Copper-based metallurgy by Mercedes Murillo-Barroso
This article has been peer-reviewed through the journal's standard double-blind peer-review proce... more This article has been peer-reviewed through the journal's standard double-blind peer-review process, where both the reviewers and authors are anonymised during review.
Metallurgy has been defined as a pivotal activity in understanding of the development of El Argar... more Metallurgy has been defined as a pivotal activity in understanding of the development of El Argar society. Nonetheless, comprehensive studies of extractive metallurgical processes based on archaeometallurgical analyses remain lacking. This article examines the production remains found at the El Argar site of Laderas del Castillo, documented from 2150 to 1950 cal BC, including samples of slag, crucibles, copper prills and artefacts. Laderas del Castillo emerges as a key site for understanding the technology and organization of metallurgical production in the El Argar world. There are few sites with archaeometric analysis of metallurgical remains, and the present case allows for an almost complete view of the entire metallurgical chaîne opératoire in this period. Microstructural analyses of smelting remains by SEM-EDS reveal a technological tradition that mirrors the previous Copper Age one and the direct exploitation of complex arsenical copper ores with occasional copper sulphides. Despite the existence of closer mineralizations, lead isotope analyses show the exploitation of various copper resources and sources far from the settlement (Linares, the Interior of the Baetic Cordilleras and Almagrera, about 300, 200 and 140 km respectively). These active exchange networks in Laderas del Castillo reflect the same pattern found in the rest of the El Argar territory, which is based on the intensive exploitation of mineralizations in the interior of the Baetics and the Southeast of the peninsula. Some of these sources have also been observed in Copper Age metallurgy, suggesting that the mobility and exchange networks operating in the southeast during the El Argar period were rooted in earlier archaeological phases, indicating a wide and complex exchange network in the region.
Geoarchaeology
This research addresses the territorial organisation of metallurgical production during the El Ar... more This research addresses the territorial organisation of metallurgical production during the El Argar Bronze Age (2200-1550 cal BC) in the inner areas of El Argar territory through lead-isotope and trace element analyses of geological copper ores, archaeometallurgical remains and copper-based artefacts. Results from 31 mineral and 35 archaeological samples suggest that the exploitation of copper resources in the studied region was significant and had a similar impact than other mining districts of El Argar territory. This, therefore, leads the hierarchical and centralised production model to be questioned. It also appears that the copper ore deposits in the coastal regions that were intensively exploited during the Copper Age were used less intensively in the El Argar period. At that time, copper was mostly procured from ore deposits in the inland areas of El Argar territory: that is, ore deposits within the Alpine orogeny hinterland (inland areas of the Betic Cordillera, from Granada to Baza). Other artefacts were sourced from outside the Alpine geological domain, but still on the fringe of El Argar territory (the foothills of the Sierra Morena-Linares mining district) or even from ore deposits definitely outside El Argar territory itself (the Los Pedroches Variscan region and elsewhere).
Archeometriai Műhely
The transition from arsenic copper to tin-bronze in ancient metallurgy has long been attributed t... more The transition from arsenic copper to tin-bronze in ancient metallurgy has long been attributed to the superior physical and mechanical properties of tin-bronze. However, recent archaeometallurgical studies have cast doubt on this theory, suggesting that the functional and productive advantages of tin-bronze over arsenical copper may not be as clear-cut as traditionally thought.
This paper presents the analytical study of the metal objects from the Siret Collection held by t... more This paper presents the analytical study of the metal objects from the Siret Collection held by the British Museum. X-ray Fluorescence has been conducted to determine their elemental composition and by lead isotope analysis (by MC-ICP-MS) to determine their origin. We combine this new data with extant analyses to discuss and reinterpret the role of bronze alloys in Argaric society and the diversity of exploited mining resources.
Objects of personal adornment from Late Antiquity have been extensively studied in the Iberian Pe... more Objects of personal adornment from Late Antiquity have been extensively studied in the Iberian Peninsula since the 19th century, when the first funerary contexts from that period began to come to light. However, only partial information was available with regard to their production process and chemical composition. This came from the archaeometallurgical studies carried out on funerary assemblages from central and northern Iberia. In order to obtain a more complete picture, a set of 80 copper-based alloy objects were analysed, most of ornaments and parts of them, from the necropolis of Cortijo del Chopo (Granada), in southeastern Spain. The results from the portable X-ray fluorescence reveal the presence of a wide variety of alloys and confirm the practice of recycling metals to make the items, a characteristic of the metallurgy of the period. Lead isotope analysis provide evidence of a local production of brass objects with a high Zn content, similar in appearance to gold.
LANDSCAPES AND RESOURCES IN THE BRONZE AGE OF SOUTHERN SPAIN, 2022
Contrary to copper ore resources, tin is scarce in southeastern Iberia. However, tin is essential... more Contrary to copper ore resources, tin is scarce in southeastern Iberia. However, tin is essential to produce the copper/tin alloy called tin bronze.
The fi rst use of this alloy in the so-called El Argar Culture is detected in its later phases (from 1900–1800 calBC), although it never constituted the predominant alloy. The absence of metallurgical debris related to bronze smelting limits our understanding on how the alloy was obtained
and if cassiterite was co-smelted with copper ores in the Argaric territory or whether metallic tin bronzes were imported to El Argar from regions
further away. Tin, as an external resource, would have been exchanged or traded, but there is also the possibility that fi nished bronze objects were
imported as well. Some differential pattern in the presence/absence of arsenic in the composition of metal objects could refl ect a double strategy, suggesting that local production of tin bronzes usually
contains some arsenic, but tin bronzes without any arsenic could have come from other Iberian regions, or at least that different copper ores for
the production of arsenical copper and tin bronze were used. This hypothesis is tested using the available lead isotopes analyses.
