, ...

Diyarbakır kent surlarında kullanılan bazaltların bozunma mekanizmasının incelenmesi

The Diyarbakır City Walls (DCW), which were recently added to UNESCO’s World Heritage List, are a... more The Diyarbakır City Walls (DCW), which were recently added to UNESCO’s World Heritage List, are among the largest and most impressive monuments from ancient times. Basalts having such different textural properties as massive and vesicular were employed as the principal material in the construction of the DCW. Like many other historical structures, the DCW are suffering from stone deterioration. A large variety of weathering forms can be observed on the basalts used in different sections of the DCW. This dissertation investigated the causes of deterioration in the basalt with which the DCW were constructed. It also ranks the causes of deterioration and indicates proper materials and construction techniques to assist conservation studies. To accomplish this, fresh (massive and vesicular) and weathered basalts samples were collected from different sections of the study area. Throughout the study, the mineralogical, petrographic, geochemical and physico-mechanical properties of the samp...

Using satellite imagery to assess the changes in land use and land cover in Diyarbakır city (SE Turkey)

Earth Sciences Research Journal, 2022

This study aims to describe, classify, and analyze the most common anthropogenic factors that hav... more This study aims to describe, classify, and analyze the most common anthropogenic factors that have altered the landscape. For this reason, the city of Diyarbakır, one of Mesopotamia’s largest and most urbanized cities, was chosen as an example of several anthropogenic factors. Several field surveys were conducted to determine the most common anthropogenic activities in the study area. They were then classified into four categories: marble quarries, aggregate quarries, water bodies, and built-up areas. A series of satellite images spanning 1975 to 2019 were analyzed by investigating time-based anthropogenic changes. The trends, distributions, and overall impacts of 177 locations were examined and monitored through remotely sensed images. Between 1975 and 2019, a total of 25224 ha of land were transformed, according to the findings. “Water bodies” were the most extended of the studied classes. The second most rapidly expanding class was “Built-up areas.” The “Built-up areas” class was assumed to be the most effective agent that will continue to modify the land of the study area, given the need for more construction spaces. Surface mining activities can also be assumed to be an efficient agent that will continue to modify the lands of Diyarbakır in the future, considering the export potential of marble products and the demand for construction material. Water resources and building materials supply should be examined in depth throughout future development planning of such urbanized cities to minimize anthropogenic degradation.

A Preliminary study on material properties of the Zerzevan Castle, Turkey

IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 2020

Zerzevan is a recently discovered castle, situated on a rocky hill in the province of Diyarbakır,... more Zerzevan is a recently discovered castle, situated on a rocky hill in the province of Diyarbakır, southeastern Turkey. Like many other Medieval defensive artifacts, Zerzevan Castle has also erected to protect the site against the incursions of enemies and to dominate the land. Zerzevan Castle, as a former military base of the Roman Empire, consists of such remains as churches, tombs observation towers, cisterns, arsenal, canals and city walls. The archaeological excavations conducted in the site revealed the existence of various underground structures, among them a temple of Mithraism, a mystery religion. The temple is considered as the first and unique Mithraeum located on the eastern border of the Roman Empire. The castle has been constructed by employing natural stones. Similar to that of the stone artifacts around the world, the Zerzevan Castle has also suffered from stone deterioration and stability problems. The present study aims to characterize stone used in the Zerzevan Castle as a building material. The study also aims to characterize the provenance of the stone material utilized in the monuments of that archaeological site. For this purpose, samples were collected from the building façade and stone quarry located on the site. The samples then used to determine their petrographic, chemical and some of the physico-mechanical properties. The preliminary results demonstrate that the stone employed in the construction of the Castle is calcitic dolomite. Moreover, the great similarities in chemical compositions of the samples collected from the building and the quarry indicate that the stone material employed in the construction was most probably extracted from the nearby quarries.

$Research paper thumbnail of Effect of Weathering Tests on Microfracture Properties of the Massive and Vesicular Basalts$

Effect of Weathering Tests on Microfracture Properties of the Massive and Vesicular Basalts

Monument Future: Decay and Conservation of Stone. Proceedings of the 14th International Congress on the Deterioration and Conservation of Stone, eds. S. Siegesmund and B. Middendorf, Oct 3, 2020

