TRANSPORTATION AS INFRASTRUCTURE IN RURAL & REMOTE CANADA "One of the worst fears of any communit... more TRANSPORTATION AS INFRASTRUCTURE IN RURAL & REMOTE CANADA "One of the worst fears of any community is the possible loss of transportation links. The loss of transportation services is one of the most pressing issues in rural development." 1(p31) Transportation is critical infrastructure for rural places, the absence of which results in disadvantages and vulnerability for rural places and the people who live there. Transportation has a substantial influence on how and where social and economic activities take place and on the development path of rural places. It plays a crucial role in shaping the relationship between places and determines the flow of people, goods, and services across space. It is easy to ignore the networks and systems that constitute infrastructure because the position they play in enabling activities and public and private goods and services becomes virtually invisible. Of course, governments can and do intervene in the pattern of transportation networks to shape systems that are more reflective of public objectives-e.g., to facilitate access to health care, education, or work. These government-facilitated transportation networks become part of the policy environment and broader social service provision infrastructure, which can be problematic if they suddenly disappear, as was the case for the Saskatchewan Transportation Company in 2017. 2
Here Today, Gone Tomorrow: Public Transportation and Vulnerabilities in Rural and Remote Canada i... more Here Today, Gone Tomorrow: Public Transportation and Vulnerabilities in Rural and Remote Canada is co-funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council and Infrastructure Canada. Ici aujourd'hui, ailleurs demain: Le transport public et les vulnérabilités dans les régions rurales et éloignées du Canada est cofinancé par le Conseil de recherches en sciences humaines et Infrastructure Canada. Canadian Research Institute for the Advancement of Women (CRIAW-ICREF), a national feminist research organization whose assistance is ongoing into our mobilization phase. This knowledge synthesis (KS) project explored how remote and rural (RR) places face a complex array of social, political and economic obstacles in their access to sustainable, accessible, and appropriate transportation, and in exercising mobility rights. Growing vulnerability and inequality between these places contribute to growing vulnerabilities and inequalities among RR residents and the rest of Canada. The pattern of, and access to, public transportation in Canada, reflects the history of natural resource development and seldom considers the effects of the lack of transportation on health and welfare, human capabilities, education, climate change, and sustainable development. Mobility, however, shapes the conditions and lived experiences of gender, poverty, disabilities, and older-age; it either restricts or enables citizen participation. We take seriously the ways that vulnerability and transportation disadvantage are products of the structuring impacts of unequal mobility. For instance, insufficient or absent access to mobility–especially affordable public transportation–determines the ability of individuals and communities to achieve a sustainable livelihood, societal participation, personal and collective safety, and access to essential and non-essential services, resources, opportunities, and rights. Mobility- and transportation-linked possibilities and vulnerabilities are not experienced equally. These realities led us to adopt an intersectional approach that recognizes how individuals’ circumstances are shaped, constructed, and constrained by systems and structures over which they have little control. Given neoliberal restructuring, we paid close attention to how the systematic removal of public transportation alongside increasing, near-exclusive emphasis on automobility, is implicated in the production and exacerbation of vulnerability for RR persons, communities, and regions of Canada.
The Ugandan co-operative movement has made it a priority to improve the livelihoods of female and... more The Ugandan co-operative movement has made it a priority to improve the livelihoods of female and poor farmers. Based on field data from two sites in Uganda, this paper investigates how engagement with co-operatives affects male- and female-headed households with different levels of wealth. This is facilitated by comparing selected aspects of livelihoods of non-member households, single co-operative, and integrated co-operative member households. The research suggests that, for some agricultural households, co-operatives may provide opportunities for alternative pathways and trajectories, but that the effects may be more complicated, paradoxical, or counter-intuitive for others2. Engagement with the integrated co-operative model provided opportunities for some farmers, but it also increased some risk, vulnerability, and status competition. Outcomes on some measures commonly thought to be indicators of increased well-being appear to be worsening for some. Poor and female co-operative-member households appear to be less able to realize potential benefits of membership in co-operatives that are part of the integrated model. Academics, rural development specialists, and co-operative developers need to pay attention to these outcomes and plan their research and programming accordingly.
Transforming Gender and Food Security in the Global South, Aug 2016
This paper grows from an intervention to encourage cultivating chickpeas in rural Ethiopia. Chick... more This paper grows from an intervention to encourage cultivating chickpeas in rural Ethiopia. Chickpeas are a source of protein and income, but they also point to the rituals and practices that organize the social relations shaping food security at the individual and household level. We focus here on the household coffee ceremony, in which chickpeas are a valued item, in two villages, using multiple methods across 40 households. We argue that the practice of holding and attending ceremonies, which absorb a great deal of women’s daily labour, produces relations of reciprocity and mutual obligation between households. These relations can be activated by households to mobilize both labour at key points of the agricultural cycle, and food and assistance during crises. Coffee ceremonies also produce social status (for both men and women) and intra-household cohesion. While ceremonies are strongly gendered, women are neither entirely the victims of asymmetric gender relations, nor entirely autonomous.
Rural sociology focuses on how rural people and communities are socially, culturally, politically... more Rural sociology focuses on how rural people and communities are socially, culturally, politically, and economically organized. As a discipline, it has a distinct body of knowledge, specific research approaches, recognizable commitments and discourses, and its own set of institutional relationships. With a broad array of research questions, and often with a comparative perspective, rural sociologists consider how resource-based industries influence the social characteristics of rural communities. Rural sociology was first developed in the United States. While other countries have developed their own approaches to rural sociology, most have been influenced by American traditions. In contrast with general sociology's perspective that associates urban life with complex societies, rural sociologists assert that contemporary rural and urban communities are the products of modernity. Studying how changes in rural places are related to wider societal and economic processes, rural sociology has also had a tradition of applied and engaged scholarship. The broad focus of rural sociology leads to inclusion of concerns and insights from other disciplines, and it has led many rural sociologists to be interdisciplinary and to collaborate with scholars from other fields.