Revista d'Arqueologia de Ponent, 2021
Se presentan nuevos datos sobre la actividad metalúrgica en el
término de Gandía obtenidos en las... more Se presentan nuevos datos sobre la actividad metalúrgica en el
término de Gandía obtenidos en las excavaciones de las parcelas de
Sanxo Llop durante los años del 2010 al 2016. El trabajo recoge la
información sobre tres estructuras (59, 105 y 126), una de ellas con
un enterramiento infantil. Todas ellas contienen restos metalúrgicos
y algunos objetos cuyo estudio mediante caracterización elemental
(XRF) y de análisis isótopos de plomo permiten reinterpretar el
modelo propuesto hace años para la metalurgia calcolítica del vecino
yacimiento de La Vital. La constatación de metalurgia precampaniforme
y la aparición de mineral (arseniato de cobre) indican
que las estrategias de producción del metal pudieron ser diversas
y complementarias a lo largo del amplio tiempo de ocupación
de los yacimientos de Gandía en torno a la ribera del río Serpis.
This paper presents the study of a sword found in Talayot del Serral de ses Abelles (Puigpunyent,... more This paper presents the study of a sword found in Talayot del Serral de ses Abelles (Puigpunyent, Mallorca). The remarkable state of conservation of this sword and the fact that it is the only item of its kind documented in the 21st century in an archaeological excavation make it an exceptional find. The main purpose of this research is to characterise its technological and archaeological significance. The analytical information presented (14 C, XRF, ICP-MS, radiography, metallography, micro-hardness and LIA) makes possible the dating of one of these objects for the first time, and provides important information to understand the manufacturing process of this sword, its functionality, its social significance, as well as aspects related to the provenance of the copper ores used. Thus, our research provides essential information to understand these objects as emblematic items rather than functional weapons, and contextualises them within the Balearic Late Bronze Age societies and broader Western Mediterranean trading routes.
THE MATTER OF PREHISTORY: PAPERS IN HONOR OF ANTONIO GILMAN GUILLÉN, 2021
Una de las cualidades del metal es que puede ser reciclado. El mayor o menor uso del reciclado se... more Una de las cualidades del metal es que puede ser reciclado. El mayor o menor uso del reciclado se ve condicionado, entre otros factores, por la disponibilidad de materia prima nueva y por la demanda de consumo, pero otros factores socioeconómicos influyen también en el volumen general de material reciclado que se emplea en cada periodo histórico. Para interpretar el volumen de producción metalúrgica y en los estudios sobre la procedencia del metal con isótopos de plomo es necesario valorar qué incidencia tiene el reciclado. En este trabajo nos centramos en la Edad del Bronce argárica y desarrollamos tres líneas argumentales que
nos permiten conocer cómo se usa el metal y valorar la incidencia de metal reciclado. Primero definiremos, a través de los propios objetos
metálicos, qué información funcional pueden aportar sobre la cantidad de metal que entra en el sistema de reciclaje; después usaremos los datos de composición para ver si los modelos de impurezas encajan en las pautas o tendencias esperables de un metal reciclado, y por último
utilizaremos la información disponible sobre los isótopos de plomo donde pueden identificarse pautas de reciclado del metal a través de su distribución y la identificación de líneas de mezcla.
Todos los datos apuntan a que el reciclaje de metal no fue un factor básico en la producción metalúrgica de El Argar.
Plos One, 2021
Debates on early metallurgy in Western Europe have frequently focused on the social value of copp... more Debates on early metallurgy in Western Europe have frequently focused on the social value of copper (between utilitarian and symbolic) and its purported role in the emergence and consolidation of hierarchies. Recent research shows that generalisations are increasingly untenable and highlights the need for comparative regional studies. Given its location in an intermediate area, the early metallurgy of Northeast Iberia provides an interesting case in point to explore the interaction between the well-characterised traditions of southern Iberia and southern France during the 3 rd and 2 nd millennia BCE. Here the analytical study of seven Bell Beaker (decorated and undecorated) vessels reused as crucibles at Bauma del Serrrat del Pont (Tortellà, Girona) are presented. We employed pXRF, metallography, SEM-EDS and lead isotope analyses. The results show evidence for copper smelting employing a remarkable variety of ore sources, including Solana del Bepo, Turquesa and Les Ferreres mines, and an extra unknown area. The smelting vessels were manufactured using the same clay, which contained both mineral and organic inclusions. Our results are discussed with reference to all the evidence available for metals and metallurgy in the Northeast, and more broadly in comparison to southern Iberia and southern France, with special emphasis on issues of production organisation and social complexity. Taken together, our results support the notion that copper metallurgy played a predominantly utilitarian role in Bell Beaker societies and highlight idiosyncratic aspects of the metallurgical trajectory in the Northeast. Differences between territories challenge unilinear explanations of technological and social development after the introduction of metallurgy. Separate trajectories can only be explained in relation to area-specific socio-cultural and environmental factors.
Eurasia Antiqua, 2021
The origin of metallurgy is probably one of the most significant technological innovations in hum... more The origin of metallurgy is probably one of the most significant technological innovations in human history, and one of the most debated questions regarding prehistory in Eurasia. Broadly speaking, there are two factors which have brought about interest in this topic. One is the debate between the multiple origins interpretation and the rival
diffusionist perspective that posits a single place of invention. The other is the role played by metallurgy as a technological innovation in the process of social strati»cation leading to the formation of early states.
Garranes. An Early Medieval Royal Site in South-West Ireland, 2021
Trabajos de Prehistoria , 2020
The role of metallurgy in the Copper Age communities of the Iberian Southeast is a recurrent ques... more The role of metallurgy in the Copper Age communities of the Iberian Southeast is a recurrent question of archaeological research in western Europe. Based on lead isotope and trace element analyses of archaeometallurgical remains, this paper addresses the territorial organisation of metallur-gical production during the Copper Age (3100-2200 cal BC) in the Vera Basin (Almería, Spain), the region with the earliest metallurgical evidence in western Europe. This paper comprises the study of materials from the three main settlements with metallurgical activity in the area (Las Pilas, San-ta Bárbara and Almizaraque), as well as some metal objects from these and other sites (La Encantada I, Loma de Bel-monte and Las Churuletas 1). The results support a model of small-scale regional production whereby settlements exploited the resources of their nearby surroundings (up to 30 km as the crow flies). However , metallurgical exploitation prioritised mineralisations rich in arsenic and other elements, even when other sources were more readily accessible: for the case of Las Pilas, the exploitation of Pinar de Bédar sources instead of Sierra Cabrera, closer to the site; for the cases of Santa Bárbara and Almizaraque, the sources of Cerro Minado. The possibility that Almizaraque and Las Pilas also exploited the minerals of Herrerías, although to a lesser extent, remains open. Broader exchange networks are indicated by the data from finished objects, from which greater mobility can be inferred.