Petrographic investigations not only provide knowledge on the mineralogical state and provenance ... more Petrographic investigations not only provide knowledge on the mineralogical state and provenance of rock materials, they also can be used as a strong tool for evaluating its weathering potential and durability. It is known that the type, amount, dimension, orientation and density of cracks have a great influence on the weathering of the stone material. The chemical agents, for instance, that cause weathering in rock materials, use cracks to penetrate their depths. This study aims to understand how accelerated weathering tests (wetting-drying; freezing-thawing and salt crystallization) affect the behavior of the microfractures. To conduct microfracture studies, a total of nine massive and vesicular basalt samples were ques¬tioned. Thin and polished sections were prepared and investigated using optical microscopy and back-scattered views obtained from the Electron Probe Microanalyser (EPMA). Through the investigation, type, amount, orientation and density of the microfractures were examined. Overall results of this examination suggest that aging tests have different impacts on the microfracture properties of the basalts. It can be easily stated that the pore pressure, especially after the freezing-thawing cycles and salt crystallization, triggers microfracture development. Additionally, this study indicated that the crystal boundaries of olivine and pyroxene are the weakest zones for the microcrack formations.

Diyarbakır kent merkezi için sıcaklık verilerinin istatistiksel analizi

Calismada, Devlet Meteoroloji Isleri Genel Mudurlugu’nden temin edilen 1972– 2005 yillarina ait D... more Calismada, Devlet Meteoroloji Isleri Genel Mudurlugu’nden temin edilen 1972– 2005 yillarina ait Diyarbakir kent merkezi gunluk ortalama, maksimum ve minimum sicaklik verileri ile gunluk olcumlerden elde edilen aylik, mevsimlik ve yillik ortalama, maksimum ve minimum sicaklik verilerinin kapsamli bir istatistik analizi yapilmistir. Bu amacla, 1972–2005 yillarina ait aylik ve mevsimlik ortalama, maksimum ve minimum sicaklik verilerinin tum istatistikleri hesaplanmistir. Ayrica aylik ve mevsimlik olarak 1972–2005 yillarini kapsayan toplum degerleri ile son bes yili kapsayan bir ornegin 5. mertebeye kadar ic bagimliliklari, -ortalama, maksimum ve minimumlar icin- ayri ayri hesaplanmistir. Yine her ucu icin aylik ve mevsimlik zaman serileri, histogramlari ve uzun yillar toplum degerleri ile son bes yili kapsayan ornegin kontur haritalari elde edilmistir. Bunun yani sira, GAP’in ve kuresel isinmanin kent sicakliklari uzerindeki etkisini arastirmak icin 1972–2005 yillarina ait aylik ve mev...

DİYARBAKIR'IN TARİHİ SESLERİ Diyarbakır Suriçi Bölgesi'nde Akustik Mirasın Belgelenmesi ve Değerlendirilmesi

Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 2020

Günümüzde kültürel miras algısı yalnızca somut kültür varlıklarıyla temsil edilmekten çıkıp, somu... more Günümüzde kültürel miras algısı yalnızca somut kültür varlıklarıyla temsil edilmekten çıkıp, somut olmayan kültür varlıklarını da içermeye başladığından akustik mirasın önemi daha belirgin hale gelmiştir. Kentsel ve kültürel seslere olan farkındalığı arttırmaya ve bu seslerin korunmasına yönelik uygulamalar ışığında yürütülen bu çalışmada, Diyarbakır Suriçi Bölgesi'ni içeren Miras Alanındaki akustik mirası oluşturan sembol seslerin tespiti, belgelenmesi ve dijital bir ortamda paylaşılması amaçlanmıştır. Yapılan gözlemler, ses yürüyüşleri ve kullanıcılarla gerçekleştirilen görüşmeler ile Miras Alanı içerisinde yer alan sembol sesler tespit edilmiştir. Sürdürülebilirliğin sağlanmasında önemli bir aşama olan ses kaynaklarının belgelenmesi sürecinde, sembol sesler kaydedilerek belgeleme işlemi gerçekleştirilmiştir. Sembol seslerin, kullanıcıların katkıda bulunup geliştirebileceği dijital bir ortamda paylaşılmasının da hedeflendiği bu çalışmada sembol sesler, Soundsslike dijital platformuna yüklenmiştir. Çalışmanın devamında dijital arşivin genişletilmesi planlanmaktadır. Akustik mirasın sürdürülebilirliği açısından, Diyarbakır Suriçi Bölgesini de içeren Miras Alanına özgü, korunması öncelikli ses kaynaklarının belirlenmesi ve bu seslerin yeni araştırmalarla kayıt altına alınması büyük önem taşımaktadır.