Social inequities are made possible by and compounded by knowledge inequity. At the same time, ne... more Social inequities are made possible by and compounded by knowledge inequity. At the same time, new and more vehicles are needed where different and transformative knowledges can chart new possibilities, practices and meanings for rural people. One way forward is to work towards an ecology of knowledges in which the need for many types of knowledge is recognized and different knowledges are respected. Drawing on case study and photovoice research with women in rural Ethiopia, this paper uses a practice theory approach to explore the possibilities of knowledge dialogue among different types of knowledge and skill. Recognizing the wide spectrum of deep knowledge and skill employed in local practice, and understanding how all knowledges are rooted in social context, actors can find a common ground to dialogue through methods of praxis and narrative.
There is a large gap between attitude and action when it comes to consumer purchases of ethical f... more There is a large gap between attitude and action when it comes to consumer purchases of ethical food. Amongst the various aspects of this gap, this paper focuses on the difficulty in knowing enough about the various dimensions of food production, distribution and consumption to make an ethical food purchasing decision. There is neither one universal definition of ethical food. We suggest that it is possible to support consumers in operationalizing their own ethics of food with the use of appropriate Information and Communication Technology (ICT). We consider eggs as an example because locally produced options are available to many people on every continent. We consider the dimensions upon which food ethics may be constructed, then discuss the information required to assess it and the tools that can support it. We then present an overview of opportunities for design of a new software tool. Finally, we offer some points for discussion and future work.
Examining Success Factors for Sustainable Rural Development through the Integrated Co-operative Model, 2016
As opposed to an approach that would focus on the multifunctionality of co-operatives and the act... more As opposed to an approach that would focus on the multifunctionality of co-operatives and the activities they encompass, market (economic) outcomes frame the literature on the success of cooperative development. The successes of agricultural co-operatives and producer organizations are consistently identified as improvements in members' location in the market chain, economies of scale, negotiating power for selling price, and increased production ). The focus on social outcomes and social determinants of cooperative success, such as improved social supports and networks, status (for both women and men), health, and education levels, has been peripheral to the research on the more narrowly defined, economically focused measures of co-operative success. Determinants of co-operative success themselves focus on three key areas: organizational capacity and development, member participation and training, and government influence through money, history, policy, and support (Wanyama, Develtere, and Pollet 2008). The following sections will discuss how the literature frames success -economically, socially, and politically; examine the determinants (and barriers) to co-operative success; and identify potential social determinants often excluded in the literature.
Abstract: Bruce Sterling defines spimes, in part, as extensively rich streams of data and informa... more Abstract: Bruce Sterling defines spimes, in part, as extensively rich streams of data and information about things. From a theoretical viewpoint, the concept of spimes is indeed interesting, with seemingly endless possibilities for enriching our knowledge about the things all around us. In terms of our everyday decision-making activities, spimes could have significant influence on our behaviours, empowering us to make more informed choices.
Poor nutrition in adolescent girls poses critical health risks on future pregnancy and birth outc... more Poor nutrition in adolescent girls poses critical health risks on future pregnancy and birth outcomes especially in developing countries. Our purpose was to assess nutritional status and dietary intake of rural adolescent girls and determine pulse and food intake patterns associated with poor nutritional status. A cross-sectional community-based study was conducted in a traditional pulse growing region of southern Ethiopia on 188 girls between 15 to 19 years of age, with 70% being from food insecure families. Prevalence of stunting (30.9%) and underweight (13.3%) were associated with low food and nutrient intake. Diets were cereal-based, with both animal source foods and pulses rarely consumed. Improving dietary intakes of female adolescents with nutrient dense foods would ensure better health for themselves and for the next generation.
In Ethiopia, adolescents have the lowest mortality, and, therefore, are of low priority for nutri... more In Ethiopia, adolescents have the lowest mortality, and, therefore, are of low priority for nutrition interventions. However, the prevalence of malnutrition and anemia remains high in adolescent girls. Pulse crops are important in Ethiopia's small landholders’ agriculture practices offering enhanced food security. Using a cross-sectional design, our IDRC-CIDA community based study assessed the nutrition status, pulse consumption patterns, indigenous knowledge, and food security among adolescent girls (n=188, 15–19 y). The prevalence of stunting and underweight were 31% and 30%, respectively. The intakes of energy, calcium, vitamin C and zinc were 70%, 13%, 5% and 65% of requirements, respectively. From pulse foods, lentils (85%) haricot bean (59%), peas (51%), faba bean (36%) and chick pea (29%) were consumed once or more than once per day. The nutrient contribution of pulses for iron, protein, zinc and fiber was 10%, 20%, 80% and 18% respectively. For household food security, 13% were secure, 17% were mildly insecure, 54% were moderately insecure and the remaining 16% severely insecure. Girls were shorter than the 2007 WHO standards and the diets were grossly deficient in energy and other nutrients; yet, pulse foods offered a significant contribution to nutrient intake. The dietary practices, particularly the girls’ avoidance of milk and yogurt, contribute to the nutrient deficiencies. Programs to support adequate nutrition for adolescents would provide for a healthy transition to adulthood and be a step towards breaking the cycle of intergenerational malnutrition.
