Topics in Translator and Interpreter Training

„The Babel ish,” said The Hitch Hiker’s Guide to the Galaxy quietly, „is small, yellow and leechlike, and probably the oddest thing in the Universe. It feeds on brainwave energy not from its carrier but from those around it. It absorbs all unconscious mental frequencies from this brainwave energy to nourish itself with. It then excretes into the mind of its carrier a telepathic matrix formed by combining the conscious thought frequencies with nerve signals picked up from the speech centres of the brain which has supplied them. The practical upshot of all this is that if you stick a Babel ish in your ear you can instantly understand anything said to you in any form of language. The speech patterns you actually hear decode the brainwave matrix which has been fed into your mind by your Babel ish.” Douglas Adams, The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy Topics in Translator and Interpreter Training Selected papers from the Third IATIS Regional Workshop Topics in Translator and Interpreter Training Publisher: Faculty of Philosophy University of Novi Sad Dr Zorana Đinđića 2 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia www.ff.uns.ac.rs For the publisher: Ivana Živančević Sekeruš, dean of the Faculty of Philosophy Editors: Borislava Eraković Marija Todorova Reviewers of the volume: Predrag Novakov, Faculty of Philosophy, University of Novi Sad Tamara Mikolič Južnič, Translation Department, University of Ljubljana Reviewers of individual papers: Daniel Dejica, Department of Communication and Foreign Languages, Politehnica University of Timisoara, Romania Martin Djovčoš, Faculty of Humanities, University of Matej Bel, Slovakia Milivoj Alanović, Faculty of Philosophy, University of Novi Sad, Serbia Vesna Lazović, Faculty of Philosophy, University of Novi Sad, Serbia Proofreaders: Alison Kapor Anne Wagner Catherine Riley Paul Turner Ellen Elias-Bursać authors Cover page design: Simona Dolinga Layout: Sajnos, Novi Sad ISBN 978-86-6065-299-9 Printing date: 20 December, 2014 Disclimer: The authors are solely responsible for the content of their articles. Copyright notice No part of this publication may be reprinted, reproduced or utilized in any form without permission in writing from the publisher, as the holder of the copyright. Faculty of Philosophy, University of Novi Sad International Association for Translation and Intercultural Studies Topics in Translator and Interpreter Training Proceedings of the Third IATIS Regional Workshop on Translator and Interpreter Training 25-26 September 2014 Novi Sad, Serbia This volume is published to mark the 60th anniversary of the Faculty of Philosophy. Contents ABOUT THE WORKSHOP AND THIS VOLUME. . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Rafat Alwazna TRANSLATION ETHICS IN THE STRICT SENSE: FIDELITY TO THE SOURCE TEXT VERSUS TARGET-CULTURE APPROPRIATENESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 Anca Greere TRAINING METHODOLOGIES IN PROFESSIONALLY-ORIENTED TRANSLATOR EDUCATION. EXAMPLES OF PRACTICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Jim Hlavac RE-CODIFIED LANGUAGES IN A POST-CONFLICT CONTEXT: CREDENTIALS, PRACTICES AND ATTITUDES AMONGST TRANSLATORS AND INTERPRETERS OF THE BOSNIAN, CROATIAN AND SERBIAN LANGUAGES. . . . . . 47 Mira Milić PROCESS-ORIENTED APPROACH TO TRANSLATING SPORTS RESEARCH PAPERS FROM SERBIAN INTO ENGLISH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Jelena Pralas USING MINI TEAM PROJECTS IN TRANSLATION CLASSES TO ACHIEVE THE COMPETENCES DEFINED IN THE EMT REFERENCE FRAMEWORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 CONTENTS Borislava Šašić NEGOTIATED TRANSLATION: INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW – IMPLICATIONS FOR THE SPECIALIZED TRAINING OF TRANSLATORS AND INTERPRETERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117 6 ABOUT THE WORKSHOP AND THIS VOLUME This volume contains a selection of the presentations given at the Third IATIS Regional Workshop, which took place on 25 and 26 September 2014 at the University of Novi Sad. The main focus of this two-day event was translator and interpreter academic education and professional training. The Workshop was organized by the English Department at the Faculty of Philosophy, under the aegis of the International Association of Translation and Intercultural Studies (IATIS). This event was the first of its kind in Serbia, where such discussions have only rarely and sporadically taken place since the end of the 1980s, and where the first MA in Conference Interpreting and Translation to be taught at the host institution has only just been accredited, in October 2014. In addition to providing an opportunity for teachers of T&I to discuss their work and to network with colleagues from across the globe, the Workshop organisers also sought to impart a new impetus to discussions on translation didactics by T&I trainers within the region, where T&I programs are either at their very beginning (as is the case in Serbia and in Bosnia and Herzegovina) or within their first decade of implementation (in Croatia, Montenegro and Macedonia). The Workshop on Translator and Interpreter Training was open to scholars and practitioners, and it brought together 29 translation scholars from 15 countries (Australia, Canada, Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom, Belgium, Italy, Romania, Hungary, Greece, Poland, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Macedonia and Serbia), representatives of regional translation agencies based in Ljubljana, Zagreb and Belgrade, as well as both established professional translators/interpreters and newcomers to professional translation. The keynote addresses reflected the focus of the Workshop, the ethics and methodology of T&I training. In her plenary speech, Professor Mona Baker (The University of Manchester), delivered a presentation on Ethics in T&I Curriculum and Profession, stressing 7 About the Workshop and this Volume the necessity of including ethical questions during training, either as a full course or as a segment of all specialized translation/interpretation courses, in order to help students develop a more reflective and critical stance towards their role not only in relation to the client but also to society as a whole. Dr. Anca Greere addressed the topic Training Methodology in Professionally-Oriented Translator Education by taking stock of the activities related to Language and Translation, Theories of Translation, Specialized Translation and Translation as a Profession which have been tested within the European Masters of Translation Studies and Terminology at Babeş-Bolyai University. Video sessions exemplifying in-class and extracurricular activities were particularly illustrative of the level of learner autonomy students achieve in this programme. The third keynote speaker, Dr. Nataša Pavlović, discussed Facilitating Translator Competence Acquisition in Blended Collaborative Projects and the ten-year experience of teaching Translation Studies at the Faculty of Philosophy, University of Zagreb. The most prominently featured topics for other participants of the Workshop were ethical issues in the profession and how these might be elaborated upon within the classroom setting, and aspects of social-constructivist, collaborative training methodology. Other contributions also discussed assessment for pedagogical purposes, translation/translator competence, teaching editing and training for specializations. In addition to paper presentations, the program included a panel on translator education and training for Romani, a workshop on software localisation, and a presentation/exhibition of the ongoing project of translating prominent Serbian writers into English. Although Workshops do not necessarily result in a book of proceedings, an opportunity was left open for interested participants to submit papers based on their presentations. The papers in this volume discuss both broad issues in translator and interpreter training, which relate to ethics and methodology, and some more specific issues, of particular relevance to translators and interpreters in the region 8 About the Workshop and this Volume of South Slavic countries, such as the training of legal translators, accreditation practices for translators of the mutually understandable languages of Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian in Australia, and special procedures in LSP translation. We would like to extend our heartfelt thanks to the authors featured in this volume for making this book of proceedings possible: they only had a very short time to send their completed contributions. Rafat Alwazna critically examines the ethical dilemmas translators face when working on different kinds of text. The article gives a comprehensive overview of academic discussion on translation norms and translation ethics, to conclude that what is most important is to remain balanced, producing a text that “reproduces the form and content [...] and [...] is comprehensible by the target reader”. Anca Greere describes key features of the training methodology applied at the EMT-certified masters-level training of translators and interpreters at the University of Babeş Bolyai, Romania. Her contribution will be especially valuable for teachers on newly formed master programs in translation and interpreting, as it offers a detailed description of the structure of a program which accounts for all the competences drafted in the current literature promoting greater learner autonomy. The author also provides in-depth information on a working approach for the development of soft skills, preparing students for managerial positions in translation agencies. Jim Hlavac performs a survey in order to determine the linguistic behaviour, attitudes and professional practices of interpreters of Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian, mainly in Australia. Although these three languages are classified as distinct languages and require separate accreditation, the survey reveals that in most situations interpreters will be accepted even if they are not native speakers of the language of the assignment, with the translator and interpreter adapting to the language used by the client. This behaviour is less evident among translators and interpreters with only one accreditation, than for those with multiple accreditations. Mira Milić applies Göpferich’s method of comprehensibility dimensions to analyse non-literary research papers and their tran9 About the Workshop and this Volume slations. She compares the initial and final translation text in order to reveal “a creative process-oriented teamwork of translators and researchers”. The article suggests that the translation of a specialized text needs to be reviewed by an expert in the field in order to ensure it meets the requirements of the target readers. Although the article discusses examples from translations of Serbian into English, the findings may well apply to a great number of language pairs. Jelena Pralas provides an explanation of how mini team-translation projects are implemented in translator training at the Institute of Foreign Languages, University of Montenegro. Using the EMT framework of competences as a starting point, the article presents possible strategies to reach these goals. Borislava Šašić gives a first person account of the role of translators and interpreters in the context of international criminal law and argues for greater translator involvement in the drafting of legal documents. As one way of helping translators and interpreters achieve this greater impact, she offers a valuable practitioner perspective on an approach to translator and interpreter training for legal contexts. All the papers featured in this volume have undergone a double blind peer-review process and we would like to take this opportunity to thank our anonymous reviewers from Slovakia, Romania, Macedonia and Serbia for their time and expertise. The Workshop and this volume could be seen as a landmark for university level T&I training in Serbia and in the region, and the organizers are grateful to all who have helped them along, financially, logistically, or with their time, knowledge, interest and good will: colleagues at the English Department, Faculty of Philosophy at the University of Novi Sad, members of the IATIS Regional Workshops Committee, the Provincial Secretariat for Science and Technological Development, and the Serbian Ministry for Science, Technology and Research. The Editors Novi Sad and Hong Kong, December 2014 10 Rafat Alwazna* King Abdulaziz University Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia UDC 81’25:17 TRANSLATION ETHICS IN THE STRICT SENSE: FIDELITY TO THE SOURCE TEXT VERSUS TARGETCULTURE APPROPRIATENESS Abstract: Translation ethics have been strictly defined as the practice to keep the meaning of the source text undistorted (Robinson 2003: 25). Two opposing views of scholars with regard to translation ethics can clearly be identified. The first view lies in following the source text verbatim regardless of whether or not the target text sounds exotic to the target reader, thus conveying both the form and content of the source text into the target language. Conversely, the second view is concerned with the specific purpose the translation seeks to serve in the target culture. The present paper will argue that the translator should strike a balance between following translation ethics, especially those related to the transfer of form and content of the source text into the target language and producing a target text that can fulfil in the target language the appropriate function for which it has been produced. Keywords: Translation ethics, translation norms, source text, translation ideology, form, content 1. Introduction Currently, the majority of professions possess a particular code of ethics. These ethics have developed as a result of people’s realisation concerning the importance of showing what is acceptable within a particular profession and what is not (Phelan 2001: 39). Translation * alwazna@gmail.com 11 Rafat Alwazna as a well-known and well-established profession and as an enjoyable activity, if recognised as a pivotal element within cultural systems (Tymoczko 2006: 443), has also a specific code of ethics. Indeed, translation in itself is regarded as an ethical activity (Goodwin: 2010, Baker & Maier 2011). It can be viewed as an activity with a set of ethics, ideology and politics, rather than a linguistic activity (Tymoczko 2006: 443). Indeed, translation is driven by ethics. It plays a significant role in shaping societies and nations in different ways such that translation can make pivotal changes in the globalised world (Tymoczko 2006: 459). Moreover, professional translators have started to show particular interest in translation ethics, which emanates from their belief that they have become influential figures in the movements of human rights that mark today’s world (Baker & Maier 2011: 1). This paper addresses the concept of how a balance can possibly be struck between respecting and following translation ethics specific to the fidelity to the source text and producing a target text that fits the cultural setting of the target language and serves its purpose. It is indeed a consequence of continuous independent research conducted with regard to the concept of translation ethics and how it is viewed and interpreted in different ways. Particular emphasis has been given to the concept of translation ethics in its narrow sense, which primarily lies in following the form and content of the source text as much as possible in producing the target text in the target language and culture. Specific academic works have been carefully chosen in order to be cited in the paper concerned. These academic works have been chosen for citation on the basis of their academic accreditation in the field of translation studies, particularly within the context of translation ethics. The paper starts by providing a definition of translation ethics, with some elaboration on the concept of translation and how it can be adapted to suit different contexts and readership. Different studies and views on the concept of translation are then presented, with a relatively succinct discussion of each study and view, in an attempt to show how the concept of translation is seen and understood by 12 TRANSLATION ETHICS IN THE STRICT SENSE: FIDELITY TO ... translation scholars and translators differently and the apparent change that has taken place with regard to viewing the concept of translation through time periods. A complete section is devoted to deal with translation norms and translation ethics, showing that the relation between them may reside in the positive reaction of the translator to a specific translation situation. However, if translation ethics are interpreted by following the source text and reproducing its form and content as much as possible, the main theme of the present paper, some contradiction between translation norms and translation ethics may emerge. The paper presents two broadly opposing views with regard to translation ethics. At one end of the continuum, there are translation scholars who hold the view that translators should respect translation ethics by adhering to the form and content of the source text and reproducing them as much as possible in the target language regardless of whether or not the target text sounds foreign to the target reader. At the other end of the continuum, there are other translation scholars who claim that translators should endeavour to produce a target text that lives up to the expectations of the target reader, runs in line with the cultural norms of the target language and serves its appropriate purpose. The present paper would argue for a place between such two ends, respecting translation ethics by following the source text’s form and content as much as possible, and producing a target text which is understandable by the target reader and fulfils its function. 