RESUMEN
El papel de la metalurgia en las comunidades de la Edad del Cobre del Sureste de la península ibérica es una cuestión recurrente en la investigación arqueológica en Europa occidental. A partir del análisis de isótopos de plomo y ele-mentos traza de restos arqueometalúrgicos, este artículo aborda la organización territorial de la producción meta-lúrgica durante la Edad del Cobre (3100-2200 cal aC) en la cuenca de Vera (Almería, España); la región con las Raw material procurement and selection in Southeast Iberia's early metallurgy * Captación y selección de materias primas en la primera metalurgia del Sureste de la península ibérica
Boletín del Museo Arqueológico Nacional, 2019
Resumen: La aleación de cobre con estaño aparece por primera vez en el sureste de la península ib... more Resumen: La aleación de cobre con estaño aparece por primera vez en el sureste de la península ibérica en época argárica. En el presente estudio realizamos una recopilación de todos los análisis de composición publicados con el fin de valorar la frecuencia y el uso de esta aleación. Los datos muestran que algunos objetos como las alabardas nunca se fabricaron en bronce y que es en los adornos personales (brazaletes, anillo y pendientes) en los que con mayor frecuencia se detecta esta aleación. El efecto cromático de los metales y aleaciones (cobre, bronce, plata) y su combinación en los ajuares funerarios o el mayor o menor valor social dado a los diferentes metales parecen explicar mejor su elección y uso que los criterios de mejora tecnológica o funcional en esta fase de la Edad del Bronce. Se plantea que los primeros bronces pudieran ser objetos importados de otras regiones peninsulares o europeas.
Palabras clave: Arqueometalurgia. Edad del Bronce. Composición elemental. Aleación. Cobre. Estaño.
Abstract: Tin bronze alloys were first used in the southeast of the iberian peninsula during the period of the El Argar Early Bronze Age culture. In this study, we compiled all the available published elemental analyses in order to understand the frequency and use of this alloy. The data show that some metal types such as halberds were never made of bronze, whereas a great number of personal ornaments (earrings, arm-rings or finger-rings) do contain tin. The chromatic effect by combining different metals and alloys (copper, bronze, silver) in the same object or in the same burial, or the higher or lower social value given to the different metals, could explain the choices in the alloys used instead of just functional or technological advantages during this Early Bronze Age. We also consider the option of metal imports from other Iberian or European regions to explain the presence of the first tin bronzes.
Journal of iberian geology , 2019
This paper presents trace element compositions and lead isotope analyses by MC-ICP-MS of 34 coppe... more This paper presents trace element compositions and lead isotope analyses by MC-ICP-MS of 34 copper ore samples from the Internal Zone of the Betic Range, Southeast Spain. Samples were collected during a fieldwork campaign in the mines of Cerro Minado, Pinar de Bédar, Sierra Cabrera and Sierra Almagrera/Herrerías. Most samples are copper oxide minerals from the near surface alteration of the sulfide ore deposits. The aim of the study is to supplement the existing reference data bank on lead isotopic compositions of ancient copper mines from the Iberian Peninsula, complementing this data with trace element compositions. The latter can be useful for discriminating when isotopic overlaps occur. This characterisation will be of great usefulness for provenancing further archaeological materials. Lead isotope ratios range from 18.603 to 20.327 (206 Pb/ 204 Pb); from 15.685 to 15.779 (207 Pb/ 204 Pb) and from 38.728 to 39.702 (208 Pb/ 204 Pb). Data from the literature analysed by TIMS have been also considered for comparison although the larger analytical error is highlighted, especially for isotope 204 Pb. The lead isotopic signature of the analysed samples shows three separate isotopic fields. These fields are also consistent with differences in compositions evidenced by principal component analyses.
Metals, Minds and Mobility seeks to integrate archaeometallurgical data with archaeological theor... more Metals, Minds and Mobility seeks to integrate archaeometallurgical data with archaeological theory to address longstanding questions about mechanisms of exchange, mobility and social complexity in prehistory. The circulation of metal has long been viewed as a catalyst for social, economic and population changes in Europe. New techniques and perspectives derived from archaeological science can shed new light on the understanding of the movement of people, materials and technological knowledge. In recent years these science-based approaches have situated mobility at the forefront of the archaeological debate. Advances in the characterisation of metals and metallurgical residues combined with more sophisticated approaches to data analysis add greater resolution to provenance studies. Though offering better pictures of artefact source, the explanation of artefact distribution across geographic space requires the use of theoretically informed models and solid archaeological evidence to discern differences between the circulation of raw materials, ingots, objects, craftspeople and populations. Bringing together many leading expert contributions address topics that include the invention, innovation and transmission of metallurgical knowledge; archaeometric based models of exchange; characterization and discrimination of different modes of material circulation; and the impact of metals on social complexity. The 13 papers are organised in three main sections dealing with key debates in archaeology: transmission of metallurgical technologies, knowledge and ideas; prestige economies and exchange; and circulation of metal as commodities and concludes with a review current approaches, situating the volume in a broader context and identifying future research directions.
Metals, Minds and Mobility. Integrating Scientific Data with Archaeological Theory, 2018
Big narratives on the role of metallurgy in social change and technological innovations are commo... more Big narratives on the role of metallurgy in social change and technological innovations are common in archaeology. However, informed discussion of these issues requires a contextualised characterisation of metallurgical technology at the local level in its specific social and technological contexts. This paper approaches early metallurgy in Iberia from a technological perspective. We focus on the site of Las Pilas in the Vera Basin (Mojácar, Almería, Spain), where the whole metallurgical chaîne opératoire has been documented in situ through archaeological excavation of a third millennium BC context. The study includes microstructural, mineralogical and chemical analyses of ores, slag, technical ceramics and finished artefacts, as well as domestic pottery used for comparative purposes. These results are discussed with reference to the archaeological context and evidence for other domestic activities and crafts. Our aim is to contribute to better charac-terise the early metallurgical tradition of Southeast Iberia, paying particular attention to specific technological tools, knowledge and recipes that may allow future comparative approaches to knowledge transmission or independent innovation debates. For this particular case, we demonstrate the direct production of arsenical copper in a low-scale, low-spe-cialisation, low-efficiency set up that involved the crucible smelting of complex oxidic ores in a context that suggests associations with cereal roasting and, indirectly, with basket and pottery making.