TRANSPORTATION AS INFRASTRUCTURE IN RURAL & REMOTE CANADA "One of the worst fears of any communit... more TRANSPORTATION AS INFRASTRUCTURE IN RURAL & REMOTE CANADA "One of the worst fears of any community is the possible loss of transportation links. The loss of transportation services is one of the most pressing issues in rural development." 1(p31) Transportation is critical infrastructure for rural places, the absence of which results in disadvantages and vulnerability for rural places and the people who live there. Transportation has a substantial influence on how and where social and economic activities take place and on the development path of rural places. It plays a crucial role in shaping the relationship between places and determines the flow of people, goods, and services across space. It is easy to ignore the networks and systems that constitute infrastructure because the position they play in enabling activities and public and private goods and services becomes virtually invisible. Of course, governments can and do intervene in the pattern of transportation networks to shape systems that are more reflective of public objectives-e.g., to facilitate access to health care, education, or work. These government-facilitated transportation networks become part of the policy environment and broader social service provision infrastructure, which can be problematic if they suddenly disappear, as was the case for the Saskatchewan Transportation Company in 2017. 2
Here Today, Gone Tomorrow: Public Transportation and Vulnerabilities in Rural and Remote Canada i... more Here Today, Gone Tomorrow: Public Transportation and Vulnerabilities in Rural and Remote Canada is co-funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council and Infrastructure Canada. Ici aujourd'hui, ailleurs demain: Le transport public et les vulnérabilités dans les régions rurales et éloignées du Canada est cofinancé par le Conseil de recherches en sciences humaines et Infrastructure Canada. Canadian Research Institute for the Advancement of Women (CRIAW-ICREF), a national feminist research organization whose assistance is ongoing into our mobilization phase. This knowledge synthesis (KS) project explored how remote and rural (RR) places face a complex array of social, political and economic obstacles in their access to sustainable, accessible, and appropriate transportation, and in exercising mobility rights. Growing vulnerability and inequality between these places contribute to growing vulnerabilities and inequalities among RR residents and the rest of Canada. The pattern of, and access to, public transportation in Canada, reflects the history of natural resource development and seldom considers the effects of the lack of transportation on health and welfare, human capabilities, education, climate change, and sustainable development. Mobility, however, shapes the conditions and lived experiences of gender, poverty, disabilities, and older-age; it either restricts or enables citizen participation. We take seriously the ways that vulnerability and transportation disadvantage are products of the structuring impacts of unequal mobility. For instance, insufficient or absent access to mobility–especially affordable public transportation–determines the ability of individuals and communities to achieve a sustainable livelihood, societal participation, personal and collective safety, and access to essential and non-essential services, resources, opportunities, and rights. Mobility- and transportation-linked possibilities and vulnerabilities are not experienced equally. These realities led us to adopt an intersectional approach that recognizes how individuals’ circumstances are shaped, constructed, and constrained by systems and structures over which they have little control. Given neoliberal restructuring, we paid close attention to how the systematic removal of public transportation alongside increasing, near-exclusive emphasis on automobility, is implicated in the production and exacerbation of vulnerability for RR persons, communities, and regions of Canada.
The Ugandan co-operative movement has made it a priority to improve the livelihoods of female and... more The Ugandan co-operative movement has made it a priority to improve the livelihoods of female and poor farmers. Based on field data from two sites in Uganda, this paper investigates how engagement with co-operatives affects male- and female-headed households with different levels of wealth. This is facilitated by comparing selected aspects of livelihoods of non-member households, single co-operative, and integrated co-operative member households. The research suggests that, for some agricultural households, co-operatives may provide opportunities for alternative pathways and trajectories, but that the effects may be more complicated, paradoxical, or counter-intuitive for others2. Engagement with the integrated co-operative model provided opportunities for some farmers, but it also increased some risk, vulnerability, and status competition. Outcomes on some measures commonly thought to be indicators of increased well-being appear to be worsening for some. Poor and female co-operative-member households appear to be less able to realize potential benefits of membership in co-operatives that are part of the integrated model. Academics, rural development specialists, and co-operative developers need to pay attention to these outcomes and plan their research and programming accordingly.
Transforming Gender and Food Security in the Global South, Aug 2016
This paper grows from an intervention to encourage cultivating chickpeas in rural Ethiopia. Chick... more This paper grows from an intervention to encourage cultivating chickpeas in rural Ethiopia. Chickpeas are a source of protein and income, but they also point to the rituals and practices that organize the social relations shaping food security at the individual and household level. We focus here on the household coffee ceremony, in which chickpeas are a valued item, in two villages, using multiple methods across 40 households. We argue that the practice of holding and attending ceremonies, which absorb a great deal of women’s daily labour, produces relations of reciprocity and mutual obligation between households. These relations can be activated by households to mobilize both labour at key points of the agricultural cycle, and food and assistance during crises. Coffee ceremonies also produce social status (for both men and women) and intra-household cohesion. While ceremonies are strongly gendered, women are neither entirely the victims of asymmetric gender relations, nor entirely autonomous.
Rural sociology focuses on how rural people and communities are socially, culturally, politically... more Rural sociology focuses on how rural people and communities are socially, culturally, politically, and economically organized. As a discipline, it has a distinct body of knowledge, specific research approaches, recognizable commitments and discourses, and its own set of institutional relationships. With a broad array of research questions, and often with a comparative perspective, rural sociologists consider how resource-based industries influence the social characteristics of rural communities. Rural sociology was first developed in the United States. While other countries have developed their own approaches to rural sociology, most have been influenced by American traditions. In contrast with general sociology's perspective that associates urban life with complex societies, rural sociologists assert that contemporary rural and urban communities are the products of modernity. Studying how changes in rural places are related to wider societal and economic processes, rural sociology has also had a tradition of applied and engaged scholarship. The broad focus of rural sociology leads to inclusion of concerns and insights from other disciplines, and it has led many rural sociologists to be interdisciplinary and to collaborate with scholars from other fields.