2. Definition and concept Benjamin (1999: 79) states “instead of resembling the meaning of the original, must lovingly and in detail incorporate the original’s mode of signification, thus making both the original and the translation recognizable as fragments of a greater language, just as fragments are part of a vessel”. Translation ethics have been strictly defined as the practice to keep the meaning of the source text undistorted (Robinson 2003: 13 Rafat Alwazna 25). Obviously, this notion of translation ethics is too restricted as the translator in specific cases is expressly required to distort the meaning of the original text to live up to the audience expectations, such as adapting the target text for children’s story, television, advertising campaign, etc (Robinson 2003: 26, Icoz 2012: 131). This runs in line with Tymoczko (2006: 448), who asserts that new investigations in the field of translation studies confirm that translation can be adapted to suit different contexts, readership, media, technology, etc. Indeed, a translator’s ethics reside primarily in the translator’s performance, but not the translated text (Pym 2012: 13). They arguably rest on the notion of how someone should behave, and it addresses epistemology; how someone knows what kind of matter a particular thing belongs to (Eaglestone 2005: 136). In translation, responsibility lies in the concept that is not comprehended by the translator (Eaglestone 2005: 137). Therefore, it is claimed that the translator should endeavour to comprehend even the author’s presuppositions (Spivak 2005: 93). 3. Different studies and views on the concept of translation Translation can be viewed as “the most intimate act of reading” (Spivak 2005: 94). Steiner (1975: 237) believes that Schleiermacher originated a new way of viewing translation through raising pivotal questions related to general theories pertaining to language and mind. From a linguistic point of view, translation has been seen as the replacement of textual elements of the source language by the target language equivalent textual elements (Catford 1965: 20). On the other hand, from a communicational perspective, translation has generally been viewed as a communicative and intercultural process of transfer in which message content is conveyed from one language into another (Jakobson 1959: 233, Tymoczko 2006: 443). However, translation studies have recently shown a shift from translation being viewed only as an intercultural communication, to the inquiry about intercultural functions of translation processes and products. Such 14 TRANSLATION ETHICS IN THE STRICT SENSE: FIDELITY TO ... approaches have existed within the realm of translation ethics, politics and ideology (Tymoczko 2006: 445). The point lies mainly in how a balance can possibly be struck between traditional translation, which usually draws on literalism and hardly examines the quality of the target text, and the functionalist studies (Nord 1997), which raise particular queries, such as what purpose the target text is meant to serve in the target culture and who is responsible for commissioning the translation (Hermans 2009: 94). Along similar lines and within descriptive paradigm, Lefevere (1992) explored the impact of translation within ideological, cultural and social settings. He argued that the validity of translation is determined by ideology, then poetics. The language occupied the third spot in determining the translation, according to his views. Following this path, Lefevere examined the textual, generic and ideological grids, which founded 19th century Virgil’s English translations (Hermans 2009: 95). Indeed descriptive studies continue to cover a wide range of different practices within translation process; from choosing a particular text for translation, to adopting a specific translation strategy, to publishing the target text, along with a particular ideology. Such descriptive studies have managed to underscore how various translations are founded on the politics of specific spaces and particular time periods (Tymoczko 2010: 225). It can be claimed that both functionalism and descriptivism are particularly concerned with questions such as: who translates the text, what is the text that needs translation, to whom is it directed, when is it translated, why is it translated, where is it translated and how is it translated? Professional translators usually encounter particular areas in their work in which they have to make important decisions with regard to the style adopted in their translation, which includes sentence structure and use of lexical items, alongside the issue of whether or not they should accept a commission (Hermans 2009: 95). Other studies go further, showing, for instance, how translation from Greek and Latin in Victorian Britain contributed successfully to the concept of a national culture (Osborne 2001, Prins 2005, Her15 Rafat Alwazna mans, 2009). Translations from Greek into any particular language do not always relay the same result, i.e. the source and target texts are not always alike, and this happens almost to each translated language (Jakobson 1959: 237). Furthermore, the collection edited by Bassnett and Lefevere (1990) Translation, history and culture, gives credence to the notion that translation was noticeably approached from the cultural perspective. It is argued that the translation produced for a particular audience, i.e. the target text per se is deemed a fact pertaining to a single language, a single textual tradition, and therefore it is related to the target culture (Toury 1980: 82-83, Tymoczko 2010: 216). Hence, translators are regarded as ‘persons-in-the-culture’ of the TL system (Toury 1995: 40, Tymoczko 2010: 216). Though this argument can be challenged, it remains an important claim arising from the evolution of translation studies (Tymoczko 2010: 216). In his essay, Simms (1983) explains how the position of the translator intersects with the translation politics. He goes on to confirm the aforementioned proposition in both cases, whether the translator belongs to the postcolonial culture, supporting the imperial language through translating into this language and its culture, or whether he/ she takes one of the potential positions in which translation takes place targeting members of the TL culture in a particular system. Theoretical claims and descriptive studies carried out by a number of scholars, including Simms, show that the place of the translator can be taken within the TL culture, SL culture or in a different culture, as in the case when German philologists rendered some literature written originally in Irish into English, then published it in series written in German (Tymoczko 2010: 217). The translator’s ideological position and temporal position are both deemed pivotal issues related to the evolution of translation studies. This indeed has led to the notion of viewing translation as a space or place separated from the real and cultural position held by the translator, and different from the translator’s ideological position too (Tymoczko 2010: 217). Researched and utilized as a fruitful subject tackled by writers engaged in translation theory and practice, translation has been viewed as a space located between different 16 TRANSLATION ETHICS IN THE STRICT SENSE: FIDELITY TO ... spaces (Tymoczko 2010: 217). Within the same line of thought, Simon (1996: 162) views translation as ‘the blurred edge’ in which the source text and the target text may meet. This space is difficult to the extent that no writer can hold it. She then sees the domain of translation as the reach of a person with multicultural backgrounds; it is the hybrid place which exists between the realities of different national cultures, though has no role to play in affecting any of them (Simon 1996: 153). Indeed, Simon (1996) follows in her methodology Spivak (1992), whose work has been regarded as one of the most momentous explorations within the notion of translation ideology. Spivak (1992: 178) views translation as a kind of activity in which meaning moves from one place to another and stabilizes in a particular space between the source and target languages. This is given credence by Mehrez (1992: 121), within the translation and postcolonial context, who claims that texts produced by postcolonial bilingual writers create a language which is characterized by being placed in a specific space ‘in between’, i.e. between the source and target languages. Tymoczko (2010: 219) explains the main reason for viewing translation as a space between two languages, claiming that due to the physical positioning of the translator as a speaker located between two different communities, it has become logical to consider translation a space between two different languages. However, from the perspective of translation ideology, the notion of translation as a space ‘in between’ is deemed problematic as it leads to a misconception of the nature of engagement itself, though translation demands collaboration and affiliation (Tymoczko 2010: 226). 4. Translation norms and ethics Translation norms may serve as a helpful tool for translators. Their nature can be interpreted from both social and psychological perspectives. From a social side, norms are said to live up to societies’ expectations and respect their values and traditions (Hermans 2009: 95). Within such social systems, translation serves as an invisi17 Rafat Alwazna ble means of cultural appropriateness, seeking to establish identities and affiliations (Tymoczko 2006: 446). On the other hand, norms are psychological in that they comprise a set of shared and common expectations with regard to the individuals’ behaviours and the decisions they have to make in a particular situation (Hermans 2009: 95). Toury (1995), who has taken on board the concept of translation norms, views them as restrictions which determine the translator’s behaviour. He confirms that the translator’s decisions which shape the final draft of his/her translated text are primarily based and determined by norms. In other words, Toury sees norms as guidance to the translator with regard to word choice, and consequently, they play a substantial role in the formulation of the resulting target text. Levý (1965: 78-79) identifies certain well-known linguistic phenomena, which are deemed amongst the most significant characteristics of the translation behaviour within the process of communication. These include normalisation of the linguistic expression or what is known as explicitation or explicitness along with simplification. Other scholars, such as Hermans (1991), Geest (1992) and Nord (1997) enhance the theoretical foundation of norms by presenting the mutual impacts on both the translator and audience. Norms can particularly be viewed as problem-solving tools that scaffold translators to perform their translation tasks within social and cultural criteria. In that, they enable translators to be aware of the socially acceptable statements, which results in producing a translation deemed by the audience a legitimate and valid target text (Hermans 2009: 96). Chesterman (1997a, 1997b) associates norms with translation ethics, arguing that translation ethics require strict commitment to precise expressions, production of a truthfully equivalent target text, building trust between translators and clients or any other parties involved in this transaction as well as the reduction of possible misunderstanding between the parties involved in the transaction. Based on ethical codes of conduct followed in well-known and professional organizations, Chesterman (2001) goes on to suggest that all translators and interpreters worldwide should make an oath 18 TRANSLATION ETHICS IN THE STRICT SENSE: FIDELITY TO ... similar to the model used in medical profession. This is lent credence by Pym (2001), who emphasizes that ethics are particularly related to the reaction of individuals in a particular concrete situation, and then comes the importance of abstract fundamentals. Pym (1992, 2002, 2004) addresses the issue of ethical aspects of translation in detail. He claims that since translation is broadly viewed as a cross-cultural transaction, one important role that should be played by the translator is to secure cooperation between all parties involved in this transaction, seeking to achieve mutual benefit that can be derived by all parties concerned. Pym places emphasis on professional translators, viewing them as acting within intercultural space, which is the proper place for the skilful cultural mediator who is able to establish efficient interlingual and intercultural communication. These professional and intercultural mediators follow important ethical aspects which go beyond the work of translation to cover other languages facilities. In this respect, Pym, for instance, believes that the cultural mediator may advise the client to learn a particular language if the client will need this language on a continual basis in the long term. This advice unequivocally provides mutual benefit to all parties concerned. It is argued that translators are not completely restricted by norms; rather, they make their own way through these norms so as to have a particular position in the translation process. Doing so, the translators are clearly viewed as restating the source text in a different way (Mossop 1983, Hermans 2009). This shows that translators intervene in new texts through giving their voices in them, in an attempt to take up a position in the current discourse. Consequently, translation unequivocally involves translator’s subjectivity, with a complicated message including diverse and intermingled speaking voices and views (Hermans 2009: 96-97, Icoz 2012: 131). Within the same line of thought, Bakhtin (1981, 1986) points out that the translator’s ideology and position are inevitably found in the target text that he/ she has produced. At the same time, questions of accountability and responsibility, which relate to ethics, are also raised by the translator. 19 Rafat Alwazna Conversely, some translation scholars call for the preservation of the foreignness of the original text in the target text. Humboldt, for instance, insists on the need for keeping the foreign elements found in the original text intact in the target text. Schleiermacher calls the translator to enable the target reader to hear the voice of the original writer, rather than the voices of any other party. Berman’s method for preserving translation ethics is to advocate literal translation in order to respect the source text’s form and content. Within the English speaking world, Venuti supports Berman’s views of ethics, discussing ethics of difference, but adding an ideological and political element thereto (Hermans 2009: 97-98). Badiou (2001: 67), in his interpretation of truth-based ethics, argues that truth has nothing to do with adequacy to reality or enlightenment. It is, however, a process of investigation, which deals with an event that presents something different from the current situation, which is identified by “opinions and instituted knowledges”. The event is meant to locate and support the lack in the current situation. This gives rise to the creation of a subject whose task is to maintain a break with it through investigating the results of the event, form, the ramifications of the concept along with the practice which possesses such merit so as to be called truth (Venuti 2013: 184). Translation ethics can be more complex from the translator’s perspective. A number of thorny issues may confront the translator and pose potential problems with regard to how the translator can possibly deal with them. For instance, what should the translator do when required to render a text which is deemed offensive? What should he/she do when professional ethics are repugnant to his/her personal moral ethics? What should the translator do when he/she needs to translate a particular discourse which he/she does not agree with or does not feel comfortable translating it? (Robinson 2003: 26, Phelan 2001: 56). Translators and interpreters should always bear in mind that they are not liable for the nature of the message, rather for conveying it adequately and precisely. If they feel uncomfortable translating a particular message content into another language, they should withdraw from the situation (Phelan 2001: 56). 20 TRANSLATION ETHICS IN THE STRICT SENSE: FIDELITY TO ... From the client’s perspective, the above concerns do not form important issues in translation. The translator is expected to translate what he/she is asked to translate, and he/she is required to translate in such a way that runs in line with the target text’s user’s satisfaction (Robinson 2003: 26). The translator, like the interpreter, should not undertake a translation task which he/she cannot accomplish due to any particular reason (Phelan 2001: 39). The translator has no point of view with regard to the act of translation (Robinson 2003: 26). This is in line with some translators, who believe that the translator should not do anything that runs contrary to the interest of the translation users; those who are paying for the translation (Robinson 2003: 26). By contrast and from a different point of view, translators, as all professionals, want to enjoy their work and would like to feel proud of themselves as translators. Therefore, if their professional ethics are contrary to their own personal ethics to the point that it becomes difficult to feel this kind of pride, they may make momentous decisions with regard to the place and conditions under which they accept to work. Taking this on board, translators are beginning to strike a balance between their own personal ethics and their professional ethics as translators (Robinson 2003: 26). They are required to make particular choices as they can never relay all features of the source text into the receptor language. Thus, their choices would determine their position of enunciation. This gives rise to the notion of establishing priorities in translation (Tymoczko 2006: 453) as translation loss will inevitably take place in any translation work. The choices made by translators should clearly determine the ST elements that must be rendered into the TL, and those which should be dispensed with, hence translation may arguably be viewed as a metonymic process (Tymoczko 2006: 453). Having considered the main theme of the present paper, which primarily resides in how a balance can possibly be struck between respecting professional translation ethics specific to ST fidelity and producing a translation for serving a particular purpose, it seems significant that the translator should fully recognize the importance 21 Rafat Alwazna of three crucial factors on which his/her translation strategy may intrinsically be based. These factors include the nature of the text he/ she is required to translate, the purpose of the translation or what Icoz (2012: 132) calls ‘the aim of the translation’ and the type of audience to whom the translation is directed. The translator needs to build his/her strategic decisions upon the aforementioned factors, treating each factor on its own merit. Such strategic decisions should be justifiable as any person might question them (Baker & Maier 2011). However, if confronted with severely offensive texts, lines that contain noticeable insults or negative statements against specific religions or particular prophets which are totally repugnant to the translator’s personal ethics, the translator may withdraw from the situation, as stated by Phelan (2001) above. Pym (2012: 110) contends that ethics in the wide sense should deal with problems of dehumanisation of the other, intolerance of religious differences, etc. Respect of religious belief should be of utmost importance whether this belief is the translator’s or the client’s. This does not mean that the belief respected by the translator should be adopted by him/her, however, respect of others’ belief is unequivocally required. 