Durability assessment of the basalts used in the Diyarbakır City Walls, Turkey

Environmental Earth Sciences, 2019

The Diyarbakır City Walls (DCW), which were recently added to UNESCO’s World Heritage List, are a... more The Diyarbakır City Walls (DCW), which were recently added to UNESCO’s World Heritage List, are among the largest and one of the most impressive monuments from ancient times. The history of the DCW stretches back more than 4000 years, therefore making the extant City Walls a combination and reflection of influences of the various civilizations that settled in the region. Basalts having such different textural properties as massive and vesicular were employed as the principal material in the construction of the DCW. Like many other historical structures, the DCW are suffering from stone deterioration. A large variety of weathering forms can be observed on the basalts used in different sections of the DCW. The behavior of the basalt under different cyclic environmental conditions is not known. In this study, deterioration mechanisms of the basalts were investigated with field and laboratory studies. It is found that iddingsite is a common weathering product developed through the crystal boundaries of olivine. Accelerated weathering tests show that salt crystallization is the most effective deterioration mechanism. The field and laboratory studies indicate that both massive and vesicular basalts are durable; however, the massive basalts are more durable than the vesicular ones. It is also observed that although chemical processes slightly trigger the deterioration mechanisms of the rocks, most of the weathering forms on the DCW are controlled by the physical factors affecting the parameters of the basalts such as porosity, water absorption and uniaxial compressive strength.

Material Properties of Basalt used in the Diyarbakır City Walls

S The Diyarbakır City Walls is a significant historical and cultural example of common human desi... more S The Diyarbakır City Walls is a significant historical and cultural example of common human design. It was constructed by using natural stones. Although the City Walls were subjected to numerous past interventions and scientific studies, studies on long-term activity of stone material and its deterioration mechanisms have yet to be launched. The Diyarbakır City Walls reveal some forms of weathering, including cracks, detachments, material losses, discoloration, and deposits. Such weathering forms are affecting the durability of the material used in the Diyarbakır City Walls. INDEX Geographical index: Diyarbakır, Turquie

A Preliminary study on material properties of the Zerzevan Castle, Turkey

Zerzevan is a recently discovered castle, situated on a rocky hill in the province of Diyarbakır,... more Zerzevan is a recently discovered castle, situated on a rocky hill in the province of Diyarbakır, southeastern Turkey. Like many other Medieval defensive artifacts, Zerzevan Castle has also erected to protect the site against the incursions of enemies and to dominate the land. Zerzevan Castle, as a former military base of the Roman Empire, consists of such remains as churches, tombs observation towers, cisterns, arsenal, canals and city walls. The archaeological excavations conducted in the site revealed the existence of various underground structures, among them a temple of Mithraism, a mystery religion. The temple is considered as the first and unique Mithraeum located on the eastern border of the Roman Empire. The castle has been constructed by employing natural stones. Similar to that of the stone artifacts around the world, the Zerzevan Castle has also suffered from stone deterioration and stability problems. The present study aims to characterize stone used in the Zerzevan Castle as a building material. The study also aims to characterize the provenance of the stone material utilized in the monuments of that archaeological site. For this purpose, samples were collected from the building façade and stone quarry located on the site. The samples then used to determine their petrographic, chemical and some of the physico-mechanical properties. The preliminary results demonstrate that the stone employed in the construction of the Castle is calcitic dolomite. Moreover, the great similarities in chemical compositions of the samples collected from the building and the quarry indicate that the stone material employed in the construction was most probably extracted from the nearby quarries.

The impact of cyclic loads on physicomechanical properties of the massive and vesicular basalts

Stone monuments are the most visible and essential structures of our cultural heritage; however, ... more Stone monuments are the most visible and essential structures of our cultural heritage; however, many of the historical structures around the world are now suffering from stone deterioration. Diyarbakır City Walls, which were acknowledged the status of World Heritage Site by UNESCO, are among the most extensive surviving structures from ancient times. The City Walls have also some deterioration related problems. Basalts having such different textural properties as massive and vesicular were employed as the principal material in the construction of the Diyarbakır City Walls. Weathering is strongly related to the climatic and environmental conditions of the site. In order to evaluate the physical deterioration, environmental conditions were artificially simulated in accelerated weathering tests such as wetting-drying, freezing-thawing, and salt crystallization. For this purpose, 180 massive and vesicular basalt samples were prepared. The effects of these tests were evaluated by visual examination, weight loss, effective porosity, dry and saturated unit weights, water absorptions under atmospheric and vacuum pressure, sonic velocity and uniaxial compressive strength. It is found that the salt crystallization is the most effective accelerated weathering test deteriorating the basalt samples most aggressively.