In: The Prehistory of Iberia. Debating Early Social Stratification and the State (Cruz Berrocal, M.; García Sanjuán, L. and Gilman, A. Eds.) , 2013
In the last three decades, the Iberian Copper Age or Chalcolithic (ca. 3200–2200 cal B.C. ) has p... more In the last three decades, the Iberian Copper Age or Chalcolithic (ca. 3200–2200 cal B.C. ) has probably been the period that has generated more scientific controversy within southern Iberian Late Prehistory. The diversity of theoretical approaches applied, the wealth of problems under discussion, and the constant opposition of interpretations aimed at explaining the evergrowing
base of empirical evidence have bestowed the Iberian Copper Age with a scientifi c debate of broad epistemological implications and crucial repercussions for the understanding of third-millennium Western Europe.
By the last quarter of the fourth millennium, the farming societies that had been developing in southern Iberia since the mid-sixth millennium began to experience an extraordinary social expansion in the broadest sense. This expansion materialized through aspects such as: (1) demographic growth, evidenced by the increasing number of settlements—and settlement size—together with their formal diversifi cation; (2) the intensification of agricultural economy, based in part on the availability of a larger workforce and the introduction of technological innovations—seen as part of the secondary products revolution , de facto a “second neolithization”;
(3) the development of copper metallurgy—and let us keep in mind that the local-development hypothesis for Iberia is far from discarded; (4) the extension and intensifi cation of supraregional exchange networks that had already been operating since the Neolithic and that all the southern Iberian regions were part of—allowing for the trade of a wide range of products, including flint, metal, and certain rare rocks and exotic commodities such
as amber, green stones, ivory, and ostrich eggs; (5) the increase in specialized production, especially with respect to metallic and exotic artifacts, as well as, possibly, textiles; (6) the increasing complexity of social relation structures, with the appearance of previously nonexistent forms of hierarchy and a growing social inequality, which became materialized in increasingly complex and diverse burial practices; (7) the notable enrichment and increasing sophistication of plastic, graphic, and (in a more general sense) artistic expression in forms, themes, and techniques used.
Throughout the first half of the third millennium, this process of social expansion continued on a steady trajectory. However, toward 2200 cal B.C., and allowing for regional diversity, substantial discontinuities took place, causing either the intensification of some of the preceding trends or their inhibition/interruption. In any case, new forms of social organization were generated that, under the current conventional time periodization, are usually attributed to the Bronze Age (First Phase, ca. 2200–1600/1550 cal B.C. ).
The Iberian Copper Age, therefore, is a time characterized by the social consolidation of southern Iberian human communities through an enhanced economic and technological capacity with an increasingly elaborate culture. It is thus natural that since the very start of Iberian prehistoric research, the debate on this period has been intense, with special attention devoted to
the processes, causes, and relations behind the growing social complexity.
Social complexity has been, without a doubt, at the core of the discussion in the last thirty years, being constantly fed by new data and interpretations and reviewed by different theoretical perspectives. Brought about with the appearance of infl uential Anglo-American researchers, who brought with them the epistemological and theoretical approaches of the New Archaeology, the debate on Iberian Copper Age social complexity has gained an international dimension that is unknown in other areas of Iberian Late Prehistory.
In fact, in recent years, most research has striven to contribute data and arguments leading to a better understanding of the organization of Chalcolithic societies. Literature published regarding this period teems with heuristic devices such as “colonies,” “central places,” “chiefdoms,” “states,” and even “civilizations,” refl ecting the various models employed according
to whichever theoretical approaches were in style at each particular time.
To illustrate this, Pedro Díaz-del-Río recently pointed out that the site of Los Millares (Almería, Spain) has climbed all the steps of the neoevolutionary ladder—or should we say stairway?—having been considered, in this order, egalitarian, big-man, hierarchical, chiefdom, and state (Díaz-del-Río 2011: 40).
Within the context of this extensive debate, this chapter aims to critically analyze the most recent proposals that have described southern Iberian Chalcolithic societies as “states.” Given the limited extension available, this study will focus on our current understanding of settlements, a most significant record for analyzing social complexity. To this end, this chapter is
divided in two parts: first, the evolution of Chalcolithic settlement interpretation is briefl y discussed; then we examine, the specific site of Valencina de la Concepción (Seville, Spain) within the context of the lower Guadalquivir valley (southwest Spain).
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Copper-based metallurgy by Mercedes Murillo-Barroso
The fi rst use of this alloy in the so-called El Argar Culture is detected in its later phases (from 1900–1800 calBC), although it never constituted the predominant alloy. The absence of metallurgical debris related to bronze smelting limits our understanding on how the alloy was obtained
and if cassiterite was co-smelted with copper ores in the Argaric territory or whether metallic tin bronzes were imported to El Argar from regions
further away. Tin, as an external resource, would have been exchanged or traded, but there is also the possibility that fi nished bronze objects were
imported as well. Some differential pattern in the presence/absence of arsenic in the composition of metal objects could refl ect a double strategy, suggesting that local production of tin bronzes usually
contains some arsenic, but tin bronzes without any arsenic could have come from other Iberian regions, or at least that different copper ores for
the production of arsenical copper and tin bronze were used. This hypothesis is tested using the available lead isotopes analyses.
término de Gandía obtenidos en las excavaciones de las parcelas de
Sanxo Llop durante los años del 2010 al 2016. El trabajo recoge la
información sobre tres estructuras (59, 105 y 126), una de ellas con
un enterramiento infantil. Todas ellas contienen restos metalúrgicos
y algunos objetos cuyo estudio mediante caracterización elemental
(XRF) y de análisis isótopos de plomo permiten reinterpretar el
modelo propuesto hace años para la metalurgia calcolítica del vecino
yacimiento de La Vital. La constatación de metalurgia precampaniforme
y la aparición de mineral (arseniato de cobre) indican
que las estrategias de producción del metal pudieron ser diversas
y complementarias a lo largo del amplio tiempo de ocupación
de los yacimientos de Gandía en torno a la ribera del río Serpis.
nos permiten conocer cómo se usa el metal y valorar la incidencia de metal reciclado. Primero definiremos, a través de los propios objetos
metálicos, qué información funcional pueden aportar sobre la cantidad de metal que entra en el sistema de reciclaje; después usaremos los datos de composición para ver si los modelos de impurezas encajan en las pautas o tendencias esperables de un metal reciclado, y por último
utilizaremos la información disponible sobre los isótopos de plomo donde pueden identificarse pautas de reciclado del metal a través de su distribución y la identificación de líneas de mezcla.