5. Concluding remarks Translation, as other well-established and well-known professions, has a specific code of ethics, which should be fully respected by translators. Translation as an important profession and as an enjoyable activity, has been variably viewed by different translation scholars and translators. After translation has long been regarded as an intercultural transfer, other studies have inquired about the intercultural functions of translation processes and products. There have also dealt with the translator’s ideology and its implications on translation. Distinctive studies have positioned translation in a position between the source language and the target language. Norms of translation are considered pivotal tools that guide the translator toward what is acceptable in a particular society and away 22 TRANSLATION ETHICS IN THE STRICT SENSE: FIDELITY TO ... from what is not, so that the translator can formulate the final shape of his/her translation. Taken on board the broad sense of translation ethics, there is a clear connection between translation norms and translation ethics, which may well appear in the positive reaction of the translator to a particular translation situation and the act of building trust among all the parties participating in the translation process/transaction. However, translation norms can at times oppose translation ethics, if what is meant by ethics is to follow the source text verbatim. In this respect, there are broadly two opposing camps of translation scholars. At one end of the spectrum, there are scholars who believe in following the source text literally regardless of whether or not the target text sounds exotic to the target reader, thus conveying the form and content of the source text into the target language. At the other end of the spectrum, there are other scholars who argue over the merit of producing a target text that lives up to the expectations of the target reader, fits the cultural setting of the target language and fulfils its appropriate function, thus making substantial changes on the source text form and probably the content too. The present paper would argue for a middle place between the two; following translation ethics by reproducing the form and content of the source text as much as possible and, at the same time, producing a target text which is comprehensible by the target reader and can fulfil its function. This is with no doubt a formidable task that cannot be easily performed by the translator as achievement of a balanced translation is often out of reach. Consequently, the translator needs to be adept at choosing the most appropriate translation strategy that best suits his/her translation situation. To achieve this highly important goal, special emphasis should be placed on the text type, the purpose of the translation and the type of audience to whom the translation is directed. Nonetheless, translation loss is inevitable and can never be completely shunned by the translator, albeit reduced by exposing the most insignificant elements in the translation to translation loss. Finally, if the translator is faced with a largely offensive text, he/she may withdraw from the situation. 23 Rafat Alwazna REFERENCES Badiou, A. (2001). Ethics: An essay on the understanding of evil. Trans. P. Hallward. London: Verso. Baker, M. & Maier, C. (2011). Ethics in interpreter & translator training: Critical perspectives. The Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 5(1), 1-14. Bakhtin, M. (1981). The dialogic imagination: Four essays. Ed. M. Holquist. Trans, C. Emerson and M. Holquist. Austin/Texas: University of Texas Press. Bakhtin, M. (1986). Speech genres and other late essays. Trans V. W. McGee. Austin/Texas: University of Texas Press. Bassnett, S. & Lefevere, A. (eds.), (1990). Translation, history and culture. London/New York: Pinter. Benjamin, W. (1999). Illuminations. London: Pimlico. Catford, J. C. (1965). A linguistic theory of translation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Chesterman, A. (1997a). Memes of translation: The spread of ideas in translation theory. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Chesterman, A. (1997b). “Ethics of translation”. In: M. Snell-Hornby, Z. Jettmarova & K. Kaindl (eds.), Translation as intercultural communication: Selected papers from the EST Congress, Prague 1995. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 147-157. Chesterman, A. (2001). Proposal for a Hieronymic oath. The Translator, 7, 139-154. Eaglestone, R. (2005). “Levinas, translation, and ethics”. In: S. Bermann & M. Wood (eds.), Nation, language and the ethics of translation. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 127-138. Geest, D. (1992). “The notion of system: Its theoretical importance and its methodological implications for a functionalist translation theory”. In: H. Kittel (ed.), Geschichte, system, literarische ubersetzung. [Histories, systems literary translations.] Berlin: Erich Schmidt, 32-45. Goodwin, P. (2010). “Ethical problems in translation: Why we might need Steiner after all”. The Translator, 16(1), 19-42. Hermans, T. (1991). “Translational norms and correct translations”. In: K. Ban Leuben-Zwart & T. Naaijkens (eds.), Translation studies: The 24 TRANSLATION ETHICS IN THE STRICT SENSE: FIDELITY TO ... state of the art-proceedings of the first James S. Holmes Symposium on translation studies. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 155-169. Hermans, T. (2009). “Translation, ethics, politics”. In: J. Munday (ed.), The routledge companion to translation studies. London: Routledge, 93-105. Icoz, N. (2012). “Considering ethics in translation”. Electronic Journal of Vocational Colleges, 2(2), 131-134. Jakobson, R. (1959). “On linguistic aspects of translation”. In: R. A. Brower (ed.), On translation. Cambridge/Harvard: Harvard University Press, 232-239. Lefevere, A. (1992). Translation, rewriting and the manipulation of literary fame. London/New York: Routledge. Levý, J. (1965). “Will translation theory be of use to translators?” In: R. Italiaander (ed.), Ubersetzen. Vortrage und beitrage vom internationalen kongress literarischer ubersetzer in Hamburg 1965. Frankfurt-am-Main: Athenaum, 77-82. Mehrez, S. (1992). “Translation and the postcolonial experience: The Francophone North African text”. In: L. Venuti (ed.), Rethinking translation: Discourse, subjectivity, ideology. London: Routledge, 120138. Mossop, B. (1983). “The translator as rapporteur: A Concept for training and self-improvement”. Meta, 28(3), 244-278. Nord, C. (1997). Translating as a purposeful activity: Functionalist approaches explained. Manchester: St Jerome. Osborne, H. (2001). “Hooked on classics: Discourses of allusion in the midVictorian novel”. In: R. Ellis and L. Oakley-Brown (eds.), Translation and nation: Towards a cultural politics of Englishness. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 120-166. Phelan, M. (2001). The interpreter’s resource. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Prins, Y. (2005). “Metrical translation: Nineteenth century homers and the hexameter mania”. In: S. Bermann & M. Wood (eds.), Nation, language and the ethics of translation. Princeton-NJ: Princeton University Press, 229-256. Pym, A. (1992). Translation and text transfer: An essay on the principles of intercultural communication. Frankfurt am Main/Berlin/Bern: Peter Lang. 25 Rafat Alwazna Pym, A. (2001). “Introduction: The return to ethics in translation studies”. The Translator, Special Issue The Return to Ethics, 7(2), 129-138. Pym, A. (2002). “On cooperation”. In: M. Olohan (ed.), Intercultural faultlines: Research methods in translation studies I: Textual and cognitive aspects. Manchester: St. Jerome, 181-192. Pym, A. (2004). “Propositions on cross-cultural communication and translation”. Target, 16(1), 1-28. Pym, A. (2012). On translation ethics. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Robinson, D. (2003). Becoming a translator: An introduction to the theory and practice of translation. 2nd ed. London: Routledge. Simms, N. (1983). “Three types of ‘Touchy’ translation”. Pacific Quarterly Moana, 8(2), 48-58. Simon, S. (1996). Gender in translation. London/New York: Routledge. Spivak, G. C. (1992). “The politics of translation”. In: M. Barrett & A. Phillips (eds.), Destabilizing Theory. Oxford: Polity Press, 177-200. Spivak, G. C. (2005). “Translating into English”. In: S. Bermann & M. Wood (eds.), Nation, language and the ethics of translation. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 93-110. Steiner, G. (1975). After babel: Aspects of language & translation. 1st ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Toury, G. (1980). In search of a theory of translation. Telaviv: Porter Institute. Toury, G. (1995). Descriptive translation studies and beyond. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Tymoczko, M. (2006). “Translation: Ethics, ideology, action”. The Massachusetts Review, 47(3), 442-461. Tymoczko, M. (2010). “Ideology and the position of the translator: In what sense is a translator ‘In Between’”. In: M. Baker (ed.), Critical readings in translation studies. Oxon: Routledge, 213-228. Venuti, L. (2013). Translation changes everything: Theory and practice. Oxon/New York: Routledge. 26 Anca Greere* Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania UDC 81‘255.2:6[371.134 TRAINING METHODOLOGIES IN PROFESSIONALLY-ORIENTED TRANSLATOR EDUCATION. EXAMPLES OF PRACTICE Abstract:The article sets out to describe various training methodologies applicable in professionally-oriented translator education as experimented during the European Master’s in Translation Studies and Terminology at the Babeş-Bolyai University in Cluj-Napoca, Romania. Such methodologies are highlighted which have the potential to promote learner autonomy and learner empowerment in the training environment. The opportunities for professional exploration encourage students to take a broader view of the professions they are training for, to become more motivated in eliciting detailed professional knowledge and understanding and to develop values and attitudes towards the professional community. Key words: translator education, training methodologies, professional orientation 1. The context of training translators Translator training in the Romanian higher education context was first set up approximately two decades ago, following the French model of Applied Modern Languages. Since then key milestones, observed both in the higher education sector and the professional arena, have driven translation programmes forward, calling for continuous reshaping of format, appropriate adjustment of content and * anca.greere@lett.ubbcluj.ro 27 Anca Greere effective redesign of methodologies for delivery. Examples of such milestones in education include: the acknowledgement of the domain Applied Modern Languages including Translation and Interpreting in the Romanian Framework for Higher Education Qualifications, the development of a specific programme accreditation methodology for this domain by the Romanian Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education, and the successful affiliation of the European Master’s in Translation Studies and Terminology at the Babeş-Bolyai University in Cluj-Napoca to the European Master’s in Translation Network of the Directorate General of Translation, European Commission. In the professional context key developments have included: the setting up of the Romanian Translators Association and its subsequent membership of the International Federation of Translators, the adoption of the European Standard EN15038 ‘Translation Services-Service Requirements’ by the Romanian Standards Association, the successive legislative amendments targeting public-service translators/ interpreters as authorised by the Romanian Ministry of Justice, and, maybe most importantly, Romania’s accession to the EU, which has raised the market share for the Romanian language within the language industry. In spite of all these positive developments, misconceptions regarding the translation profession and the necessary training mechanisms remain amongst the general public, clients, public authorities and legislators, and these result in unrealistic commissions, misguided expectations and insufficiently robust professionalization procedures, where recognition of relevant qualifications, demarcation of professional profiles and promotion of norms of conduct are still amongst the main challenges. Against this backdrop, training programmes, especially at Master’s level, constantly find themselves addressing dilemmas which revolve around such dichotomous pairs as: philological versus applied language training, academic versus professional orientation, national specificity versus international applicability, or even translation versus interpreting. Such holistic dilemmas translate into a number of more concrete questions which bring into play student motivation, graduate employability prospects, 28 TRAINING METHODOLOGIES IN PROFESSIONALLY-ORIENTED ... national and/or international recognition of degrees, transferability of competences acquired, level of staff qualifications, optimal balance between academic and professional expertise of staff, and, not least, appropriateness of learning and teaching methods. In what follows, we propose to detail the approach taken by the European Master’s in Translation Studies and Terminology (further referred to as METT, i.e. Masterat European de Traductologie-Terminologie) delivered by the Babeş-Bolyai University in Cluj-Napoca Romania, to date the sole Romanian member of the European Master’s in Translation Network of the Directorate General for Translation of the European Commission. 2. The principles of training translators METT is a two-year full-time master’s level programme, which was originally set up to support the professionalization of the Romanian market and, in subsequent phases, to form trained translators needed both during the EU accession process and after accession to cope with increased demand on the language market nationally, in Europe and internationally in regards to the language combinations with Romanian. Currently, the programme adopts broader learning objectives meant to develop competences that will equip graduates for the ever changing profile of the professions within the language industries. Its affiliation to the European Master’s in Translation Network (EMT) of the Directorate General for Translation, European Commission, allows for close monitoring of developments within Europe in training and market settings. Thus, the programme is aligned with academic requirements set within the Romanian higher education quality assurance framework and, at the same time, adopts a strong professional orientation in recognition of translation training quality markers it subscribes to through its EMT membership. The emphasis on the professionalization component is most evident through the admission criteria, staffing policies, delivery procedures and learning outcomes the programme promotes. The programme is 29 Anca Greere designed and operates to achieve the following overarching goals: (1) to train for the market, i.e. the opportunities and the exigencies on international, European, and national markets, (2) to develop professional behaviour that can contribute to the professionalization of the Romanian market, i.e. to provide a context for discussion of ethical issues, and to foster responsible attitudes vis-à-vis the profession and the related careers, (3) to raise awareness of the complexity of the profession by demonstrating variation of task typology (domainspecific text genres) and the variety of professional profiles in the language industry: reviser, technical writer, subtitler, terminologist, and (4) to allow for market insertion in superior/individual positions by providing knowledge of businesses (set-up, marketing, management, keeping financial records, etc.), by facilitating familiarisation with team positions (leader, member), team dynamics, team conflicts. The METT curriculum and the specific learning outcomes are mapped onto the EMT competence grid (EMT expert group 2009: 4-7) allowing students to develop knowledge, understanding, skills, attitudes and values regarding the translation profession and other language professions. Further markers of student achievement are expressed as follows: • being aware of the specificity of translation services (legislation in the domain, translation/terminology standards to be observed, types of tasks, profile of stakeholders, client-translator relationship, management and marketing); • being aware of translation approaches geared to the business world (translation strategies specific to different domains/ situational contexts, identification/application of conventiondriven text production); • being able to apply in real-life translation situations translation competences (based on EMT model) developed within the training programme; • being responsible towards the profession (legal/ethical obligations of translators) and being committed to process and product quality; 30 TRAINING METHODOLOGIES IN PROFESSIONALLY-ORIENTED ... • being confident that the training received is relevant for the market; • being equipped to tackle translation markets (or niche domains); • being prepared to engage in other language professions converging with the profession of translator (terminologist, reviser, technical writer, intercultural business mediator) To ensure that such expectations are met, the programme proposes a variety of curricular and extracurricular activities which deliver experiences that contribute to competence development. These activities are tailored methodologically to ensure learning outcomes are attained. 