Social inequities are made possible by and compounded by knowledge inequity. At the same time, ne... more Social inequities are made possible by and compounded by knowledge inequity. At the same time, new and more vehicles are needed where different and transformative knowledges can chart new possibilities, practices and meanings for rural people. One way forward is to work towards an ecology of knowledges in which the need for many types of knowledge is recognized and different knowledges are respected. Drawing on case study and photovoice research with women in rural Ethiopia, this paper uses a practice theory approach to explore the possibilities of knowledge dialogue among different types of knowledge and skill. Recognizing the wide spectrum of deep knowledge and skill employed in local practice, and understanding how all knowledges are rooted in social context, actors can find a common ground to dialogue through methods of praxis and narrative.
There is a large gap between attitude and action when it comes to consumer purchases of ethical f... more There is a large gap between attitude and action when it comes to consumer purchases of ethical food. Amongst the various aspects of this gap, this paper focuses on the difficulty in knowing enough about the various dimensions of food production, distribution and consumption to make an ethical food purchasing decision. There is neither one universal definition of ethical food. We suggest that it is possible to support consumers in operationalizing their own ethics of food with the use of appropriate Information and Communication Technology (ICT). We consider eggs as an example because locally produced options are available to many people on every continent. We consider the dimensions upon which food ethics may be constructed, then discuss the information required to assess it and the tools that can support it. We then present an overview of opportunities for design of a new software tool. Finally, we offer some points for discussion and future work.
Examining Success Factors for Sustainable Rural Development through the Integrated Co-operative Model, 2016
As opposed to an approach that would focus on the multifunctionality of co-operatives and the act... more As opposed to an approach that would focus on the multifunctionality of co-operatives and the activities they encompass, market (economic) outcomes frame the literature on the success of cooperative development. The successes of agricultural co-operatives and producer organizations are consistently identified as improvements in members' location in the market chain, economies of scale, negotiating power for selling price, and increased production ). The focus on social outcomes and social determinants of cooperative success, such as improved social supports and networks, status (for both women and men), health, and education levels, has been peripheral to the research on the more narrowly defined, economically focused measures of co-operative success. Determinants of co-operative success themselves focus on three key areas: organizational capacity and development, member participation and training, and government influence through money, history, policy, and support (Wanyama, Develtere, and Pollet 2008). The following sections will discuss how the literature frames success -economically, socially, and politically; examine the determinants (and barriers) to co-operative success; and identify potential social determinants often excluded in the literature.
Abstract: Bruce Sterling defines spimes, in part, as extensively rich streams of data and informa... more Abstract: Bruce Sterling defines spimes, in part, as extensively rich streams of data and information about things. From a theoretical viewpoint, the concept of spimes is indeed interesting, with seemingly endless possibilities for enriching our knowledge about the things all around us. In terms of our everyday decision-making activities, spimes could have significant influence on our behaviours, empowering us to make more informed choices.
Poor nutrition in adolescent girls poses critical health risks on future pregnancy and birth outc... more Poor nutrition in adolescent girls poses critical health risks on future pregnancy and birth outcomes especially in developing countries. Our purpose was to assess nutritional status and dietary intake of rural adolescent girls and determine pulse and food intake patterns associated with poor nutritional status. A cross-sectional community-based study was conducted in a traditional pulse growing region of southern Ethiopia on 188 girls between 15 to 19 years of age, with 70% being from food insecure families. Prevalence of stunting (30.9%) and underweight (13.3%) were associated with low food and nutrient intake. Diets were cereal-based, with both animal source foods and pulses rarely consumed. Improving dietary intakes of female adolescents with nutrient dense foods would ensure better health for themselves and for the next generation.
In Ethiopia, adolescents have the lowest mortality, and, therefore, are of low priority for nutri... more In Ethiopia, adolescents have the lowest mortality, and, therefore, are of low priority for nutrition interventions. However, the prevalence of malnutrition and anemia remains high in adolescent girls. Pulse crops are important in Ethiopia's small landholders’ agriculture practices offering enhanced food security. Using a cross-sectional design, our IDRC-CIDA community based study assessed the nutrition status, pulse consumption patterns, indigenous knowledge, and food security among adolescent girls (n=188, 15–19 y). The prevalence of stunting and underweight were 31% and 30%, respectively. The intakes of energy, calcium, vitamin C and zinc were 70%, 13%, 5% and 65% of requirements, respectively. From pulse foods, lentils (85%) haricot bean (59%), peas (51%), faba bean (36%) and chick pea (29%) were consumed once or more than once per day. The nutrient contribution of pulses for iron, protein, zinc and fiber was 10%, 20%, 80% and 18% respectively. For household food security, 13% were secure, 17% were mildly insecure, 54% were moderately insecure and the remaining 16% severely insecure. Girls were shorter than the 2007 WHO standards and the diets were grossly deficient in energy and other nutrients; yet, pulse foods offered a significant contribution to nutrient intake. The dietary practices, particularly the girls’ avoidance of milk and yogurt, contribute to the nutrient deficiencies. Programs to support adequate nutrition for adolescents would provide for a healthy transition to adulthood and be a step towards breaking the cycle of intergenerational malnutrition.