$Research paper thumbnail of Effect of Weathering Tests on Microfracture Properties of the Massive and Vesicular Basalts$

Effect of Weathering Tests on Microfracture Properties of the Massive and Vesicular Basalts

Proceedings of the 14th International Congress on the Deterioration and Conservation of Stone MONUMENT FUTURE Decay and Conservation of Stone, 2020

Petrographic investigations not only provide knowledge on the mineralogical state and provenance ... more Petrographic investigations not only provide knowledge on the mineralogical state and provenance of rock materials, they also can be used as a strong tool for evaluating its weathering potential and durability. It is known that the type, amount, dimension, orientation and density of cracks have a great influence on the weathering of the stone material. The chemical agents, for instance, that cause weathering in rock materials, use cracks to penetrate their depths. This study aims to understand how accelerated weathering tests (wetting-drying; freezing-thawing and salt crystallization) affect the behavior of the microfractures. To conduct microfracture studies, a total of nine massive and vesicular basalt samples were ques¬tioned. Thin and polished sections were prepared and investigated using optical microscopy and back-scattered views obtained from the Electron Probe Microanalyser (EPMA). Through the investigation, type, amount, orientation and density of the microfractures were examined. Overall results of this examination suggest that aging tests have different impacts on the microfracture properties of the basalts. It can be easily stated that the pore pressure, especially after the freezing-thawing cycles and salt crystallization, triggers microfracture development. Additionally, this study indicated that the crystal boundaries of olivine and pyroxene are the weakest zones for the microcrack formations.

Moisture Compatibility of Portland Stones and other Oolitic Limestones

by Sudeshna Basu and Felat Dursun

2nd International Conference on Moisture in Buildings 2023 (ICMB23), London, UK, 2023

Approximately 30% of Europe's building stock comprises historic buildings, with the UK having a s... more Approximately 30% of Europe's building stock comprises historic buildings, with the UK having a significant contribution of Portland stone structures. However, difficulties in sourcing the original material have led to the need for compatible material substitutes. Currently, the level of compatibility required between original and substitute material has not been quantified, and the approach has been to evaluate each case separately. This research aims to answer the question of how compatible is compatible enough, specifically in relation to moisture risk, and provide a guiding framework for the heritage conservation sector. The project uses a sensitivity analysis to quantify the compatibility of Portland Stone and other Oolitic limestones, considering porosity and age of the original/substitute stone as sensitive parameters when selecting compatible strategies for repair and reconstruction. Peer-review under the responsibility of the organizing committee of the ICMB23.

One pier with two stones: A case study on different stones used in the foundation of a Roman bridge on the Batman Stream, Turkey

Dicle University Journal of Engineering, 2022

Perpira is a registered ancient bridge, probably constructed during the Late Roman/Early Byzantin... more Perpira is a registered ancient bridge, probably constructed during the Late Roman/Early Byzantine, to span the banks of the Batman Stream. The foundations and the piers are the surviving remains of this bridge. It is known that the bridge has not been repaired since it was discovered. Therefore, the remaining parts of the structure, especially the cut stone blocks, are original and contain precious information about the construction techniques and material selection of the period in which it was constructed. During the site investigations, it has been found that the stones used in the downstream and upstream sections seem to be different. In order to examine this unique application, samples were collected from the piers' downstream and upstream sections. The samples were then used to evaluate their petrographic, geochemical and engineering properties. At the macro scale, the questioned samples' petrophysical characteristics seem similar. The variations in the physicomechanical, petrographic, and mineralogical characteristics of stones used in these sections, however, indicate that they have noticeably different properties. The laboratory results demonstrate that the stone used in the downstream section is dolomite and has a strength of 25.21 MPa and a porosity of 25.38 percent, while the one used in the upstream section is limestone and has a strength of 59.93 MPa and a porosity of 5.80 percent. According to the experiment results, it can be stated that Romans constructed this structure using highly competent engineering knowledge and material optimization. The findings also highlight how even a single piece of artefacts may provide new insights for understanding ancient material application practices.