3. The methodologies for training translators Curricular and extracurricular activities proposed by the METT are rooted in methodological principles of linguistic and cultural comparison, student-delivered content, simulations of translation situations (with focus on tasks and processes), controlled professional contact, research-driven learning or immersion in professional settings, some of which are noted by Gambier (2012: 163-171), detailed by Kelly (2005: 100-105) and amply exemplified by Kiraly (2000: 101-116). In applying such principles, tasks can be designed where the tutor facilitates and supports the development of competences by empowering students (Kiraly 2000: 58, 65-69) to take control of their own learning process and to design their own tools to reach proposed objectives. The tutor provides the guidelines for the activities, but encourages ‘trial and error’ as part of a controlled environment, and moves the focus of debate amongst the students to strengthen peer-to-peer communication patterns and stimulate individual and collective reflection. Methodologies like the ones described below often allow for roles and responsibilities to be negotiated amongst 31 Anca Greere the group and a distribution adopted by common agreement. Group leaders are chosen by the group not suggested or appointed by the tutor; project management is organised by the group and will incorporate such stages which are deemed relevant by participants; interference/involvement from the tutor is minimal and will subtly guide students towards reaching a viable solution (from amongst alternatives identified) rather than providing the solution upfront (Kiraly 2000: 63); the participants assume shared responsibility for the effectiveness of the process and become jointly accountable for the final results as they engage in detailed evaluations of the educational experiences they have undergone. Where possible, evaluations will encourage individual and collective self-assessment, peer-assessment and team-assessment. The perceptions of students undergoing such training have been summarised in Iacob and Havasi (2011: 181-188). 3.1. Linguistic and cultural comparison The principle of linguistic and cultural comparison is best illustrated through the methodology applied in courses such as B Language and Culture or C Language and Culture where awareness of the B/C linguistic and cultural realities is raised predominantly through exercising comparisons with the native language, i.e. Romanian, and eliciting transferability options between languages. The training methods associate with this principle are comprehensively detailed by Greere (2009: 9-37). 3.2. Student-delivered content Student-delivered content is promoted in many ways, one complex structure being proposed within Specialised Translation courses, where teams of students are allocated consecutive weeks to prepare a domain of their choice and to detail its position on the translation market, i.e. the likelihood of it being a frequently translated domain, 32 TRAINING METHODOLOGIES IN PROFESSIONALLY-ORIENTED ... the most frequently encountered translation briefs and text types and genres for translation within the domain. Students will conduct extensive research before they can confidently stand before the class and deliver their training. The students receiving the training also engage in substantive research to be able to constructively challenge the proposals of colleagues, but also to develop portfolios with relevant terminology, parallel texts and background texts in support of knowledge acquisition and reinforcement. The classroom thus becomes a lively, motivating environment where learning is driven, developed and delivered by the students with only minimal tutor guidance. Student-delivered content is also conveyed to external audiences during Career Days, when METT students assume the role of promoting the professions they are training for as they explain to a lay audience the demands of professionalism exercised within various fields of translation. A more comprehensive demonstration of the realities that are part of the translation profession was provided during the 2011 AILEA/ANLEA conference for which students wrote and put on an extremely well-received stage production which took the audience through all the stages of the translation process as imagined in the ATCLMA translation company. Participating students subsequently produced a shorter movie version of the play and published an article detailing the theoretical grounding and empirical reflections on this activity as a learning experience complementary to METT (Iacob et al 2011: 28-47). 3.3. Real-life project simulations Simulations rooted in reality, depicting real-life scenarios form core activities of the METT programme are employed with varying degrees of length and complexity as connected to specific courses such as Contemporary Translation Theories, Specialised Translations, as well as single, stand-alone ECTS-credited activities. Tasks used in the simulations range from those duplicating function and textual 33 Anca Greere production mechanisms, to those requiring functional adaptation and target-culture orientation to become effective communication tools. Descriptions of the use of “extreme translation briefs” are detailed by Greere (2008: 23-32), as are illustrations of relevant applications for specialised legal translation training (Greere 2006: 128-155). Simulations of process frequently focus on the development of project management skills by application of EN15038 compatible stages to ensure optimal results. Such simulations encourage students to test their capabilities to form and sustain professional relationships, and allow for mistakes to be made in a controlled, confident environment where equal emphasis is placed on process, product and reflection on performance. The most complex example of an ECTS-bearing simulation project incorporated into METT is a real-life technical translation project simulation run in each semester of study, with students undertaking different tasks depending on their level of training. The academic year in Romania is split into two semesters and students participate in four such simulation sessions before completing the programme. Arrangements and roles will differ from one session to the next. When the simulation was first introduced to the programme this was as part of the Tradutech project (Gouadec 2000: 97-104, 2001: 77-85). It offered the opportunity for students to engage in an intensive one-week simulation of a technical translation project which was run simultaneously in a number of European countries, with students all working on the same source text and to the same project instructions, with similar methodology and outputs, bar the language of translation. The Babeş-Bolyai University continued the activity even after Tradutech funding had ceased, as did Rennes University. In time, relevant adjustments were made to ensure full alignment with the learning outcomes set and to allow for a distinctive experience each session, corresponding to the various stages of competence development students had achieved in training. For a number of years after the development of the Master’s programme into a 2-year fully-fledged Bologna structure, the simulation has run in a format which requires substantive pre- and post-implementation 34 TRAINING METHODOLOGIES IN PROFESSIONALLY-ORIENTED ... involvement, as well as full concentration and commitment during the actual translation week. In the autumn/winter semester, the participants in the simulation are 3rd year Bachelor students in Applied Modern Languages (selected through an internal recruitment process), and all first and second year METT students (further referred to as METT1 and METT2). Depending on the total number of METT 1 students, teams of 8 to10 will be formed, with 3 to 4 METT2 students coordinating/supervising each METT1 team. As pre-simulation activities, METT1 are provided with theoretical and practical curriculum content to support their understanding of the translation process and the various stages it entails; they prepare a small scale translation project which enables them to interact in teams and to test out the details of process organisation and project implementation; and they participate in briefings/trainings organised by METT2. METT2 roll out a full selection process to market the project to 3rd year BA students across the institution and to recruit 1 to 2 bachelor level students per simulation team; they coordinate METT1 teams and offer briefings, training, guidance and support for the implementation of the project. Monday morning of the simulation week, students receive the source text and the instructions from “the client” (who is played by tutors). The instructions contain the translation brief, the deadlines and the list of deliverables, including a terminology glossary indicating the sources of validation, the translation into Romanian with replicated formatting, translation and terminology reports to highlight problems encountered and solutions debated, and an activity report detailing organisational reflections. Subsequently, evaluation reports will be submitted focussing on individual and collective performance. To cover these tasks METT1 engage in terminology mining, translation and harmonisation during the week, while METT2 take responsibility for the revision and final preparation of outputs to ensure delivery of quality products. The roles and responsibilities are based on a project plan which METT2 consult on with METT1. In the spring/summer semester, the simulation is played out differently. The project is no longer open to 3rd year Bachelor level 35 Anca Greere students; it will be conducted solely by METT1 with no METT2 coordination. METT1 will be responsible for the final product and they design their own project plan and implement it during the week. METT2 only participate in a follow-up stage after the simulation week is completed and the product submitted by METT1. The role of METT2 is language quality inspection (LQI), based on criteria they design themselves. METT2 produce a report on the quality of the translation and other outputs requested. In both semesters, written evaluations representing self-assessment, peer-assessment and teamassessment are delivered and students are requested to present their experiences in a reflection session where METT 1 and METT2 come together. Below is the timeline of the project as distributed over the two semesters in the academic year, with an indication of the roles and responsibilities students are attributed. Timeline Activities weeks 1st year students [METT1] Winter/autumn semester -8 Absorb curriculum content -4 -1 -1/2 0 +1 36 Participate in mini team project Complete team project Activities 2nd year students [METT2] Start recruitment process Produce project dissemination materials Complete first application round (usually based on CV/letter of intent) Design translation test + assessment grid Shortlist candidates for translation test and interview and conduct assessment Complete selection process and announce successful candidates Receive feedback from tutor Participate in briefing to discuss roles and Organise briefing to discuss roles and responsibilities during simulation responsibilities during simulation Translation simulation week Translation simulation week • terminology mining • translation • revision/harmonisation Submit individual and team evaluations • coordination: expertise, project support, time management • revision/harmonisation Submit individual and team evaluations TRAINING METHODOLOGIES IN PROFESSIONALLY-ORIENTED ... +3 Reflection session • Deliver presentations re simulation • Receive feedback from tutor Spring/summer semester -1 Design a strategy for the week 0 Simulation week • focus on all stages of the process +1 Submit individual and team evaluations +2 +3 Prepare presentations Reflection session Reflection session • Deliver presentations re simulation • Receive feedback from tutor No activity for simulation Analyse task and source text received Design LQI grid to use (including qualitative and quantitative criteria for evaluation) Plan and agree the stages and deadlines Perform LQI (Language Quality Inspection) Submit individual and team evaluations Reflection session • Deliver presentations re simulation • Deliver presentations re simulation • Receive feedback from METT2 • Provide feedback to METT1 • Receive feedback from tutor • Receive feedback from tutor Simulation projects can be structured in many different ways, as demonstrated by the variety of simulation descriptions practiced in translation training across Europe, collected by the OPTIMALE network. However, the commonality lies in the pedagogical aims which such projects serve. These relate to autonomous and self-directed learning for professional purposes, with students being provided the training environment with opportunities to organise themselves, to plan their own structures for project implementation, to design their own tools to support implementation and to verify their validity and effectiveness, to agree the detailed roles and responsibilities and to test out how they may perform in different roles and under a variety of professional requirements, and all this with minimal planned input from the tutor. 37 Anca Greere 3.4. Controlled professional contact Controlled professional contact is facilitated in at least two major activities, often connected to the course “Translation as European Profession”, (1) invitation of professional guest speakers and visiting translators also under the VTS scheme (Visiting Translator Scheme), where interventions are aligned with learning outcomes and the content delivered is subject to assessment at the end of the course unit. Speakers are coached into offering a valuable learning experience to students and the course tutor subsequently invites reflection and coordinated discussions on the information presented and/or experiences described; and (2) tutor-coordinated visits to translation companies/institutions, such as ASCO translation company in Brasov, and the Directorate-General for Translation in Brussels, organised as two-three day field trips. The visits are thematically planned to relevantly map onto curriculum content. Colleagues are most generous in sharing their know-how, and the trips are extremely formative. However, due to various constraints, not least financial, these types of visits cannot be a formal part of the curriculum, as not all students can participate and therefore there is no summative assessment of knowledge acquired/skills developed. Nonetheless, to strive for uniformity in the learning experience, debrief sessions are organised with non-participating students, in order to share and discuss the knowledge acquired. In addition, participating students are asked to complete post-visit evaluation questionnaires, which form the basis of the next planning cycle. All instances of controlled professional contact, with or without compulsory participation, focus distributed attention on the translation professions by addressing issues related to: business set-ups (freelancing vs. company); project management and team interactions; costing/pricing/tenders; workflow requirements; tools employed (CAT and other tools); terminology handling; quality control mechanisms; and compatibility with EN15038. Students also develop a better understanding of continuous professional development needs and opportunities (including for specialised translations), and this 38 TRAINING METHODOLOGIES IN PROFESSIONALLY-ORIENTED ... allows for further professional reinforcement for such knowledge and skills acquired within the academic environment. Controlled professional contact also takes place when METT engages in real translation tasks, coordinated in-house. In this context the relationship with the client is managed by the tutors and the project stages are also closely supervised by the tutors, who perform a quality check before delivery of final product. The most recent example of such a real translation task was the translation into Romanian of the book by Carmen Valero Garces, (2008) Formas de mediación intercultural. Traducción e Interpretación en los servicios públicos. Conceptos, datos, situaciones y práctica. 3.5. Research-driven learning Research and documentation skills are fundamental to the programme’s aims. If learner autonomy is to be promoted and students encouraged to take responsibility for their own work, their own processes and their own involvement, it means that training should be facilitative and collaborative rather than a continuous one-way transfer of information from tutor to students. This entails the creation of opportunities for students to seek out their own solutions and to discuss and defend them with peers, allowing them to shape their professional discourse and interaction patterns. However, research is not just linked to the elicitation of relevant terminological and/or parallel/comparative/background knowledge to enable a translation task to be performed effectively, nor is it just the sourcing of information and its relevant filtering and triangulation for confirmation purposes that is envisaged, academically-based, scholarly research can equally contribute to the shaping of the student’s professional identity as they investigate professional realities pertinent to the language-services community. Research projects promoted within METT span from investigations of theoretical topics in translation studies or research with practical applications, such as the creation and annotation of terminological databases and of specialised parallel translation corpora, 39 Anca Greere to market surveys on topics driven by curriculum content, and analysis of the training methodologies that the METT exposes students to. Some of these projects have resulted in publications. In 2010 METT2 students embarked on an interesting project that would elicit ethical perceptions of translation professionals on the Romanian market. The research was structured in four phases: (1) analysis of existing Codes of Practice, Codes of Ethics promoted by various organisation across the world which regulate or support the language professions, and identification of any common main themes, which enabled a preliminary delimitation of the research area, (2) analysis of readily available internet-based information on ethical dilemmas/solutions posed on fora, blogs, discussion boards followed by mapping the results onto the themes identified previously, (3) design, development and implementation of a survey addressed to the Romanian language professional community (specifically engaged in translation work), a survey which was delivered with the support of the Romanian Translators Association, (4) analysis of survey responses, refection on results and conclusions regarding ethical perceptions, ethical preoccupations, scenarios with ethical relevance, and the understanding of the dichotomy ethical vs. legal. As a follow-up, in 2012, another round of METT2 students analysed the results of the initial survey, and reached their own conclusions, which were compared to the 2010 conclusions. Currently, i.e. 2014/2015, METT2 students are revising the questionnaire in light of new developments/ trends on the Romanian market, and the intention is to re-apply this again with the support of the Romanian Translators Association to determine if any perception shifts have occurred as the market is increasingly professionalising and more trained translators are entering it. Students are also encouraged to conduct research on a variety of topics of interest, which combine academic (theoretically-grounded) and professional (applicative) expertise related to the translation field. Such research may focus on investigating new developments from a theoretical and practical perspective, on contributing to terminological work in various subject areas, on scrutinising translation patterns 40 TRAINING METHODOLOGIES IN PROFESSIONALLY-ORIENTED ... and proposing transfer solutions within highly specialised domains. Additionally, students are supported in exploring the relevance and effectiveness of the training methodology they are undergoing. They can thus provide a valuable contribution to curricular and module development, ensuring continuous revision and enhancement of the training methodology to ensure its positive impact and validity in terms of learning outcomes attained. Some of these findings have been published as journal articles (e.g. Iacob et al 2011, Duta et al 2012). Such projects allow students to grasp professional realities firsthand, to develop an in-depth understanding of the community, to shape behavioural patterns for themselves and to position themselves vis-à-vis realities that they will be confronted with, but also, to make contribute significantly to their own professional education and to become aware of their responsibilities regarding the professionalization agenda. 