Divided: Populism, Polarization & Power in the New Saskatchewan, 2021
Divided looks at the last fifteen years in Saskatchewan, during which time the Saskatchewan Party... more Divided looks at the last fifteen years in Saskatchewan, during which time the Saskatchewan Party government sought to reforge the province’s image into the New Saskatchewan: brash, materialistic, highly competitive and aggressively partisan. In the process, a climate of polarization and hyper-partisanship swept the province into a near-perpetual state of anger and social division. These actions are not without consequences. In Divided, diverse voices describe the impact on their lives and communities when simmering wedge issues burst open on social media and in public spaces. The collection dives deep into the long set-up to this moment, from the colonial past to the four decades of neoliberal economics that have widened social and economic gaps across all sectors. Divided positions Saskatchewan as a fascinating case study of the global trends of division and provides testament to the resiliency of a vision of social solidarity against all odds.
In the last fifty years, farming and farm communities have been subject to relentless change in t... more In the last fifty years, farming and farm communities have been subject to relentless change in the face of an uncertain future. This book brings together different areas of transformation and disciplines, offering a comprehensive set of perspectives on the transformation and possibilities of prairie rural communities in general and on farming in particular.
Coping as a Rural Caregiver: The Impact of Health Care Reforms on Rural Women Informal Caregivers, 2000
Healthcare in rural Saskatchewan is rapidly changing. Many rural communities are losing their hos... more Healthcare in rural Saskatchewan is rapidly changing. Many rural communities are losing their hospitals, long-term care facilities and, in some cases, primary care services. Care of the chronically ill or disabled is being deinstitutionalized. Respite or physical therapy services are scarce or becoming centralized and more difficult to access. The numbers of rural informal caregivers are increasing, while insecurity regarding medicare and the restructuring of health services is intensifying (Rosenthal, 1994).
Health care restructuring has been a tug-of-war between maintaining the five pillars of medicare (accessibility, portability, universality, comprehensiveness, and public administration) and controlling health care costs (Rosenburg and James, 1994; Haislmaier, 1991). This struggle has resulted in a shift from institutional to community and home care for acute and chronic conditions (Armstrong and Armstrong, 1996). In Saskatchewan, efforts to control health care expenditures have led to hospital closures, fewer acute care beds in rural areas (Braden, 1998), reduced numbers of doctors and nurses (Eisler, 1996), an out-migration of medical specialists, and fewer beds in long-term care institutions (HSURC, 1994). At the same time, additional funding has gone to home care (HSURC, 1998; Kyle, 1998).
There has been a shift to community care for persons with disabilities and reduced spending for long-term care institutions for the aged. There has been a shift from hospital to home care, with increased out-patient and day surgeries, early release programs, and reduced long-term care in hospitals (Braden, 1998) With these changes, we have seen a shift from care provided by skilled health professionals to caregiving by less-skilled family and home care workers (Armstrong, 1997).
This shift from institutional to community care appears to be about where health services are offered--in hospitals or homes. In fact, it is about much more. It represents a profound shift in philosophy away from the principles of medicare and toward the privatization of health care. Since home care does not fall under the umbrella of the Canada Health Act, universality is compromised. In Saskatchewan, regional health districts are responsible for home care services, and the range of services and eligibility policies vary among the districts. Some services that would be available by rights to hospital patients under the Canada Health Act must be purchased by persons receiving care at home (Armstrong and Armstrong, 1996).
Health care restructuring and regionalization were promoted as means of increasing accountability in the health care system by making it more democratic (Hurley et al., 1993), yet family caregivers, as a group, are not represented on health district boards, and changes in the health system are often made without their participation. Accountability works more on the consumer-based model, wherein caregivers choose which services to purchase, but have little say in determining which services are available.
Policy-makers are introducing rapid changes to the health system, yet little is known about their impacts on rural informal caregivers. Policies appear to be based on myths and assumptions about rural women, families and communities.
Rural women informal caregivers are virtually invisible to many policy-makers, because caregiving for ill and disabled people is considered an extension of women's domestic responsibilities (Henderson, 1998). The devolution of care to wives, mothers, daughters, and sisters is based on "traditional" ideas that women's employment is non-existent, unessential, or part-time (Pless, 1984; Armstrong and Armstrong, 1996). Women are assumed to be available for caregiving, regardless of their age, health, or existing responsibilities. As a result, caregivers are seeing their workloads increase, often with little recognition, little training, no financial compensation, no protection in case of injury, and no workers' benefits. (ICUW, 1997).
It is assumed that rural families have strong ties across generations, that adult children live in the area, and that they are available to care for aging parents. Today few families have more than one or two relatives residing in the same community. Like their urban counterparts, rural families are small and highly mobile. Family support for the ill or aging is most often undertaken by one family member--usually female (Montgomery and Hirshorn, 1991; Barris, 1998). These women may be uneasy or unhappy about their role as caregivers. They may feel inadequate, guilty, or even unwilling to provide care, but see little choice (Braithwaite, 1996). When demand for care is intense, family relations can become strained as caregivers are overwhelmed by exhaustion and resentment (ICUW, 1997).
Rural families are thought of as propertied, financially stable and homogenous. However, inequalities are increasing in rural areas and many families find themselves financially strapped (Ames et al., 1994). Rural people often lack income security when faced with long-term illness or disability (Black et al., 1993). Many rural women caregivers have limited income due to retirement or lack of paid employment (Mui and Morrow-Howell, 1993). Policy-makers often overlook the financial situation of rural families, assume the cost of living to be low in rural areas, and ignore hidden costs like transportation. (Richardson, 1988).
Rural places are considered idyllic, yet isolation, lack of public transportation, and the limited social resources of small communities can place intolerable stresses on those giving and receiving care (Richardson, 1988). Poor quality housing and insufficient health and social services characterize many rural communities. Distance makes access to services more difficult and adversely affects rural women's ability to provide care (Giarchi, 1990).