Todos los datos apuntan a que el reciclaje de metal no fue un factor básico en la producción metalúrgica de El Argar.
diffusionist perspective that posits a single place of invention. The other is the role played by metallurgy as a technological innovation in the process of social strati»cation leading to the formation of early states.
RESUMEN
El papel de la metalurgia en las comunidades de la Edad del Cobre del Sureste de la península ibérica es una cuestión recurrente en la investigación arqueológica en Europa occidental. A partir del análisis de isótopos de plomo y ele-mentos traza de restos arqueometalúrgicos, este artículo aborda la organización territorial de la producción meta-lúrgica durante la Edad del Cobre (3100-2200 cal aC) en la cuenca de Vera (Almería, España); la región con las Raw material procurement and selection in Southeast Iberia's early metallurgy * Captación y selección de materias primas en la primera metalurgia del Sureste de la península ibérica
Palabras clave: Arqueometalurgia. Edad del Bronce. Composición elemental. Aleación. Cobre. Estaño.
Abstract: Tin bronze alloys were first used in the southeast of the iberian peninsula during the period of the El Argar Early Bronze Age culture. In this study, we compiled all the available published elemental analyses in order to understand the frequency and use of this alloy. The data show that some metal types such as halberds were never made of bronze, whereas a great number of personal ornaments (earrings, arm-rings or finger-rings) do contain tin. The chromatic effect by combining different metals and alloys (copper, bronze, silver) in the same object or in the same burial, or the higher or lower social value given to the different metals, could explain the choices in the alloys used instead of just functional or technological advantages during this Early Bronze Age. We also consider the option of metal imports from other Iberian or European regions to explain the presence of the first tin bronzes.
base of empirical evidence have bestowed the Iberian Copper Age with a scientifi c debate of broad epistemological implications and crucial repercussions for the understanding of third-millennium Western Europe.
By the last quarter of the fourth millennium, the farming societies that had been developing in southern Iberia since the mid-sixth millennium began to experience an extraordinary social expansion in the broadest sense. This expansion materialized through aspects such as: (1) demographic growth, evidenced by the increasing number of settlements—and settlement size—together with their formal diversifi cation; (2) the intensification of agricultural economy, based in part on the availability of a larger workforce and the introduction of technological innovations—seen as part of the secondary products revolution , de facto a “second neolithization”;
(3) the development of copper metallurgy—and let us keep in mind that the local-development hypothesis for Iberia is far from discarded; (4) the extension and intensifi cation of supraregional exchange networks that had already been operating since the Neolithic and that all the southern Iberian regions were part of—allowing for the trade of a wide range of products, including flint, metal, and certain rare rocks and exotic commodities such
as amber, green stones, ivory, and ostrich eggs; (5) the increase in specialized production, especially with respect to metallic and exotic artifacts, as well as, possibly, textiles; (6) the increasing complexity of social relation structures, with the appearance of previously nonexistent forms of hierarchy and a growing social inequality, which became materialized in increasingly complex and diverse burial practices; (7) the notable enrichment and increasing sophistication of plastic, graphic, and (in a more general sense) artistic expression in forms, themes, and techniques used.
Throughout the first half of the third millennium, this process of social expansion continued on a steady trajectory. However, toward 2200 cal B.C., and allowing for regional diversity, substantial discontinuities took place, causing either the intensification of some of the preceding trends or their inhibition/interruption. In any case, new forms of social organization were generated that, under the current conventional time periodization, are usually attributed to the Bronze Age (First Phase, ca. 2200–1600/1550 cal B.C. ).
The Iberian Copper Age, therefore, is a time characterized by the social consolidation of southern Iberian human communities through an enhanced economic and technological capacity with an increasingly elaborate culture. It is thus natural that since the very start of Iberian prehistoric research, the debate on this period has been intense, with special attention devoted to
the processes, causes, and relations behind the growing social complexity.
Social complexity has been, without a doubt, at the core of the discussion in the last thirty years, being constantly fed by new data and interpretations and reviewed by different theoretical perspectives. Brought about with the appearance of infl uential Anglo-American researchers, who brought with them the epistemological and theoretical approaches of the New Archaeology, the debate on Iberian Copper Age social complexity has gained an international dimension that is unknown in other areas of Iberian Late Prehistory.
In fact, in recent years, most research has striven to contribute data and arguments leading to a better understanding of the organization of Chalcolithic societies. Literature published regarding this period teems with heuristic devices such as “colonies,” “central places,” “chiefdoms,” “states,” and even “civilizations,” refl ecting the various models employed according
to whichever theoretical approaches were in style at each particular time.
To illustrate this, Pedro Díaz-del-Río recently pointed out that the site of Los Millares (Almería, Spain) has climbed all the steps of the neoevolutionary ladder—or should we say stairway?—having been considered, in this order, egalitarian, big-man, hierarchical, chiefdom, and state (Díaz-del-Río 2011: 40).
Within the context of this extensive debate, this chapter aims to critically analyze the most recent proposals that have described southern Iberian Chalcolithic societies as “states.” Given the limited extension available, this study will focus on our current understanding of settlements, a most significant record for analyzing social complexity. To this end, this chapter is
divided in two parts: first, the evolution of Chalcolithic settlement interpretation is briefl y discussed; then we examine, the specific site of Valencina de la Concepción (Seville, Spain) within the context of the lower Guadalquivir valley (southwest Spain).