3.1. Immersion in professional settings Internships/work placements are a form of professional immersion. Of key importance is the way they become aligned with the learning outcomes and are assessed as part of the programme (Gambier 2012: 166). On the METT, placements are ECTS-credited and there is intense collaboration between tutors at the university and the mentor/supervisors of the placement within the work organisation to ensure that the experience is relevant to the training and allows students to observe multiple facets of professional life. The curriculum proposes 60 hours of placement in semesters 3 and 4; this averages to approximately four weeks in total in the two semesters, which can be done as a block activity at the end or beginning of the semester, or spread out during the semester, depending on arrangements with the receiving placement organisation. As the aims of this activity focus on allowing students to apply in real settings what they have learned in the academic environment and on facilitating the opportunity to 41 Anca Greere compare and contrast professional characteristics highlighted during classroom training with application under real conditions. To enable as broad an observation platform as possible, students are usually distributed to two distinct professional units in the two semesters. Where possible, one will represent a translation company and one a freelance bureau. Studies by the Romanian Translators Association (Coblis 2008: 5-6) have shown that 73% of translation professionals choose the more independent status of freelancer on the Romanian market, frequently after having spent some time in a translation company, i.e. in a more complex organisational structure. For METT students, being able to observe both environments and to reflect comparatively on these experiences is of paramount importance. Students frequently find that they can critically analyse the environments that they observed and propose solutions to enhance, for example, the workflow, the professional approach, the interaction with clients etc. 4. Challenges and risks. Results and reflections Proposing such activities as the ones described above within the training programme does not come without substantial challenges and risks. Firstly, Romanian students prefer working individually to team work and it sometimes takes substantial coaching to convince them to take on team roles and become comfortable within the team. Secondly, they are not accustomed to separating professional relationships from personal ones either, and this frequently affects their capacity to function professionally and to maintain positive personal feelings even when professional frustrations may occur. Thirdly, many of them are not accustomed to guaranteeing full availability and commitment for professionally-driven situations. In most of the situations described, work does not stop once students are outside the classroom. Lack of the necessary commitment to project aims may endanger the whole project and put the whole team at risk; of course, this is so much more problematic when real-life tasks/activities are at 42 TRAINING METHODOLOGIES IN PROFESSIONALLY-ORIENTED ... stake. Similarly, they do not always know how to shape interactions and communication patterns to make them applicable and effective in professional relations. They may also lack awareness of the extent to which flexibility contributes to team management. Not least, students are not at ease with criticism, even if constructive, given in front of the whole group by peers or tutors. Indeed, students need training in understanding and formulating feedback if it is to foster the development of professional competences. Interestingly, completion of activities, even when successful for the individual activity carried out, may put additional pressure on the training programme overall. For example, extensive team work may develop a sense of questioning of individual performance and this is the reason why at the level of the programme, projects/activities need to effectively move from team arrangements to individual requirements. Extensive team work may also stop the development of specific individual competences if other team members can supplement such competences; this can be overcome by promoting a high level of flexibility and variety in team composition and task distribution. If challenges are properly considered and risks are appropriately mitigated, the results will highlight valuable personal and professional development, significant understanding of professions, relevant positioning vis-à-vis language professions and the professional community, as well as satisfaction with the training environment and their own role in it. Such results are detailed in student evaluations and feedback and can be clustered around the following training achievements. Students discover their strong points and weak points, not least through comparison with others, and are able to identify what characteristics they need to maintain and build on and where there is room for improvement. Students become aware of and develop professional working habits, including the roles they may take on in team interaction. Students understand how to differentiate between personal and professional relationships. Students experience how to make professional decisions and how to justify them effectively in front of their peers. They develop communication strategies for professional purposes, including diplomacy, and become aware of 43 Anca Greere how these strategies need to be adjusted in interaction with different audiences, including clients, professionals and external collaborators. Overall, students report that the variation provided by the interplay between curricular and extracurricular activities, between interactions with university staff and established professionals and/ or novice practitioners, between the more pedagogical classroom setting and the professional environment of the world of work, as offered by the activities undertaken throughout the programme, contributes to an in-depth understanding of the professional reality, and creates a sense of belonging and duty towards the professional community they want to embrace. As a result, students engage with the multifaceted teaching and learning arena highly motivated, with a profound reflexive, more mature attitude and better grasp of their career opportunities. REFERENCES Coblis, C. (2008). 2007 “Survey on Romanian Translation Market Trends”. Available at : http://www.atr.org.ro/diverse/ATR_TendintePiataTrad_ 2008.pdf. Retrieved on: 31 October 2014. Duta V. et al (2012). “TRADUTECH: l’apprentissage de la traduction spécialisée en équipe RIELMA Revue Internationale d’Études en Langues Modernes Appliquées/ International Review of Studies in Applied Modern Languages 5:206-223. Available at: http://lett.ubbcluj. ro/rielma/RIELMA_no5_2012.pdf. Retrieved on: 26 October 2014. EMT expert group (2009) “Competences for professional translators, experts in multilingual and multimedia communication”. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/translation/programmes/emt/key_documents/ emt_competences_translators_en.pdf. Retrieved on 26 October 2014. EMT, European Master’s in Translation Network. Available at: http:// ec.europa.eu/dgs/translation/programmes/emt/index_en.htm. Retrieved on: 26 October 2014. EMT, European Master’s in Translation Sample Curriculum. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/translation/programmes/emt/key_documents/ emt_sample_curriculum_en.pdf. Retrieved on: 28 June 2009. 44 TRAINING METHODOLOGIES IN PROFESSIONALLY-ORIENTED ... European Committee for Standardization (CEN) (2006) ‘European Standard EN 15038 Translation Services-Service Requirements’, Brussels: Management Centre European Master’s in Translation Studies and Terminology, Department of Applied Modern Languages, Babes-Bolyai University. Available at: http://lett.ubbcluj.ro/mastertt/. Retrieved on: 31 October 2014. Gambier, Y (2012). “Teaching translation / Training translators”. In: Y. Gambier and L. van Doorslaer (eds.). Handbook of Translation Studies: Volume 3: 163–171. Gouadec, Daniel (ed.). (2000/2001). Formation des traducteurs. Paris: Maison du Dictionnaire. Greere and Baconsky (coord.) (2012). Forme de Mediere Interculturala. Traducerea si Interpretarea pentru Servicii Publice: Concepte, Date, Situatii si Aplicatii Practice. Translated by C. Valero Garces, (2008) Formas de mediación intercultural. Traducción e Interpretación en los servicios públicos. Conceptos, datos, situaciones y práctica, Granada: Comares. Greere, A. L. (2006). “Applying Functionalism to Domain-specific Translations”. In Colegio de Traductores Publicos de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires (ed.) 1st International CTPBA Conference ‘Specialized Translations’, Buenos Aires: CD, 128-155. Greere, A. L. (2008). “‘Extreme’ Translation Briefs in Advanced Translator Training: the misleading pitfalls and apparent advantages”. In: Proceedings of XVIII FIT World Congress, Shanghai: Foreign Languages Press, 23-32. Greere, A. L. (2009). “Developing English Translation Competence in Higher Education: Methodological Considerations”. In: V. Gaballo (ed). English in Translation Studies: Methodological perspectives, Macerata: EUM- Edizioni Università di Macerata, 9-37. Iacob G.S. and Havaşi S.F. (2011). “Ensuring Quality through Individual Study, Peer Collaboration and Teacher Coordination”. Quality Assurance Review, 3/2:181 – 188. Available at: http://www.aracis.ro/fileadmin/ ARACIS/Revista_QAR/Septembrie_2011/09-V3N2-IH.pdf. Retrieved on: 31 October 2014. Iacob, G.S. et al. (2011). “Behind the scenes of translation: Showcasing Negotiation, Methodology and Collaboration”. RIELMA Revue Internationale d’Études en Langues Modernes Appliquées/ International 45 Anca Greere Review of Studies in Applied Modern Languages 4/S:28-47. Available at: http://lett.ubbcluj.ro/rielma/RIELMA_nr4_Supliment.pdf. Retrieved on: 26 October 2014. Film produced available at: https://vimeo. com/110807675. Retrieved on: 21 November 2014. Kelly, D. (2005). A Handbook for Translator Trainers. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing. Kiraly, D. (2000). A Social Constructivist Approach to Translator Education. Empowerment from Theory to Practice, Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing. OPTIMALE Optimising Professional Translator Training in a Multilingual Europe. Professionally-oriented practices: Case studies and Reference framework. Available at: http://www.translator-training.eu/training/new-tools-andtechnologies/professionally-oriented-practices. Retrieved on: 31 October 2014 Université Rennes 2, Tradutech project. Available at: http://www.sites.univrennes2.fr/lea/cfttr/?q=fr/node/57#tradutech. Retrieved on: 25 October 2014. Visiting Translator Scheme, Directorate-General for Translation. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/translation/programmes/visiting/index_ en.htm. Retrieved on: 31 October 2014. 46 Jim Hlavac* Monash University Melbourne, Australia UDC 81’25:316.64 RE-CODIFIED LANGUAGES IN A POST-CONFLICT CONTEXT: CREDENTIALS, PRACTICES AND ATTITUDES AMONGST TRANSLATORS AND INTERPRETERS OF THE BOSNIAN, CROATIAN AND SERBIAN LANGUAGES Abstract: This article examines aspects of linguistic behaviour, attitudes and professional practices amongst a group of forty-seven translators or interpreters for one, two or three of the following languages: Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian. Data are elicited on the following: informants’ reported behaviour in professional and non-professional situations; unanticipated differences in the language for which an assignment was accepted and its actual form; attitudes on assignments with unofficial or unclear language designations; others’ assumptions of informants’ native speaker competency and ethnicity; and attitudes towards the distinctness of the three languages. Accommodation to clients’ language varieties is reported by half of all informants, and those with multiple accreditations report converging to others’ language varieties more so than those with accreditation in one language only. Metalinguistic talk, with or without accommodation, is also a common practice in the initial stages of interpreted interactions or the negotiation of translation and interpreting assignments. Keywords:translation norms, closely-related languages, translators & interpreters, Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian * Jim.Hlavac@monash.edu 47 Jim Hlavac 1. Introduction This article examines the credentials (or number of accreditations), personal and professional practices and attitudes of translators and interpreters of the Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian languages. At least two of these three languages, Bosnian and Croatian, underwent re-codification in the 1990s at the same time that speakers of these languages became residents of the newly-independent states of Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia and Serbia after the break-up of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (hereafter: SFRY). One characteristic of the political system of the SFRY was a top-down policy of linguistic unitarism amongst Bosniaks (until 1991 known as ‘Muslims’, which was an ethnic as well as religious designation), Croats, Montenegrins and Serbs, and accompanying policies that strongly favoured the use of compound or doublet terms for the name of the official language for each constituent republic. The official designations in each of these were: “Serbo-Croatian / Croato-Serbian” in SR Bosnia-Herzegovina; “Croatian literary language otherwise known as Croatian or Serbian” in SR Croatia; “Serbo-Croatian” in SR Montenegro and SR Serbia. The apparently minor differences in the designations used in these four republics are reflective of the peculiar and distinct corpus and language planning legacies that existed in these four republics and amongst and between the four constituent nations (cf. Lencek 1976, Franolić 1980). Nonetheless, in relations with the outside world, the term “Serbo-Croatian” (alongside the two other official languages, Slovenian and Macedonian) enjoyed officially sanctioned status as a national standard language until 1991 and as the federal designation of the first language of most of the inhabitants of the SFRY. Notwithstanding periods of transition (e.g. 1945–1954) and liberalisation (late 1960s to 1971), linguistic unitarism was very much the dominant language policy pursued by the political leadership of SFRY, and the term Serbo-Croatian was one that had currency not due to popular sentiment, but to its imposition as an official designation (cf. Brozović & Ivić 1988, Greenberg 2004). The violent break-up of SFRY in 1991 and armed conflict in Croatia 48 RE-CODIFIED LANGUAGES IN A POST-CONFLICT CONTEXT: ... (1991–1995) and Bosnia-Herzegovina (1992–1995) have had commensurate effects on many speakers of the three languages investigated in this article. Perhaps expectedly, during and after these conflicts a number of normative publications appeared that described the (re-) emergence of the three languages as distinct entities (e.g. Kačić 1995, Sučić 1996, Halilović 1998, Radovanović 2000) 4. The situation of translators and interpreters who work in these three languages is of interest due to the post-conflict nature of relations between speakers and group-members of these three linguistic communities. In the interactions that translators and interpreters have with their clients, the nature of realigned designations, varieties and interactional features is of interest to both translation studies and sociolinguistics. This article is a contribution to the small number of studies on intra- and inter-group language differences for these languages. It examines language attitudes and reported practices from translators and interpreters, a group congruent to linguists and philologists, but 4 A comprehensive presentation of the nature of linguistic changes and discussions about the designations for language(s) in the successor states of the SFRY goes beyond the scope of this paper. The heterogenous varieties that were encompassed by the term “Serbo-Croatian” led to the adoption of the term ‘polycentric’ to refer to the codified standards that each of the four central constituent republics developed. To avoid ‘ethnic labels’, these standards were commonly known by the name of the capital city of the constituent socialist republic of SFRY in which they cultivated, ie. Belgrade, Sarajevo, Titograd (now: Podgorica) and Zagreb (cf. Brozović, 1992a). The distinctions between the languages are partly linguistic (differences in lexicon, prosody, phraseology, alphabet and orthographical conventions and a small number of dissimilarities in morpho-syntax and semantics) and mostly sociolinguistic (as a group-marker) and cultural-political (distinct literary traditions, attitudes towards linguistic purism, attitudes towards standard and non-standard dialects). In the case of Bosnian, and especially Montenegrin (which is not a focus of attention due to the absence of informants from Montenegro and/or working in Montenegrin), the process of codification and standardisation of norms goes beyond 1991 and has, in the case of Montenegrin, only just been completed with the publication of the first grammar and orthography in 2009 and 2010 (Čirgić 2011). The interested reader is referred to the following non-exhaustive list of works that deal with changes to language and language policies after 1991: Brozović (1992b), Ivić (1995), Katičić (1997), Okuka (1998), Neweklowsky (2003), Bugarski & Hawkesworth (2004), Popović (2004), Škiljan (2004), Tolimir-Hölzl (2009), Voß (2010). 