Rural communities are thought of as close-knit and neighborly, yet stress from isolation is a serious concern (Richardson, 1988). Geographic dispersal of the population means that people risk isolation from neighbors and services. Rural depopulation represents a decline in social resources; fewer people are available as social supports. Inadequate transportation, fewer family supports, and a lack of daycare and respite facilities limit caregivers' access to assistance or relief (Giarchi, 1990). While caregivers' experiences vary, isolation and lack of social support can affect their well-being.
Canada's population is aging, particularly in rural areas. In 1991, nearly one-third of Canadians over 65 lived in rural areas (CMHC, 1991; Hendryx, 1993). Rural centres have higher proportions of elderly people and higher rates of long-term disability and chronic illness than cities (Wilkins, 1992). It is estimated that 80% of elder care is provided by family members, primarily women (Barris, 1998). In 1997, Statistics Canada reported that nearly three million Canadians were looking after someone with chronic health problems. As the population continues to age, Canadians will have to care for older family members, and caregivers themselves will be older.
The differences between urban and rural places, and the challenges faced by rural informal caregivers need to be taken seriously in the formulation of health policies. Yet very little is known about rural informal caregivers in Saskatchewan. What are their social and economic situations? What difficulties do they experience as caregivers? What resources and supports are available? What solutions do they see?
Along the Highway of Tears, violence defines boundaries of inclusion and exclusion, personhood an... more Along the Highway of Tears, violence defines boundaries of inclusion and exclusion, personhood and exception, colonizer and colonized." 1(p307) Experiences of vulnerability due to the absence (or presence) of public transportation in rural and remote locations are multifaceted. Many socioeconomic factors intersect with structural and service barriers to affect people unequally. These social factors exacerbate experiences of vulnerability, risk, and violence. Vulnerabilities create risks, which is evident in the examination of interpersonal violence or missing and murdered Indigenous women and girls. Historical patterns of racism, colonization, and citizenship-and the systems of power they produce-have led to these conditions. We provide three examples to help introduce the complexity of these issues. Urban and Rural Divide: Experiences of Older Adults in Rural Areas Transportation shapes the lifestyle, physical well-being, and quality of life of older adults in rural areas. Due to a lack of transportation availability, older persons living in rural and remote places have more unmet travel demands and a higher number of trips missed than their urban counterparts. 2-4 Older adults who do not drive also struggle with issues of public transportation's accessibility, affordability, availability, and appropriateness. 2 Those with mobility challenges are further excluded by lack of bus shelters and benches, unwalkable sidewalks, and inaccessible public transit. Reduced mobility corresponds to lower household incomes and inequality as women are less likely to travel for social and daily amenities or services such as grocery shopping. Factors that influence rural older adults' ability to travel to meet their needs are health status, financial status, disability, and non-driving status. 5 Services such as paratransit in urban areas which can accommodate "a wheelchair and other walking aids'' are not commonly available in rural places. 6 Service availability, social requirements, and (dis)abilities are all key considerations for policy makers in bridging the rural-urban divide in transportation.
TRANSPORTATION AS INFRASTRUCTURE IN RURAL & REMOTE CANADA "One of the worst fears of any communit... more TRANSPORTATION AS INFRASTRUCTURE IN RURAL & REMOTE CANADA "One of the worst fears of any community is the possible loss of transportation links. The loss of transportation services is one of the most pressing issues in rural development." 1(p31) Transportation is critical infrastructure for rural places, the absence of which results in disadvantages and vulnerability for rural places and the people who live there. Transportation has a substantial influence on how and where social and economic activities take place and on the development path of rural places. It plays a crucial role in shaping the relationship between places and determines the flow of people, goods, and services across space. It is easy to ignore the networks and systems that constitute infrastructure because the position they play in enabling activities and public and private goods and services becomes virtually invisible. Of course, governments can and do intervene in the pattern of transportation networks to shape systems that are more reflective of public objectives-e.g., to facilitate access to health care, education, or work. These government-facilitated transportation networks become part of the policy environment and broader social service provision infrastructure, which can be problematic if they suddenly disappear, as was the case for the Saskatchewan Transportation Company in 2017. 2 Transportation plays a key role in defining the character of rural and remote places because of its strong influence on the possibilities of livelihood, availability of amenities, goods and services, and even food security. 3,4 Remoteness is largely a function of transportation, based upon (the regularly accessible) time/distance to urban centres and access to goods and services. Places that are considered "remote" usually have declining population, with few employment opportunities and low incomes, although they may be important as areas of recreation, leisure, and resource extraction. With economic restructuring, remotely located natural resource-based industries, such as some oil and gas, mining, fishing, forestry, and hydroelectricity, now often rely on long-distance commuting for their mostly-rural workforces. 5,6 Different rural and remote areas have different conditions depending on their proximity to cities. While many rural places are "in decline," some rural areas close to cities (the "rurban" phenomenon) or in locations where retired professionals seek lifestyle and leisure amenities are experiencing a turnaround. 1,7