The fi rst use of this alloy in the so-called El Argar Culture is detected in its later phases (from 1900–1800 calBC), although it never constituted the predominant alloy. The absence of metallurgical debris related to bronze smelting limits our understanding on how the alloy was obtained
and if cassiterite was co-smelted with copper ores in the Argaric territory or whether metallic tin bronzes were imported to El Argar from regions
further away. Tin, as an external resource, would have been exchanged or traded, but there is also the possibility that fi nished bronze objects were
imported as well. Some differential pattern in the presence/absence of arsenic in the composition of metal objects could refl ect a double strategy, suggesting that local production of tin bronzes usually
contains some arsenic, but tin bronzes without any arsenic could have come from other Iberian regions, or at least that different copper ores for
the production of arsenical copper and tin bronze were used. This hypothesis is tested using the available lead isotopes analyses.
término de Gandía obtenidos en las excavaciones de las parcelas de
Sanxo Llop durante los años del 2010 al 2016. El trabajo recoge la
información sobre tres estructuras (59, 105 y 126), una de ellas con
un enterramiento infantil. Todas ellas contienen restos metalúrgicos
y algunos objetos cuyo estudio mediante caracterización elemental
(XRF) y de análisis isótopos de plomo permiten reinterpretar el
modelo propuesto hace años para la metalurgia calcolítica del vecino
yacimiento de La Vital. La constatación de metalurgia precampaniforme
y la aparición de mineral (arseniato de cobre) indican
que las estrategias de producción del metal pudieron ser diversas
y complementarias a lo largo del amplio tiempo de ocupación
de los yacimientos de Gandía en torno a la ribera del río Serpis.
nos permiten conocer cómo se usa el metal y valorar la incidencia de metal reciclado. Primero definiremos, a través de los propios objetos
metálicos, qué información funcional pueden aportar sobre la cantidad de metal que entra en el sistema de reciclaje; después usaremos los datos de composición para ver si los modelos de impurezas encajan en las pautas o tendencias esperables de un metal reciclado, y por último
utilizaremos la información disponible sobre los isótopos de plomo donde pueden identificarse pautas de reciclado del metal a través de su distribución y la identificación de líneas de mezcla.
Todos los datos apuntan a que el reciclaje de metal no fue un factor básico en la producción metalúrgica de El Argar.
diffusionist perspective that posits a single place of invention. The other is the role played by metallurgy as a technological innovation in the process of social strati»cation leading to the formation of early states.
RESUMEN
El papel de la metalurgia en las comunidades de la Edad del Cobre del Sureste de la península ibérica es una cuestión recurrente en la investigación arqueológica en Europa occidental. A partir del análisis de isótopos de plomo y ele-mentos traza de restos arqueometalúrgicos, este artículo aborda la organización territorial de la producción meta-lúrgica durante la Edad del Cobre (3100-2200 cal aC) en la cuenca de Vera (Almería, España); la región con las Raw material procurement and selection in Southeast Iberia's early metallurgy * Captación y selección de materias primas en la primera metalurgia del Sureste de la península ibérica
Palabras clave: Arqueometalurgia. Edad del Bronce. Composición elemental. Aleación. Cobre. Estaño.
Abstract: Tin bronze alloys were first used in the southeast of the iberian peninsula during the period of the El Argar Early Bronze Age culture. In this study, we compiled all the available published elemental analyses in order to understand the frequency and use of this alloy. The data show that some metal types such as halberds were never made of bronze, whereas a great number of personal ornaments (earrings, arm-rings or finger-rings) do contain tin. The chromatic effect by combining different metals and alloys (copper, bronze, silver) in the same object or in the same burial, or the higher or lower social value given to the different metals, could explain the choices in the alloys used instead of just functional or technological advantages during this Early Bronze Age. We also consider the option of metal imports from other Iberian or European regions to explain the presence of the first tin bronzes.
base of empirical evidence have bestowed the Iberian Copper Age with a scientifi c debate of broad epistemological implications and crucial repercussions for the understanding of third-millennium Western Europe.
By the last quarter of the fourth millennium, the farming societies that had been developing in southern Iberia since the mid-sixth millennium began to experience an extraordinary social expansion in the broadest sense. This expansion materialized through aspects such as: (1) demographic growth, evidenced by the increasing number of settlements—and settlement size—together with their formal diversifi cation; (2) the intensification of agricultural economy, based in part on the availability of a larger workforce and the introduction of technological innovations—seen as part of the secondary products revolution , de facto a “second neolithization”;
(3) the development of copper metallurgy—and let us keep in mind that the local-development hypothesis for Iberia is far from discarded; (4) the extension and intensifi cation of supraregional exchange networks that had already been operating since the Neolithic and that all the southern Iberian regions were part of—allowing for the trade of a wide range of products, including flint, metal, and certain rare rocks and exotic commodities such
as amber, green stones, ivory, and ostrich eggs; (5) the increase in specialized production, especially with respect to metallic and exotic artifacts, as well as, possibly, textiles; (6) the increasing complexity of social relation structures, with the appearance of previously nonexistent forms of hierarchy and a growing social inequality, which became materialized in increasingly complex and diverse burial practices; (7) the notable enrichment and increasing sophistication of plastic, graphic, and (in a more general sense) artistic expression in forms, themes, and techniques used.
Throughout the first half of the third millennium, this process of social expansion continued on a steady trajectory. However, toward 2200 cal B.C., and allowing for regional diversity, substantial discontinuities took place, causing either the intensification of some of the preceding trends or their inhibition/interruption. In any case, new forms of social organization were generated that, under the current conventional time periodization, are usually attributed to the Bronze Age (First Phase, ca. 2200–1600/1550 cal B.C. ).
The Iberian Copper Age, therefore, is a time characterized by the social consolidation of southern Iberian human communities through an enhanced economic and technological capacity with an increasingly elaborate culture. It is thus natural that since the very start of Iberian prehistoric research, the debate on this period has been intense, with special attention devoted to
the processes, causes, and relations behind the growing social complexity.
Social complexity has been, without a doubt, at the core of the discussion in the last thirty years, being constantly fed by new data and interpretations and reviewed by different theoretical perspectives. Brought about with the appearance of infl uential Anglo-American researchers, who brought with them the epistemological and theoretical approaches of the New Archaeology, the debate on Iberian Copper Age social complexity has gained an international dimension that is unknown in other areas of Iberian Late Prehistory.