49 Jim Hlavac whose occupational practices also include regular and intense contact with “naïve speakers”. While philologically-based descriptions of the changes to the languages of the former SFRY since 1991 have received much attention, alongside the now countless number of political and historical studies of the break-up of SFRY, relatively few studies have examined the realignment of speech communities to one another and the way that remodelled language planning conventions reflect and determine these changed dynamics between speech communities. The nature of the status of interpreters and translators as language professionals, and the behavioural norms that they have to report provide for an interesting sample for the study of language use, sociolinguistic and pragmatic norms and interactional dynamics amongst speech communities that are characterised by a post-conflict situation. This article is organised in the following way. Section 2 outlines the professional identity, protocols and interactional norms that regulate the translation and interpreting (hereafter: T&I) sector in a general sense, through international, national or local guidelines, and that pertain to T&I practitioners in their individual interactions with clients, colleagues and other service providers. In Section 3, the topic of inter-group communication in SFRY is presented with reference to theoretical models that examine language selection and accommodation relevant to the three languages that are the focus in this study. This is followed by Section 4, the methodology, which describes how data were elicited, the components that make up the data sample for this article, general details about the informants and how these are shown in the discussion of data. Section 5 presents data from informants about their reported experiences and behaviour, responses to how they would behave in hypothetical situations, responses in respect of their own attitudes and responses to others’ attitudes. The content of these data relates to informants’ self-reported speech in non-occupational (e.g. social) situations; their professional protocols when confronted with a language different from the one for which they accepted an assignment; attitudes towards accepting assignments in languages with unofficial 50 RE-CODIFIED LANGUAGES IN A POST-CONFLICT CONTEXT: ... or unclear designations; others’ assumptions of their native speaker competency and ethnicity; their own and others’ attitudes towards the distinctness of Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian as separate languages; and informants’ attitudes towards the future development of the three languages. The conclusion, Section 6, collates and contextualises the responses from the discussion section and summarises them as findings relevant to perceptions and attitudes towards contemporary Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian. The amenability of T&Is as providers of data and their dual role as linguistic experts and service providers is also discussed, as well as the nature of linguistic behaviour between speakers or closely-related languages in a post-conflict context. 2. Translation norms In Translation Studies, the term “norms” applies to the regularities of behaviour that T&Is exhibit in their approach to a text (written or spoken) and in their practice. “Competence norms” (Toury 1980) refer to those options that are available to T&Is in a given context; “performance norms” refer to the subset of options that T&Is select in real life (Toury 1980: 63). As the term suggests, norms relate to the professional role that a T&I practitioner adopts to ensure that a T&I practitioner is able to work competently and accurately, and that a T&I practitioner acts in a proper way towards all parties and upholds ethical standards of the profession. As in other countries with a developed T&I infrastructure (i.e. training, testing and market sector), in Australia there is a professional code of ethics (AUSIT 2012) which recommends that practitioners should accept assignments only in languages which they are competent to perform in. At all levels of government and amongst major T&I agencies in Australia there is a policy of assigning only practitioners that have accreditation 5 in the 5 Accreditation is the term used in Australia to refer to recognition of a test candidate’s standard of performance that entitles him or her to seek professional employment as an interpreter or translator (NAATI 2011). 51 Jim Hlavac required language. The workplace and ethical duties that practitioners have to themselves, their clients and the profession and the way that these guide their behaviour in interactions with others are subsumed under a term congruent to Chesterman’s (1993) definition of professional norms, that could also be labelled “occupational macropragmatics”. This is a term analogous to “communities of practice” (Lave and Wenger 1991), but different in that T&I practitioners often perform their work in isolation from other peers. 3. Inter-group communication in SFRY and theoretical models of variety selection in relation to speakers of Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian Notwithstanding the diversity of vernaculars that were subsumed under the term Serbo-Croatian and the variables that accounted for different varieties, vernaculars that revealed a speaker’s ethnicity were commonly recognised as such. Diversity of language varieties was usually very apparent in mixed-ethnic verbal interactions and written exchanges. In these inter-ethnic interactions, a gamut of options were open to speakers when communicating with others: no change to speech (zero accommodation); avoidance of forms specific to one’s own variety; adoption of some forms from another’s variety without abandonment of one’s own forms; widespread adoption of another’s forms and conscious avoidance of one’s own forms (accommodation); comprehensive adoption of another’s forms (full convergence); and imitation and socio-ethnic co-identification (passing). The term “accommodation” is used here according to Giles et al.’s (1991) employment of the term to refer to the reduction of linguistic dissimilarities in Communication Accommodation Theory (formerly known as Speech Accommodation Theory). Myers-Scotton (1993) employs a congruent form ‘markedness’ for analysis of variation in speakers’ linguistic repertoires. This begs the question: what were the features of the speech of those speakers of different language varieties in SFRY, and, in 52 RE-CODIFIED LANGUAGES IN A POST-CONFLICT CONTEXT: ... particular, of speakers of Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian when they verbally interacted with each other? This is a difficult question to answer because the state policy of favouring compound terms such as Serbo-Croatian and socialist ideology of fraternity and unity prohibited systematic investigation of inter-ethnic interactions consisting of different language varieties. Investigation of ethnic groups’ linguistic differences was anathema to the official policy of ethnic equality and linguistic sameness. Information that can partly address this question is available from other fields of linguistic research. As in many other countries, until the latter part of the twentieth century linguistic fieldwork in SFRY concentrated largely on dialectology and the recording of rural dwellers’ vernaculars (e.g. Finka & Moguš 1981, Kalogjera 1989, Dragičević 1986). A limited amount of sociolinguistic fieldwork was undertaken in SFRY (often not by citizens of SFRY, e.g. Magner 1966, Friedman 1993) that focussed on innovations in urban dialects due to rapid urbanisation and internal migration of village dwellers to towns and cities. Again, this sociolinguistic research focussed on speech differences based on features such as place of origin of speakers (or their parents) rather than more frequently employed sociolinguistic variables such as gender, age, class or ethnicity. In the post-1991 setting, with recodified and separate standards, power dynamics have been re-aligned so that Serbian no longer occupies the status of dominant code that it did in SFRY, and each language standard occupies the function of dominant code within each ethnic group. Further, in Croatia and Serbia where the majority ethnic group is co-terminous with the name of the language, Croatian and Serbian respectively assume the position of dominant code for all citizens in these countries, regardless of ethnicity (e.g. Serbs in Croatia, Croats in Serbia). T&Is working in one, two or three languages, are required, as is normal practice for all T&Is in any situation anywhere, to employ a variety that is either the standard form of the language that they are working from and/or into or a form that is characteristic of that speech community. T&Is cannot, as they often may have done before 1991, employ Serbian for a Bosniak audience, 53 Jim Hlavac or Croatian for a Montenegrin one, or a hybrid variety that bears features of convergence to another group’s vernacular. Instead, the separation of the languages and the ethical standards and market forces that require practitioners to use the standard for which an assignment is requested (or market that is to be serviced) means that T&Is now do not “cross-service” other groups through the use of Serbo-Croatian as a hypernym. Instead, T&Is are usually native speakers in one language (usually their ethnic and/or chronologically first learnt language), expert users in another, usually formally learnt language (e.g. English, German) and where they work in another, re-codified language from ex-SFRY, they do so as expert users who rely on their native proficiency in a cognate language together with overt acquisition of forms, norms and rules specific to the language cognate to their own native one. This situation is comparable to T&Is with three working languages. For interpreters, a further consequence of the separation of the three languages is the protocols and norms that they apply when interlocutors use a language different from the one in which they accepted an interpreting assignment, and where a negotiation of the language form (and/or its designation) occurs. Consequences of this negotiation between the interpreter and other interlocutors may be anything from zero convergence to full adoption of the others’ language, as well as the interpreter and/or the interlocutors declining to further engage in the interpreted interaction (Hlavac 2010a). Here, professional norms may contrast with desired linguistic choices and interpreters may need to choose whether to follow guidelines from codes of ethics (e.g. AUSIT 2102) that prohibit interpreting in a language in which an interpreter does not have accreditation or whether to accede to clients’ requests to perform interpreting services in languages cognate to a practitioner’s stated working languages (Hlavac 2010b). 54 RE-CODIFIED LANGUAGES IN A POST-CONFLICT CONTEXT: ... 4. Methodology Invitations to participate in this research study were sent firstly to Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian T&Is who advertise their services in the Australian Institute for Interpreters and Translators (AUSIT) and National Accreditation Authority of Translators and Interpreters (NAATI) online directories 6. Two agencies and two health services with a large number of Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian speaking clients were contacted in Australia. Further, T&I colleagues known to the author located in Austria, Croatia and Serbia were contacted. The response rate from contacted potential informants — 47 out of approximately 120 ≈ 40 percent — is reasonably high. However, the sample cannot be considered representative of T&Is of these three languages in Australia or elsewhere. Thirty-eight of the informants are Australia-based, and the remaining 9 are located in Europe — only 4 of these are still resident in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia or Serbia. Due to the uneven distribution of informants from the émigré, European and homeland settings, the only variable that is employed to compare groups of informants is the category “no. of accreditations”. In the evaluation of responses presented in Section 5 below, comparative data about the two groups are discussed only where there are substantial differences in responses between the two groups. Table 1: Number of informants according of accreditations One Two accreditation accreditations Translators 16 3 Interpreters 14 5 Total 30 8 to area of work and number Three accreditations 5 4 9 Total 24 23 47 6 Approval to contact potential informants and collect data was granted by the Standing Committee on Ethics in Research Involving Humans (SCERH), Monash University. Project Number 2007002093. 55 Jim Hlavac The author is an Australia-based practising Croatian-English interpreter and bi-directional Croatian < > English translator with accreditation (at the NAATI professional level) in this language only. However, his own contacts include practitioners of all language backgrounds and the higher number of practitioners with Croatian as one of their languages is due to the larger number of Croatian speakers in Australia compared to the number of Bosnian and Serbian speakers 7. Questionnaires were collected from informants from July to September 2010. 5. Data and discussion This article contains a large amount of quantitative data and has a ‘data-driven’ approach. Data presented in this section are briefly contextualised with the discussion presented above in Sections 1, 2 and 3. Section 6 contains a fuller interpretation of the data and commentary on the practices and strategies of the overall sample of T&I informants. The figures shown in Tables 2 to 9 below are percentages that relate to the number of responses provided by each group of informants, that is, the different responses from all 30 informants with one accreditation only are broken up into percentages that reflect the distribution of responses; responses from the 8 informants with two accreditations are similarly presented in percentage form; responses from the 9 informants with three accreditations are also presented in this way. In the last column of each table are the overall average responses from all 47 informants. For one question, informants could select multiple answers and for this reason, some columns in Table 2 have totals that are greater than 100 percent. 4 Data from 2011 Census in Australia show that there are 16,269 Bosnian-speakers, 61,547 Croatian-speakers and 55,114 Serbian-speakers in Australia (ABS 2012). ‘Speakers’ here refers to those residents of Australia who reported that the language that they speak at home is one of these languages. It does not refer to those who may have shifted to English as their home language and who may still have proficiency in these languages. 56 RE-CODIFIED LANGUAGES IN A POST-CONFLICT CONTEXT: ... The content of the data presented below focuses on informants’ self-reported speech in non-occupational (e.g. social) situations, their professional protocols when confronted with a language different from the one for which they accepted an assignment, attitudes towards accepting assignments in languages with unofficial or unclear designations, others’ assumptions of their native speaker competency and ethnicity, their own and others’ attitudes towards the distinctness of Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian as separate languages, and informants’ attitudes towards the future development of the three languages. Table 2 below contains informants’ selected responses to their linguistic behaviour, not when interpreting or working as a translator, but when interacting with others whose speech is different and identifiable as a variety spoken by another linguistic group. Multiple responses are permitted. Table 2: When you are not interpreting or translating, but communicating with someone who uses a language different from your own, do you avoid using forms that are specific to your language? Do you change your speech/text or expect the other person to change their speech/text in any way? (Multiple responses allowed.) Overall One Two Three average accredit. accredit. accredit. total percent Yes. I adapt my speech/text to make it similar to that of the person that I’m speaking to. No. I don’t expect the other person to adapt their speech/text. Yes. I avoid words or forms that are specific to my language only. No. I don’t adapt my speech/text. Yes. I expect the other person to also adapt their speech/text to make it closer to mine. 40 50 44 40 37 38 44 38 33 25 44 34 30 38 22 30 9 13 11 11 57 Jim Hlavac Table 2 above shows a rough 2:1 divide between the informants. Nearly two-thirds of informants report changes in their own language, with relatively few expecting the other interlocutor to reciprocate. This indicates that self-rated convergence is a characteristic that a majority of informants engage in, with a lower level of expectation that the same may be expected of the other interlocutor, although this may still be forthcoming. There is little difference in the selection of responses from each of the groups according to number of accreditations. There is only a slight tendency for informants with one accreditation to report adaptation of their own speech less often and to report no adaptation of speech more often in comparison to the other two groups. Table 3: You have accepted an interpreting / translation assignment. When you commence interpreting for the client / receive the text and look at the language, you realise that the language is different from the language for which you had accepted the job. What do you do? One Two Three Overall accredit. accredit. accredit. average total Check with the client which language they want to use 53 25 44 47 / that they know which language the text is in. Do nothing and interpret / 10 38 33 19 translate as normal. Check with the client which 0 0 11 2 language they want me to use Other / No answer 37 38 11 32 It is not uncommon for T&Is for the three languages to accept assignments which