TRANSPORTATION EQUITY THROUGH PUBLIC PARTICIPATION "Consumer voice and citizen voice are not the ... more TRANSPORTATION EQUITY THROUGH PUBLIC PARTICIPATION "Consumer voice and citizen voice are not the same. Market solutions rest on the logic of individual self-interest and this constrains their ability to address the broader collective well-being of the region." 1(p83) The Impacts of Austerity and Privatization Despite being vital public infrastructure, today's transportation systems are shaped by the logics of neoliberal capitalism. Characterized by the diminishing role of the state, the expansion of private ownership, and the promotion of individualism, neoliberalism has today become the dominant ideology underpinning our social structures. 2 This has led to cuts to public transportation, the rising popularity of public-private partnerships, and the proliferation of private services such as Uber and Lyft. 3,4 When public systems are replaced by private ones, "citizens" are replaced by "consumers." 1 The privatization of transport then leads to a loss of citizen voice. Neoliberal restructuring-including government rollbacks and regionalizing service delivery-has increased transportation needs in many rural communities and shifted costs onto users. 5-7 When the private sector steps in to address the failures of underfunded and inadequate public systems, mobility may be improved for some. 8 Ride-hailing services such as Uber and Lyft, for example, are said to be providing a "new automobility," operating in urban, suburban, and even rural areas to provide access to the resources and services that automobility offers. 9 It is also common for voluntary organizations to step in to meet the needs of members of the community-often focusing on a niche group such as elderly or people who need to access health services. 5,6 Too often, however, immobility and inequality are worsened by private transportation models that increasingly benefit the already well-off, while creating gaps in transportation access for others-particularly those in isolated and remote areas. 6-8
Divided: Populism, polarization & power in the new Saskatchewan, 2021
Not many corporations get a public approval rating consistently above 90%. The publicly owned, Sa... more Not many corporations get a public approval rating consistently above 90%. The publicly owned, Saskatchewan Transportation Company (STC) was one. That is, until the SaskParty government shut it down. The impact of shuttering STC was great, but it was not felt equally. Women and people on low incomes (who made up over 60% and 70% of the ridership of STC, respectively) were left with few options. And while 45% of STC’s rolling stock provided access for persons with disabilities, no such intercity transportation is now available in Saskatchewan. Ironically, even though reducing inequality was an impetus for creating STC in the first place, shuttering the service has intensified Saskatchewan’s inequalities. This is most notable in the rural and remote regions of the province where very few routes were taken over by the private sector.
Guided by the question, How does the presence or absence of public transportation contribute to p... more Guided by the question, How does the presence or absence of public transportation contribute to people’s vulnerability in rural and remote locations?, this knowledge synthesis project explored how remote and rural (RR) places face a complex array of social, political and economic obstacles in order to achieve sustainable, accessible, and appropriate transportation and exercise mobility rights. Growing vulnerability and inequality between RR places contributes to growing vulnerabilities and inequalities among RR residents and the rest of Canada. Social exclusion, reduced capabilities, and transportation disadvantage are products of the structuring impacts of unequal mobility. Insufficient or absent access to mobility–especially affordable public transportation–shapes whether individuals and communities can achieve sustainable livelihoods, societal participation, personal and collective safety, and access to essential and non-essential services, resources, opportunities, and rights. These 4 fact sheets are in addition to the Report. All are available on the website of CRIAW-ICREF https://www.criaw-icref.ca/publications/here-today-gone-tomorrow-public-transportation-and-vulnerabilities-in-rural-and-remote-canada/
Study was supported by funds from SSHRC & Infrastructure Canada
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Papers by JoAnn Jaffe
This knowledge synthesis (KS) project explored how remote and rural (RR) places face a complex array of social, political and economic obstacles in their access to sustainable, accessible, and appropriate transportation, and in exercising mobility rights. Growing vulnerability and inequality between these places contribute to growing vulnerabilities and inequalities among RR residents and the rest of Canada. The pattern of, and access to, public transportation in Canada, reflects the history of natural resource development and seldom considers the effects of the lack of transportation on health and welfare, human capabilities, education, climate change, and sustainable development. Mobility, however, shapes the conditions and lived experiences of gender, poverty, disabilities, and older-age; it either restricts or enables citizen participation.
We take seriously the ways that vulnerability and transportation disadvantage are products of the structuring impacts of unequal mobility. For instance, insufficient or absent access to mobility–especially affordable public transportation–determines the ability of individuals and communities to achieve a sustainable livelihood, societal participation, personal and collective safety, and access to essential and non-essential services, resources, opportunities, and rights. Mobility- and transportation-linked possibilities and vulnerabilities are not experienced equally. These realities led us to adopt an intersectional approach that recognizes how individuals’ circumstances are shaped, constructed, and constrained by systems and structures over which they have little control. Given neoliberal restructuring, we paid close attention to how the systematic removal of public transportation alongside increasing, near-exclusive emphasis on automobility, is implicated in the production and exacerbation of vulnerability for RR persons, communities, and regions of Canada.
This knowledge synthesis (KS) project explored how remote and rural (RR) places face a complex array of social, political and economic obstacles in their access to sustainable, accessible, and appropriate transportation, and in exercising mobility rights. Growing vulnerability and inequality between these places contribute to growing vulnerabilities and inequalities among RR residents and the rest of Canada. The pattern of, and access to, public transportation in Canada, reflects the history of natural resource development and seldom considers the effects of the lack of transportation on health and welfare, human capabilities, education, climate change, and sustainable development. Mobility, however, shapes the conditions and lived experiences of gender, poverty, disabilities, and older-age; it either restricts or enables citizen participation.
We take seriously the ways that vulnerability and transportation disadvantage are products of the structuring impacts of unequal mobility. For instance, insufficient or absent access to mobility–especially affordable public transportation–determines the ability of individuals and communities to achieve a sustainable livelihood, societal participation, personal and collective safety, and access to essential and non-essential services, resources, opportunities, and rights. Mobility- and transportation-linked possibilities and vulnerabilities are not experienced equally. These realities led us to adopt an intersectional approach that recognizes how individuals’ circumstances are shaped, constructed, and constrained by systems and structures over which they have little control. Given neoliberal restructuring, we paid close attention to how the systematic removal of public transportation alongside increasing, near-exclusive emphasis on automobility, is implicated in the production and exacerbation of vulnerability for RR persons, communities, and regions of Canada.