In fact, in recent years, most research has striven to contribute data and arguments leading to a better understanding of the organization of Chalcolithic societies. Literature published regarding this period teems with heuristic devices such as “colonies,” “central places,” “chiefdoms,” “states,” and even “civilizations,” refl ecting the various models employed according
to whichever theoretical approaches were in style at each particular time.
To illustrate this, Pedro Díaz-del-Río recently pointed out that the site of Los Millares (Almería, Spain) has climbed all the steps of the neoevolutionary ladder—or should we say stairway?—having been considered, in this order, egalitarian, big-man, hierarchical, chiefdom, and state (Díaz-del-Río 2011: 40).
Within the context of this extensive debate, this chapter aims to critically analyze the most recent proposals that have described southern Iberian Chalcolithic societies as “states.” Given the limited extension available, this study will focus on our current understanding of settlements, a most significant record for analyzing social complexity. To this end, this chapter is
divided in two parts: first, the evolution of Chalcolithic settlement interpretation is briefl y discussed; then we examine, the specific site of Valencina de la Concepción (Seville, Spain) within the context of the lower Guadalquivir valley (southwest Spain).
ABSTRACT The presence of exotic objects in archaeological contexts and the long-distance exchanges that they implied are one of the most interesting topics in archaeological discussions. In this paper we present the study of a bead or pendant found in Neolithic contexts in Cueva de los Cuarenta (Priego de Córdoba). This is the only ornament found in the cave, where a minimum number of 41 inhumations dating in the course of the 4th millennium cal BC were documented. Archaeological context of the finding is described as well as its archaeometric characterization by Infrared Fourier Transform Spectroscopy (FTIR). Analytical results show that it is an amber bead made from foreign material, similar to the one used in later amber production such as those found at Valencina de la Concepción (Sevilla). Similar to these, an exogenous provenance is proposed, Sicilian origin being the most likely up to date, which will contribute to the discussion on the implications these foreign materials might have had on Iberian prehistoric societies.
of social complexity, but so far no comprehensive view of the Iberian evidence has been produced to allow a more overarching interpretive model.
This paper presents the Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) characterization of archaeological amber from three Iberian prehistoric sites: a necklace recovered from the megalithic site of Palacio III (Almadeń de la Plata, Sevilla), a pommel from PP4 Montelirio (Valencina de la Concepción, Sevilla), and a necklace from the Muricecs de Cellers cave (Llimiana, Pallars Jussà, Lleida). Based on these new data and a review of the literature, we present an overview that outlines fluctuations in the use of amber since the Upper Palaeolithic and demonstrates long-distance amber exchange connecting Iberia with northern Europe and the Mediterranean region since the Chalcolithic period at least. We discuss changes in the origins and cultural use of amber and their implications for the consolidation of trade networks."
buted, and thus depends on a given specific con-
text; if it has a dynamic and contingent nature and it is not a property inherent to materiality in itself; if the value of objects is ultimately the materialised reflection of an interpersonal relationship, how and through what processes do objects acquire value? How and through which processes do they change over time and space? And finally, how and through what indicators can we deduce the social value that prehistoric objects held in their day?
In this article, we will carry out a comparative
review of the role of amber and metal on the Iberi-
an Peninsula. Drawing from the resource availability, working processes, and the use, exchange, and amortisation of objects, we will address the social meaning of both resources during Late Prehistory and how it changed over time.
The excavation of the Montelirio tholos, has revealed what is certainly the largest collection of amber objects of the Iberian Late Prehistory by far. In total over 250 beads and pendants have been documented, most of them directly associated with human remains. This chapter presents a study of the amber pieces recovered, currently curated at the Archaeological Museum of Seville, in their broader Chalcolithic Iberian context. 35 samples from the Montelirio tholos as well as fragments appeared in the structure 10042-10049 of PP4-Montelirio were analyzed by Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy (FTIR). Results obtained for the amber dagger pommel of the same structure previously published (Murillo-Barroso and Garcia Sanjuan, 2013) were also considered as a matter of comparison. All amber samples from Montelirio with little alteration, as well as samples from PP4 Montelirio have the same spectra which, as the amber pommel does, resemble the Sicilian simetita. Samples taken from the altered layer have allowed defining the characteristic spectrum exhibited by these resins after post-depositional alteration.
Keywords: Amber, Provenance, FTIR, Late Prehistory, Ornaments, Exchange.
Resumen:
La excavación del tholos de Montelirio, ha sacado a la luz la que es sin duda la mayor colección de objetos de ámbar de la Prehistoria Reciente de la Península Ibérica con diferencia. En total se han documentado más de 250 cuentas y colgantes, en su mayoría directamente asociados a restos humanos. En este capítulo se presenta un estudio de las piezas de ámbar recuperadas, hoy día depositadas en el Museo Arqueológico Provincial de Sevilla, así como su contextualización en el marco del Calcolítico peninsular. De las más de 250 piezas de Montelirio, se analizaron 35 muestras por espectrometría de infra-rojos por transformada de Fourier (FTIR) además de unos fragmentos aparecidos en la Estructura 10.042-10.049 del PP4-Montelirio. A título comparativo se utilizaron los resultados obtenidos para el pomo de ámbar de la misma estructura ya publicados con anterioridad (Murillo-Barroso y García Sanjuán, 2013). Tanto las muestras del PP4 Montelirio como todas las muestras de ámbar con escasa alteración del tholos de Montelirio presentan un mismo espectro, que al igual que el del pomo de ámbar, se asemejan a la simetita siciliana. Las muestras tomadas sobre la capa de alteración de estos ámbares también han permitido definir el espectro característico que presentan estas resinas tras una alteración post-deposicional.
Palabras clave: Ámbar, Procedencia, FTIR, Prehistoria Reciente, Adorno, Intercambios.
No obstante, son pocas las piezas conocidas de este material en la Hispania romana. En el presente trabajo damos a conocer nueve objetos de ámbar de diverso tipo precedentes de dos lotes recuperados en la antigua Augusta Emerita.
Además de su análisis iconográfico, morfológico, funcional y contextual, se presentan los resultados de su caracterización arqueométrica por Espectrometría de Infrarrojos por Transformada de Fourier (FTIR), que revelan su procedencia báltica. Se plantea también la posibilidad de que la officina de manufactura se localice en Aquitania, llegando a Hispania como objetos ya acabados.