may later reveal themselves to be assignments for a language other than the one accepted. Responses from Table 3 above show that in the first place, almost half of the T&Is check with the client the language they wish to use or check with the agency that they know which language the text is written in. Informants with one 58 RE-CODIFIED LANGUAGES IN A POST-CONFLICT CONTEXT: ... accreditation are more likely to do this than informants with multiple accreditations. At the same time, a third of the informants with multiple accreditations report that they would not do anything and proceed to interpret (in the language for which the assignment was booked) or translate (from or into the language for which the assignment was accepted) without further referral. For informants with multiple accreditations, code-switching to another language need not be overtly requested or justified. However, overall nearly half of all informants respond that metalinguistic comment rather than convergence to or adoption of another language variety is required to establish the variety that the T&I should use. Comparison of the responses between translators and interpreters not shown above in Table 3 reveals that metalinguistic comment is more common amongst translators (57 percent) than interpreters (36 percent) as translators cannot rely on locally negotiated verbal convergence as a strategy to establish a commissioner’s target audience. For translators, a brief that contains not only the target language but also the function of the text for a particular audience is required before translation can be attempted. The responses from Table 3 above show that informants expect the anticipated language of an assignment to be the unmarked choice. Any other code is marked and the marked code precipitates negotiation, usually led by the T&I practitioner who also usually accommodates to the code of the client (or agency). Single-accreditation informants are more likely to invoke others (eg. agencies, other third parties) in their negotiation of the language variety. Convergence and metalinguistic speech/text appear as the most common strategies that informants employ in other-language situations. Tables 4, 5 and 6 below present informants’ responses to assignments which contain former and now largely disused, unofficial or non-standard designations for the language in which the assignment is sought. Interpreter informants were supplied with the following question: “An agency says that a client wants an interpreter for language x. Would you accept this request?” Translators were provided with the following question formats: “A client wants a translator for 59 Jim Hlavac work from language x into English. Would you accept this request?” and “A client wants a translator for work from English into language x. Would you accept this request?” Translator informants were provided with two formats as all but one translator work bi-directionally, notwithstanding the general preference among translators to translate into their A language. (All but one translator responded to the questions contained in Tables 4 to 6 below.) There were different responses from almost all groups of informants according to a translation request from compared to into the other language. The statistics below contain an averaged response from the translator informants for translation from and into the other language together with the interpreters’ responses. Informants were provided with three options: “yes”, “possibly” and “no”. Table 4: An agency says that a client requires a T&I for “SerboCroatian”. Would you accept this request? One Two Three Overall accredit. accredit. accredit. average total Yes 40 50 78 49 Possibly 17 25 22 19 No 43 25 0 32 Table 5: An agency says that a client requires a T&I for “Bosnian-Croatian-Serbian”. Would you accept this request? One Two Three Overall accredit. accredit. accredit. average total Yes 40 38 56 43 Possibly 23 12 22 23 No 37 50 11 32 No answer 0 0 11 2 60 RE-CODIFIED LANGUAGES IN A POST-CONFLICT CONTEXT: ... Table 6: An agency says that a client requires a T&I for “Yugoslav”. Would you accept this request? One Two Three Overall average accredit. accredit. accredit. total Yes 33 18 22 29 Possibly 23 38 50 31 No 44 44 28 40 Tables 4, 5 and 6 above reveal that in overall terms, relative majorities of the informants would accept assignments under the designations “Serbo-Croatian” and “Bosnian-Croatian-Serbian” but reject assignments that used the designation “Yugoslav”. There are differences between the groups of informants. For Serbo-Croatian, roughly equal numbers of informants with one accreditation would accept and decline a request while those with three accreditations are overwhelmingly likely to accept such a request. Those with two accreditations occupy a mid-point between the other two groups. For Bosnian-Croatian-Serbian, informants with one accreditation are less likely than those with three to accept such a request, but those with two accreditations are less likely than the other two groups to accept such a request. Similarly, responses to an assignment in Yugoslav are most often negative from those with two accreditations, while the other two groups have mixed or negative responses. In general terms, informants with three accreditations are found to have a less restrictive attitude to assignments with non-standard designations and they also record the highest percentage of “possibly” responses, indicating accommodation or preparedness to negotiate aspects of the assignment where they may be reluctant to provide immediate acceptance. Those with one or two accreditations are more restrictive, with degrees of variation ranging from moderate with Serbo-Croatian and Bosnian-Croatian-Serbian to low acceptance for Yugoslav. There are differences between interpreters and translators in regard to the responses. Interpreters, regardless of number of accreditations, were 10 percent less likely to give “yes” responses compared to 61 Jim Hlavac translators in relation to Serbo-Croatian, but were almost 20 percent more likely to accept assignments under the label of “Bosnian-Croatian-Serbian” than translators. Translators appear to be more reluctant than interpreters to translate from, but especially into a code such as Bosnian-Croatian-Serbian, which is an uncodified hypernym. The reason for these differences is the historical legacy of Serbo-Croatian as an official designation that encompassed different but codified language varieties. This is not the case for Bosnian-Croatian-Serbian, which is used only as a hypernym by some bodies (e.g. International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia) and even then its use is accompanied by a disclaimer (Draženović-Carrieri 2002: 49; cf. Dragovic-Drouet 2007). There are a number of reasons why T&I practitioners show non-accommodation to unofficial designations. These may include: ethical concerns; doubts about proficiency; negative responses from agencies, commissioners and clients; fear of refusal from other parties on the basis of proficiency level or ethnicity; and beliefs that the differences between the three languages are such that the same practitioner cannot service all three adequately. The following tables address the last three of these. Table 7 below contains informants’ responses in regard to refusals or assignment withdrawals due to informants’ language proficiency. Table 7: While interpreting or when negotiating (or undertaking) a translation assignment, has a client or other party ever refused to work or cancelled an assignment with you because they believe that you are not a native speaker of their language / the language required? One Two Three Overall average accredit. accredit. accredit. total Yes 3 0 11 4 No 90 100 78 89 No answer 7 0 11 7 62 RE-CODIFIED LANGUAGES IN A POST-CONFLICT CONTEXT: ... Table 7 shows that 42 (89 percent) of the 47 informants do not report refusals from clients in relation to perceptions of their proficiency. For the most part, this is due to the circumstance that many of the informants are, much of the time, interpreting or translating into and from their native language. As stated above in Sections 1 and 3, in SFRY a speaker’s “native code” was strongly, almost axiomatically, linked with that speaker’s ethnicity. The wars in the 1990s have led to a homogenisation of each ethnic group, with commensurate effects on linguistic behaviour: speakers of each ethnic group converge now more frequently towards the specific characteristics of their group’s standard and diverge more frequently from “shared-ethnic” regional or local varieties (cf. Dragosavljević 2000). The following question seeks to elicit whether informants have experienced refusals from clients who believe that the informant belongs to a different ethnic group than themselves. Table 8: While interpreting or negotiating a translation assignment, has a client or other party ever refused to work with you because they believe that you are of a different ethnicity to their own? Yes No No answer One accredit. Two accredit. Three accredit. Overall average total 3 87 10 12 76 12 11 56 33 6 79 15 Table 8 above shows that almost 80 percent of informants do not report refusals from clients due to differences in ethnicity. Amongst the responses that do not record refusals, there are informants who state plainly that differences in ethnicity are not problematised by clients. T&Is are keenly aware of the similarities and differences between the languages and are familiar with the re-codifications of the three languages. Table 9 below elicits their responses about future directions. 63 Jim Hlavac Table 9: Do you think that in the future, the differences between Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian will continue to increase, decrease or stay as they are now? One Two Three Overall accredit. accredit. accredit. average total Increase 50 50 67 53 Stay as they are now 43 50 33 43 Decrease 7 0 0 4 Table 9 above shows that over half believe that the differences between the languages will continue to increase while 43 percent believe that current differences will not increase. 6. Conclusion This article has examined the reported practices and attitudes of a group of T&I practitioners and how they engage with speakers of and/or texts in the Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian languages as distinct languages. Further, the article has examined whether there are differences in the way T&I practitioners engage with these languages on the basis of possessing accreditation in one, two or all three languages. T&I practitioners are service providers operating within a market place which includes external regulation of two kinds: standards (or elements of a code of ethics) of the professional association and/or credentialing authority that the T&I received accreditation from; and clients’ and other commissioners’ (usually agencies’) requirements. The first regulating authority invariably follows official (legislated) language designations and in all homeland countries as well as in most countries of Western Europe, North America and Australia, these authorities classify Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian as separate languages. In regard to the second regulating mechanism, clients and agencies, the data show that these also employ the distinct designa- 64 RE-CODIFIED LANGUAGES IN A POST-CONFLICT CONTEXT: ... tions for the languages that were once subsumed under Serbo-Croatian. Questions relating to the acceptance of assignments according to non-official designations show that only half of informants would possibly accept an assignment under the title of “Serbo-Croatian” and fewer still would accept one labelled “Bosnian-Croatian-Serbian” or “Yugoslav”. These are the reported practices of the T&I practitioners in regard to their professional procedures. In communicative non work-related contexts, informants generally accommodate, that is, adapt their speech or text to reduce linguistic dissimilarities between their own speech or writing and that of their interlocutors or readers. Accommodation takes the form of adoption of forms similar to those used by others and/or avoidance of forms specific to one’s L1. The same type of accommodation is less often expected from the other interlocutor. There are no substantial differences between informants with one, two or three accreditations. Nearly half of informants overtly question their clients or others when confronted with speech or text that is in a language different from the one in which an assignment was accepted. Less than 20 percent of informants do not further question unexpected changes in the language of an assignment — the ones who do this tend to be informants with multiple accreditations for whom a change in language does not present a prohibition to continue the assignment. This suggests in the first place that metalinguistic comment or text is the most common means of negotiating unexpected language varieties. Unsolicited comments from informants indicate that accommodation also occurs as a common strategy. Accommodation is more common amongst those with multiple accreditations, who are less likely to question or check the code being used than informants with single accreditation. The common practice for most interpreters now is to seek clarification as to the form of the language to be used, and for translators to elicit or diagnose characteristics of the source text (such as vintage, alphabet) and allow for the agency of the commissioner. These are the accountability and communication norms (Chesterman 1993: 8-10) that apply to these translators’ practices. 65 Jim Hlavac Almost 90 percent of informants report that they have not encountered refusals from clients or others on the basis that clients or others believe that the informants are not native speakers of the language in which they have accepted an assignment. Almost 80 percent of informants report that in situations where others perceive an informant to be of a different ethnicity this does not lead to others refusing the informant’s services. “Other-group-ethnicity”, more often than “nonnative proficiency”, is something that informants (interpreters more than translators) report as a possible feature of some assignments. Ethnicity can be remarked on by others, and sometimes problematised, as revealed in some informants’ recollections, not presented here. Lastly, just over half the informants believe that current differences between Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian will increase in the future, while almost all others believe that differences will stay at the same level as they are now. Only two informants believe that they will decrease. This paper posits that the changed practices that interpreters and translators of Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian now follow, even without explicit normative or belief statements from the translator informants, are indicative of a realignment of their application of ‘translation policy’ within Toury’s notion of ‘preliminary norms’. Interpreters’ and translators’ changing practices are a reflection of the socio-political and (linguistic and legislative) regulatory changes in the source and/or target culture(s) which they work in. Thus, translation ‘norms’ can be conceptualised as regulatory mechanisms that underpin not only textual, literary-theoretical or operationalenvironmental features of interpretation and translation but, as this paper has shown, the concept of ‘translation policy’ can be extended to apply to the designation and form of codes that practitioners work with. This extension of norms to refer also to regularities of a reconfigured ‘language policy’ that interpreters and translators adhere to is an example of the dynamic, non-static nature of norms. Norms, reflecting the circumstances which determine them, may be re-shaped, over time and across different situations, according to changing macro-socio-political and ethno-political features. 66 RE-CODIFIED LANGUAGES IN A POST-CONFLICT CONTEXT: ... REFERENCES ABS [Australian Bureau of Statistics] (2012). “Reflecting the nation: Stories from the 2011 Census” Available at: http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/ abs@.nsf/Lookup/2071.0main+features902012-2013. Retrieved on: 24 June 2014. AUSIT [Australian Institute of Interpreters & Translators]. (2012). “AUSIT Code of Ethics and Code of Conduct”. Available at: http://ausit.org/ AUSIT/Documents/Code_Of_Ethics_Full.pdf. Retrieved on 1 June 2014. Brozović, D. & Ivić, P. (1988). Jezik, srpskohrvatski / hrvatskosrpski, hrvatski ili srpski. 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Lingua. 51, 55-72. Friedman, V. (1993). “Dialect Variation and Questions of Standardization in Macedonia: Macedonian, Albanian and Romani”. Zbornik za Filologiju i Lingvistiku 36/2:7–35. Giles, H., Coupland, N. & Coupland, J. (1991). “Accommodation Theory: Communication, context and consequence”. In: H. Giles, N. Coupland & J. Coupland (eds.) Contexts of accommodation: developments in applied sociolinguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1–68. Greenberg, R. (2004). Language and Identity in the Balkans. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Halilović, S. (1998). Bosanski jezik [The Bosnian language]. Sarajevo: Baština. Hlavac, J. (2010a). “Shifts in the language of interpretation with bi- or multi-lingual clients: Circumstances and implications for interpreters”. Interpreting 10/2:186–213. Hlavac, J. (2010b). “Ethical implications in situations where the language of interpretation shifts: the AUSIT Code of Ethics re-visited”. Translation and Interpreting 2/2:29–43. Ivić, P. 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(1976). “A Few Remarks for the History of the Term ‘Serbocroatian’ language“, Zbornik za filologiju i lingvistiku, 19/1: 45– 53. Magner, T. (1966). A Zagreb Kajkavian dialect. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania State University. Myers-Scotton, C. (1993). Social motivations for codeswitching. Oxford: Clarendon Press. NAATI [National Accreditation Authority for Translators and Interpreters] (2011). “Methods of NAATI Accreditation”. Available at:. http://www. naati.com.au/accreditation.html Retrieved 17 June 2014. Neweklowsky, G. (2003). (Ed.) Bosanski – Hrvatski – Srpski. Bosnisch – Kroatisch – Serbisch. Aktuelna pitanja jezika Bošnjaka, Hrvata, Srba i Crnogoraca. [Bosnian – Croatian – Serbian. Current questions on the languages of the Bosniaks, Croats, Serbs and Montenegrins] Vienna: Wiener Slawistischer Almanach. Sonderband 57. Okuka, M. (1998). Eine Sprache, viele Erben. Sprachpolitik als Nationalisierungsinstrument in Ex-Jugoslawien. [One language, many legacies. Language policy as an instrument of nationalisation in exYugoslavia.] Klagenfurt: Wieser. Popović, Lj. (2004). From standard Serbian through Serbo-Croatian to standard Serbian. In: R. Bugarski & C. Hawkesworth (Eds.) Language in the former Yugoslav lands. Bloomington: Slavica, 25-40. Radovanović, M. (2000). “From Serbo-Croatian to Serbian”. Multilingua 19/1–2:21–35. Sučić, S. (1996). “The fragmentation of Serbo-Croatian into three new languages”. Transition. 