Provenance and petrophysical characterization of an ancient Roman stone bridge: Perpira Bridge

by Felat Dursun and Fatma Meral HALİFEOĞLU

ASMOSIA XIII-13th International Conference of the Association for the Study of Marble and Other Stones of Antiquity, 2022

Perpira, a registered bridge that spans the banks of Batman Stream- Turkey, was most probably con... more Perpira, a registered bridge that spans the banks of Batman Stream- Turkey, was most probably constructed during the Late Roman/Early Byzantine period. The bridge was demolished for an unknown reason and at an unknown period. Only a few portions of the bridge (the foundations and the piers) remain today. The bridge has not been repaired since it was discovered, according to reports. As a result, the structure’s remaining portions, particularly the cut stone blocks, are original and provide valuable information about the period’s construction processes and material selection. In this study, it is aimed to assess the provenance, petrographic and physicomechanical characterization of the stones used in the construction of the bridge. In order to achieve this, samples were collected from the downstream and the upstream sections of the piers. In addition to the bridge, samples were collected from the possible quarries in the vicinity. Stable isotope analyses were carried out on seven samples to petrographically characterize the stones used in the bridge and to determine their provenances. The findings indicate that the stones used in the downstream and upstream sections are significantly different both in petrographic and physicomechanical aspects. Stable isotope analyses, on the other hand, reveal that the stones used in the structure originated from nearby quarries.

Understanding the Basic Principles of the Layout and Orchestration of the Late Roman Castrum Zerzevan (SE Turkey): Nuances Reconsidered

by E.Deniz OĞUZ-KIRCA and Felat Dursun

SA Symposium Series 9, 2022

Zerzevan Kalesi Jeo-Arkeolojik Araştırmaları (Geo-Archaeological Investigations in Zerzevan Castle)

by E.Deniz OĞUZ-KIRCA and Felat Dursun

Vedat Toprak, Felat Dursun, E. Deniz Oğuz-Kırca, Aytaç Coşkun, 2022

Uluslararası Katılımlı 74. Türkiye Jeoloji Kurultayı 11-15 Nisan 2022, Ankara, Türkiye (74th G... more

Material Properties of An Ancient Stone Bridge: Perpira Bridge, Turkey

Türkiye 11. Uluslararası Mermer MERSEM-2021: 11th International Marble and Natural Stone Congress and Exhibition of Turkey , 2021

Perpira is a registered ancient bridge, probably constructed during the Late-Roman/Early-Byzantin... more Perpira is a registered ancient bridge, probably constructed during the Late-Roman/Early-Byzantine, to span the banks of the Batman Stream. The foundations and the piers are the surviving remains of this bridge. Considering the current state, it is known that the bridge has not been repaired since it was discovered. Therefore, the remaining parts of the structure; especially, the cut stone blocks are original and contain precious information about the construction techniques and material selection of the period in which it was constructed. This study is the first and preliminary attempt to investigate the characterization of the stones used in the construction. In order to understand some material properties of the stones employed in the bridge, samples were collected from the downstream and the upstream sections of the piers. The samples were then used to investigate petrographic, geochemical and engineering properties such as effective porosity, unit weight, water absorption and uniaxial compressive strength. The preliminary results demonstrate that the stones used in the downstream and upstream sections of the piers have different properties. It is defined that the stone used in the downstream section is dolomite and the one used in the upstream section is limestone. The results indicate that the stones used in the upstream section have better engineering performance than those used in the downstream section. According to the experiment results, it can be stated that Romans constructed this structure using highly competent engineering knowledge and experience.

Seismic Risk Assessment of the Church in Zerzevan Castle

Orient Press, 2023

Zerzevan Castle, a border garrison of the Roman Empire, is a legionnaires’ hilltop castrum locate... more Zerzevan Castle, a border garrison of the Roman Empire, is a legionnaires’ hilltop castrum located on Diyarbakır Mardin road, near the Çınar (Diyarbakır) district. There are various remains and artifacts located within the site, including defensive towers, churches, arsenal, administrative buildings, rock altar, vaulted tombs, street-alleys and residential structures. There are also fragments of fort walls, encircling all these above mentioned remains. One of the most significant architectural elements within the castle is the church, which was constructed using locally available Eocene dolomitic limestones. In this study, as a unique structure, the church of the Zerzevan Castle is investigated to assess its condition under the probable earthquake forces for the region. To achieve this aim, the modal analysis of the church is performed to assess the mass participation ratio and mode shapes. Then response spectrum analysis is performed for the Earthquake Hazard Level-1 (EHL1) according to the Turkish Seismic Hazard Map (TSHM) and Turkish Building Earthquake Code (TBEC). The critical locations tried to be determined to make a safe and reliable restoration and retrofitting recommendation. The findings indicate that the upper parts of the remaining walls are vulnerable and the broken beam in the gate increases the deformation and stress demand in the surrounding members. Improving the mortar quality and the quality of the wall-to-wall connection will increase the strength for structural unity of this unique structure and enable visitors to have a safer tour of the site.