Infrarrojos por Transformada de Fourier (FTIR) de una de las cinco cuentas de ámbar
recuperadas en el sepulcro megalítico de La Velilla. Según ellos, puede considerarse que el ámbar recogido en esta sepultura –al menos el correspondiente a la cuenta analizada- no tiene un origen lejano sino realmente próximo, del norte peninsular, y que probablemente procede de los afloramientos naturales de ámbar cretácico de la Cornisa Cantábrica. Todo ello, unido a cuanto sabemos del origen de otros materiales, confirma la integración de la comunidad titular de La Velilla en redes de intercambio de bienes de prestigio, de medio y largo alcance.
Middle Bronze Age El Argar culture, which contrasts
significantly with the rest of Bronze Age Europe, where
silver is mostly rare. This has traditionally been explained
by the difficulties of extracting silver from complex ores
by cupellation and the relative abundance of easily accessible
occurrences of native silver and silver chlorides in
the south of the Iberian peninsula. However, until now in
the Iberian Bronze Age the use of native silver has only
been inferred by the absence of evidence of cupellation.
The results of trace element analysis of a series of silver
objects from several Argaric settlements reveal for the
first time positive evidence for the use of native silver.
Lead isotope analyses show that hardly any of the objects
were made of silver from known and characterised mining
districts.
KEYWORDS: Silver, Metallurgy, Lead Isotope Analysis, Early Iron Age, Iberia, Phoenicians.
We present the contextual, morphological and analytical study of an exceptional Early Iron Age hoard composed of a number of different (and mostly exotic) materials such as amber, quartz, silver and ceramic. This hoard, found under the fallen orthostat of a megalithic structure built at least 2000 years earlier, throws new light on long-distance exchange networks and the effect they could have had on the cultural identities and social relations of local Iberian Early Iron Age communities. Moreover, the archaeometric study reveals how diverse and distant the sources of these item are (Northern Europe to Eastern and Western Mediterranean raw materials, as well as local and eastern technologies), therefore raising questions concerning the social mechanisms used to establish change and resistance in contexts of colonial encounter.
In this paper we present all the Iberian deposits of native silver or silver chlorides and discuss their accessibility in prehistoric times as well as their compositional characterisation by energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) analyses and a scanning electron microscope with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX). A first approach towards the definition of their isotopic fields by lead isotope analyses (LIA) is also presented. LIA were conducted using an inductively coupled plasma multi-collector mass spectrometer (ICP-MC-MS).
con la realidad europea del II milenio AC, donde la plata es muy escasa. Esto se ha explicado tradicionalmente por la dificultad de extraer plata de minerales complejos mediante la técnica de copelación y la relativa abundancia de plata nativa y cloruros de plata fácilmente accesibles en el sur de la Península Ibérica. Sin embargo, hasta ahora el uso de plata nativa en la Edad del Bronce ibérica se ha deducido principalmente por falta de evidencias de copelación.
Los resultados de análisis traza de una serie de objetos de plata de varios yacimientos argáricos suministran por primera vez una evidencia directa del uso de plata nativa. Los análisis de isótopos de plomo demuestran que la mayoría de los objetos no procede de ninguno de los distritos mineros conocidos y caracterizados.
La presencia de oro en la composición es un rasgo inusual en la plata prehistórica, no solo de la Península Ibérica, sino de todo el ámbito del Mediterráneo con la excepción de Egipto. Sin embargo, esta aleación Ag-Au podría responder en la mayoría de los casos a una mezcla involuntaria durante la manufactura de piezas en el taller donde se trabaja simultáneamente con oro y plata.
Resumen: Durante las campañas de excavación del tholos de Montelirio se recuperó un conjunto de 18 fragmentos laminares de oro con y sin decoración repujada entre los que destaca una lámina con decoración oculada. En este capítulo presentamos una descripción detallada de todos los fragmentos áureos recuperados en Montelirio, analizándolos en el marco más amplio del conjunto de producciones de oro de Valencina de la Concepción. Se presentan los análisis de composición elemental de todas las piezas de oro disponibles del yacimiento mediante Fluorescencia de Rayos X (FRX). En general la composición de todas las piezas se asemeja a la del oro aluvial por sus bajos niveles de cobre y contenidos variables de plata aunque en Valencina se observan dos grupos composicionales en función de los contenidos en plata: <3% y >10% Ag lo cual sugiere la posibilidad de dos fuentes de aprovisionamiento distintas. Las piezas de Montelirio presen-tan una elevada homogeneidad interna en cuanto a la composición, destacando por sus elevados niveles de plata y cobre (>16% Ag; 0,5% Cu) lo cual parece indicar que todos los fragmentos se fabricaron utilizando los mismos recursos quizá con la finalidad de ser depositados.
We compare this find with the data currently available for the (approximately) 100 Chalcolithic golden artefacts (or fragments of artefacts) found in Iberia to date. Finally, we present an appraisal of the social and ideological framework in which gold was used in Copper Age Iberia, discussing its relevance in aspects such as the dynamics of social complexity, worldviews or artistic creations.
Though offering better pictures of artefact source, the explanation of artefact distribution across geographic space requires the use of theoretically informed models and solid archaeological evidence to discern differences between the circulation of raw materials, ingots, objects, craftspeople and populations. Bringing together many leading expert contributions address topics that include the invention, innovation and transmission of metallurgical knowledge; archaeometric based models of exchange; characterization and discrimination of different modes of material circulation; and the impact of metals on social complexity.
The 12 papers are organised in three main sections dealing with key debates in archaeology: transmission of metallurgical technologies, knowledge and ideas; prestige economies and exchange; and circulation of metal as commodities and concludes with a review current approaches, situating the volume in a broader context and identifying future research directions.
Reviews:
- M. G. Knight, The Prehistoric Society website – Book reviews (February 2019): online.
- L. Perucchetti, Ambix, 66(4) (2019): 354-356.
- C. Cavazzuti, European Journal of Archaeology, 23(1) (2020): 137-140.
- S. Adams, The Archaeological Journal, 177(2) (2020): 474-475.
- V. A. Sainsbury, Archaeological Review from Cambridge, 35(2) (2020): 171-174.