Health care restructuring has been a tug-of-war between maintaining the five pillars of medicare (accessibility, portability, universality, comprehensiveness, and public administration) and controlling health care costs (Rosenburg and James, 1994; Haislmaier, 1991). This struggle has resulted in a shift from institutional to community and home care for acute and chronic conditions (Armstrong and Armstrong, 1996). In Saskatchewan, efforts to control health care expenditures have led to hospital closures, fewer acute care beds in rural areas (Braden, 1998), reduced numbers of doctors and nurses (Eisler, 1996), an out-migration of medical specialists, and fewer beds in long-term care institutions (HSURC, 1994). At the same time, additional funding has gone to home care (HSURC, 1998; Kyle, 1998).
There has been a shift to community care for persons with disabilities and reduced spending for long-term care institutions for the aged. There has been a shift from hospital to home care, with increased out-patient and day surgeries, early release programs, and reduced long-term care in hospitals (Braden, 1998) With these changes, we have seen a shift from care provided by skilled health professionals to caregiving by less-skilled family and home care workers (Armstrong, 1997).
This shift from institutional to community care appears to be about where health services are offered--in hospitals or homes. In fact, it is about much more. It represents a profound shift in philosophy away from the principles of medicare and toward the privatization of health care. Since home care does not fall under the umbrella of the Canada Health Act, universality is compromised. In Saskatchewan, regional health districts are responsible for home care services, and the range of services and eligibility policies vary among the districts. Some services that would be available by rights to hospital patients under the Canada Health Act must be purchased by persons receiving care at home (Armstrong and Armstrong, 1996).
Health care restructuring and regionalization were promoted as means of increasing accountability in the health care system by making it more democratic (Hurley et al., 1993), yet family caregivers, as a group, are not represented on health district boards, and changes in the health system are often made without their participation. Accountability works more on the consumer-based model, wherein caregivers choose which services to purchase, but have little say in determining which services are available.
Policy-makers are introducing rapid changes to the health system, yet little is known about their impacts on rural informal caregivers. Policies appear to be based on myths and assumptions about rural women, families and communities.
Rural women informal caregivers are virtually invisible to many policy-makers, because caregiving for ill and disabled people is considered an extension of women's domestic responsibilities (Henderson, 1998). The devolution of care to wives, mothers, daughters, and sisters is based on "traditional" ideas that women's employment is non-existent, unessential, or part-time (Pless, 1984; Armstrong and Armstrong, 1996). Women are assumed to be available for caregiving, regardless of their age, health, or existing responsibilities. As a result, caregivers are seeing their workloads increase, often with little recognition, little training, no financial compensation, no protection in case of injury, and no workers' benefits. (ICUW, 1997).
It is assumed that rural families have strong ties across generations, that adult children live in the area, and that they are available to care for aging parents. Today few families have more than one or two relatives residing in the same community. Like their urban counterparts, rural families are small and highly mobile. Family support for the ill or aging is most often undertaken by one family member--usually female (Montgomery and Hirshorn, 1991; Barris, 1998). These women may be uneasy or unhappy about their role as caregivers. They may feel inadequate, guilty, or even unwilling to provide care, but see little choice (Braithwaite, 1996). When demand for care is intense, family relations can become strained as caregivers are overwhelmed by exhaustion and resentment (ICUW, 1997).
Rural families are thought of as propertied, financially stable and homogenous. However, inequalities are increasing in rural areas and many families find themselves financially strapped (Ames et al., 1994). Rural people often lack income security when faced with long-term illness or disability (Black et al., 1993). Many rural women caregivers have limited income due to retirement or lack of paid employment (Mui and Morrow-Howell, 1993). Policy-makers often overlook the financial situation of rural families, assume the cost of living to be low in rural areas, and ignore hidden costs like transportation. (Richardson, 1988).
Rural places are considered idyllic, yet isolation, lack of public transportation, and the limited social resources of small communities can place intolerable stresses on those giving and receiving care (Richardson, 1988). Poor quality housing and insufficient health and social services characterize many rural communities. Distance makes access to services more difficult and adversely affects rural women's ability to provide care (Giarchi, 1990).
Rural communities are thought of as close-knit and neighborly, yet stress from isolation is a serious concern (Richardson, 1988). Geographic dispersal of the population means that people risk isolation from neighbors and services. Rural depopulation represents a decline in social resources; fewer people are available as social supports. Inadequate transportation, fewer family supports, and a lack of daycare and respite facilities limit caregivers' access to assistance or relief (Giarchi, 1990). While caregivers' experiences vary, isolation and lack of social support can affect their well-being.
Canada's population is aging, particularly in rural areas. In 1991, nearly one-third of Canadians over 65 lived in rural areas (CMHC, 1991; Hendryx, 1993). Rural centres have higher proportions of elderly people and higher rates of long-term disability and chronic illness than cities (Wilkins, 1992). It is estimated that 80% of elder care is provided by family members, primarily women (Barris, 1998). In 1997, Statistics Canada reported that nearly three million Canadians were looking after someone with chronic health problems. As the population continues to age, Canadians will have to care for older family members, and caregivers themselves will be older.
The differences between urban and rural places, and the challenges faced by rural informal caregivers need to be taken seriously in the formulation of health policies. Yet very little is known about rural informal caregivers in Saskatchewan. What are their social and economic situations? What difficulties do they experience as caregivers? What resources and supports are available? What solutions do they see?
All are available on the website of CRIAW-ICREF https://www.criaw-icref.ca/publications/here-today-gone-tomorrow-public-transportation-and-vulnerabilities-in-rural-and-remote-canada/
Study was supported by funds from SSHRC & Infrastructure Canada