29, 10-16. Škiljan, D. (2004). “From Croato-Serbian to Croatian. Croatian linguistic identity”. In: R. Bugarski & C. Hawkesworth (Eds.) Language in the former Yugoslav lands. Bloomington: Slavica, 67-84. Tolimir-Hölzl, N. (2009). Bosnien und Herzegowina. Sprachliche Divergenz auf dem Prüfstand. Munich: Otto Sagner. 69 Jim Hlavac Toury, G. (1980). In search of a theory of translation. Tel Aviv: Porter Institute. Voß, C. (2010). Serbizität in Bosnien-Herzegowina zwischen Dialektloyalität und Ethnozentrismus. [Serbness in Bosnia-Herzegovina between dialect loyalty and ethnocentrism.] In: C. Voß & B. Golubović (ed.) Srpska lingvistika / Serbische Linguistik. Eine Bestandsaufnahme [Serbian Linguistics. An appraisal of the situation.] Munich: Otto Sagner, 311322. 70 Mira Milić* University of Novi Sad Novi Sad, Serbia UDC 81’255.2:6: [796/799 PROCESS-ORIENTED APPROACH TO TRANSLATING SPORTS RESEARCH PAPERS FROM SERBIAN INTO ENGLISH Abstract: This paper focuses on the translation of research papers that fall into the category of non-literary texts. Translation of these texts is essentially a stylistic operation aimed at the transfer of pragmatic information from one language to another. In order to illustrate this point the paper presents a comparative analysis of three Serbian research papers in the field of sport and their English translations, each with the initial and final peer-reviewed presubmission version. In line with this audiencecentred approach, all translations are analyzed according to Göpferich’s (2009) method including six comprehensibility dimensions (concision, correctness, motivation, perceptibility, simplicity and structure). The findings generally indicate that translation equivalence of the initial translation tends to be translation adequacy of the final translation. This suggests that non-literary translation is a process-oriented teamwork of translators and researchers rather than a widespread product-oriented activity. Key words: English, Serbian, research papers, sport, translation. 1. Introduction The aim of this paper is to draw attention to the need for potential upgrading of the non-literary translation practice which is predominantly understood as a product-oriented activity done by linguists. Following Gibovà (2012: 18), the label “non-literary text” covers “a * mbmilic@open.telekom.rs 71 Mira Milić wide range of texts, from administrative, legal and other official documents, via economic and business texts, scientific, technical up to publicist texts.” According to the same literature source, translation of these texts is defined as a stylistic operation aimed at the transfer of pragmatic information from one language to another. Seen in this light, non-literary translation is understood as translation adequacy rather than translation equivalence, which implies a process-oriented teamwork. In order to illustrate this point, this paper focuses on a comparative analysis of Serbian-to-English translation of three research papers in the field of sport. Bearing in mind the current linguistic dominance of English (cf. Crystal 2003) especially in research work (cf. Montgomery 2009), as well as its recently recognised sociolinguistic status of the nativized foreign language (cf. Prćić 2011a; Prćić 2011b), it is assumed that non-English speaking researchers have certain knowledge of this language, owing to which they are expected to be competent to provide assistance to translators of their papers from Serbian into English. Due to the fact that translators of research papers are usually linguists with poor knowledge of a particular register and standard requirements relevant to document types, English translations are generally full of improper terms and nonstandard formulations. Given that the main aim of researchers is to share their results with others within the global framework, it is necessary to raise their awareness of the fact that translation requires not only good command of two languages but also certain knowledge of the subject matter and expectations of the target reader. This means that the linguistically processed text is only a working material to be further processed by peer translators, researchers or technical persons with certain knowledge of both languages. During this process, English translation is becoming increasingly different from the Serbian text, as a consequence of rephrasing certain sentences, as well as adding and omitting words, sentences or even paragraphs from the original text. This leads to an assumption that non-literary translation is a creative work which can only be accomplished through a process-oriented teamwork of translators and source text authors. Pursuant to this 72 PROCESS-ORIENTED APPROACH TO TRANSLATING SPORTS RESEARCH assumption, the following section deals with theoretical aspects of non-literary translation, which is followed by a comparative analysis of Serbian and English texts of three research papers in the field of sport. The analysis focuses on the following issues: concision, correctness, motivation, perceptibility, simplicity and structure of translated texts. 2. Theoretical aspects of non-literary translation Pursuant to Vermeer’s skopos theory, the main focus of translation is on its purpose and the function it fulfils in the target culture, due to which the concept of equivalence of source and translated texts is replaced by adequacy (as quoted in Göpferich 2009: 41). This belief seems to be repeatedly confirmed in works by many authors dealing with the general category of non-literary translation or particular forms of the same category. With regard to technical translation, the focus is on the fact that it can no longer be perceived as transference of factual information to the target language, devoid of any creativity whatsoever, as it extends beyond good command of two languages and knowledge of terminology to be gained from a good bilingual dictionary (cf. Byrne 2010, Giehl 2006, Zethsen 1999). Accordingly, Byrne (2010: 14) says that it is a matter of the extent of modification rather than transference of source-to-target language form and content. Similarly, Newmark (2004: 12-13) says that “the style of the original text should be respected if it is acceptably clear and neat, and should be improved if it is deficient.” Such understanding of the translator’s role goes beyond the pure linguistic competence and includes knowledge of the subject matter and stylistic requirements of the text. In accordance with these requirements, the transference of the source non-literary text to its final translated version involves not only the translator’s work but also the researcher’s own rethinking and reprocessing of the source text and/or initial English translation, together with the translator. Seen in this light, non-literary translation seems to be process-oriented work which is not only a matter of 73 Mira Milić language-specific collocations, phrasal units and sentences (cf. Novakov 2008: 105) but also language-specific conventions and styles (cf. Göpferich 1993, 1995, 1998, Nord 1998 [quoted in Giehl 2006: 115]), as well as pragmatic requirements by the target audience, which is reflected in high readability of the translated text (cf. Giehl 2006: 115). In line with this reader-friendly approach, Göpferich (2009: 34) has constructed a method for text quality assessment in terms of six comprehensibility dimensions (concision, correctness, motivation, perceptibility, simplicity and structure), due to the fact that the text quality can be defined as “the degree to which a text fulfils its communicative function.” With reference to translated texts, comprehensibility requirements are mostly governed by the external factors which affect the translator’s work such as initiators, recipients and society (Schubert 2009: 24). Starting from the assumption that comprehensibility for the intended readership is the highest concern of researchers, the following text deals with a comparative analysis of the corpus containing three Serbian-to-English translated research papers in terms of the aforementioned six comprehensibility requirements, which follows after its brief description in the next section. 3. Analysis of the corpus The corpus contains three research papers in the field of sport translated from Serbian into English, each with the initial and final peer reviewed version entitled: “Latentna struktura Ravenovih progresivnih matrica u boji” (Latent Structure of Raven’s Colored Progressive Matrices by Fajgelj, Bala and Katić 2010), “Posturalni status i profil samovrednovanja dece” (Postural Status and Self-Perception Profile of Children by Poček, Đorđić and Tubić 2012) and “Uticaj eksperimentalnog programa fizičkog vežbanja na mentalno zdravlje dece predškolskog uzrasta” (Exercise Effects on Mental Health of Preschool Children by Tubić and Đorđić 2013). All papers were published in M21-23 sports journals, according to the Thom74 PROCESS-ORIENTED APPROACH TO TRANSLATING SPORTS RESEARCH son-Reuters journal ranking. Following the listed order, these papers are henceforward referred to as: Paper 1, Paper 2 and Paper 3. As a result of a contract-based agreement between the Faculty of Sport and Physical Education and a professional translation agency, the initial English versions have been translated by linguists with little knowledge of sports terminology or none whatsoever. The final translation version has resulted from a peer review and the researchers’ own critical analysis of the English text, followed by certain modifications which have been made independently of the source text. In order to emphasize the necessity of post-translation review by the researcher or by the translator with certain experience in translating non-literary texts, both translated versions of each paper are analyzed in terms of six comprehensibility dimensions, each of which is both defined and exemplified. Examples are shown in three columns containing the Serbian text, the initial English translation and the final English translation. For easier reference, modified parts of the exemplified text are shaded, whereas the improper lexis in the comments that follow below examples are designated by an asterisk (*). 3.1. Concision Concision implies that the translated text should not be an overtranslated source text, since undue length violates the principle of motivation (see Section 3.3). Owing to the fact that translators of research papers are predominantly linguists, the initial translated text usually contains a considerably higher number of words than the source text. This can be explained by three reasons. Firstly, the main aim of translators is to establish formal and semantic equivalence of the source and translated text. Secondly, translators of non-literary texts are usually linguists with insufficient knowledge of the subject matter, owing to which their working unit is not a longer text but the sentence and its lexis rather than syntax. Eventually, the third reason is typological incompatibility of Serbian (inflectional) and English (non-inflectional). As illustrated by the following examples, 75 Mira Milić overtranslation occurs at the level of: (1) phrases, (2) sentences and (3) paragraphs. (1) (2) (3) Serbian text Initial English translation Final English translation … u specifiþnim domenima samovrednovanja… (Paper 2) Polazeüi od nespornih osobenosti istraživanja efekata fiziþkog vežbanja kod dece predškolskog uzrasta, u ovom radu se problemsko ponašanje dece karakteriše sa stanovišta, u deþjoj psihologiji i psijihijatriji poznate i prihvaüene, podele na eksternalizovano i internalizovano ponašanje… (Paper 3) Uticaj eksperimentalnog programa fiziþkog vežbanja na mentalno zdravlje dece predškolskog uzrasta (title) (abstract containing 167 words and two paragraphs) (Paper 3) … in specific domains of selfperceptions… Starting with an indisputable peculiarity of the examination of the effects of doing physical exercises on preschool children, this paper is based on the classification of problematic behviour into externalized and internalized behavior, which is well-known and accepted in children’s psychology and psychiatry… Influence of the experimental programme of doing physical exercises on mental health of preschool children (title) (abstract containing 204 words and two paragraphs) … in domain-specific selfperceptions… In this paper, the problem behavior is considered in terms of externalizing and internalizing behavior, which is well-known and accepted in children’s psychology and psychiatry… Exercise effects on mental health of preschool children (title) (abstract containing 167 words and one paragraph only) The above examples indicate that the initial version of the translated text is predominantly a direct translation of Serbian phrases, sentences and paragraphs. In the process of retranslation, phrases are contracted due to: (1) English-specific morpho-syntax (e.g. *specific domains of versus domain-specific), (2) the researcher’s own decision to delete extra words from a sentence and (3) researcher’s own rethinking and processing of the title and abstract wording of the source text. Even though the fulfilment of the concision requirement is expected to result in a reduced number of words in the final translated text, this is not true of all three papers. Namely, excluding references the number of words is reduced from 3445 to 2981 in Paper 2 and from 5549 to 5200 in Paper 3. However, the number of words in Paper 1 is increased from 8590 to 9480, which is probably the consequence of additional processing of the translated text in favour of motivation, which is dealt with in Section 3.3. 76 PROCESS-ORIENTED APPROACH TO TRANSLATING SPORTS RESEARCH 3.2. Correctness This requirement predominantly falls within the scope of the linguist’s work. This implies absence of any mistakes related to spelling, grammar and lexis. In spite of the linguist’s awareness of responsibility for grammatical correctness, mistakes are frequently found in English translation of all three papers. They usually occur due to the translator’s misinterpretation of polysemous words, ambiguous sentences or non-transparent formulations of the source text. Even though not so often, there are, however, a few other mistakes related to mixed spelling and lexical variants of British and American English, nonstandard use of decimal comas in English, as well as Serbian-based clippings in the English text. These findings are illustrated by the following examples. (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) Serbian text Initial English translation Final English translation meta-analiza (Paper 3) Skor na svakoj subskali predstavlja aritmetiþku sredinu odgovora ispitanika na pojedinaþne tvrdnje koje se boduju na þetvorostepenoj skali… (Paper 2) …problemsko ponašanje … (Paper 3) …2,5 godine… (Paper 2) PMB (Progresivne matrice u boji) (Paper 1) target-analysis The score on every subscale represents the arithmetic mean of the answers given by the examinees to every assumption which is marked on four-level scale… …problematic behavior versus behavior… …2,5 years… PMB (Color Progressive Matrices) meta-analysis The score on every subscale represents the arithmetic mean of the responses given to each item scored on a four-level scale… …problem behavior… …2.5 years… CPM (Color Progressive Matrices) The five examples above indicate that mistranslation of the initial English text is predominantly the consequence of insufficient linguistic knowledge of the translator. Example (4) illustrates the translator’s failure to understand the meaning of meta- in the function of an initial combining form in English (cf. Bauer 1983, Prćić 2008), according to which the correct meaning of the neoclassical composition meta-analysis is “methods that focus on contrasting and combining results from different studies”1. As a consequence of this 1 http://www.ask.com/wiki/Meta-analysis?o=2849&qsrc=999&ad=doubleDown&an =apn&ap=ask.com 77 Mira Milić failure, the Serbian meta is translated as target in the initial English text, which is the literal meaning of this lexical unit in Serbian. Example (5) illustrates that overtranslation is due to the translator’s insufficient knowledge of the subject matter, which is reflected in the direct translation of the quoted sentence lexis and syntax from Serbian into English (e.g. *given by the examinees versus given and *which is marked versus scored) and mistranslated lexical units (e.g. *every assumption versus each item, *answers versus responses and *marked versus scored). Eventually, the last three examples illustrate the inconsistent use of British and American English spelling variants (behavior versus behavior [see e.g. (2)]) (6), the use of decimal coma in English (7) and the use of Serbian-based clippings in English (*PMB [from Serbian progresivne matrice u boji] versus CPM [from English Color Progressive Matrices]) (8). 3.3. Motivation This is the requirement that the text must, first of all, attract the reader’s attention (cf. Göpferich 2009: 43). However, the translator should bear in mind the fact that the ways in which motivation can be aroused are not only language-specific but also reader-specific. As the source texts dealt with are research papers, the use of the stylistically marked words should be kept to a minimum, which is seldom true of the analysed source Serbian text and its initial English translation. Other factors which affect readers’ motivation fall within the scope of English-Serbian contrastive aspects and purpose-specific constructions, e.g. sentence syntax, active-passive voice, the use of tenses, personal-impersonal constructions and standard formulations. 78 PROCESS-ORIENTED APPROACH TO TRANSLATING SPORTS RESEARCH Serbian text Initial English translation Final English translation (9) Visoko nadproseþni ispitanici 1942. godine bili bi danas razvrstani kao mentalno tupi. (Paper 1) (10) Rushton i saradnici (2004) navode da je predviÿanje školskog uspeha i uspeha na poslu, na osnovu skorova sa APM, izmeÿu 0,20 i 0,50. … (Paper 1) Ovaj proces nema samo za cilj nalaženje taþnog rešenja, nego verujemo da pomaže ispitanicima, posebno inteligentnijim, da otkriju zakonitosti u slici. (Paper 1) Highly above-average subjects from 1942 would fall under the current category of dull-witted people. Rushton et al. (2004) report the anticipated academic and business achievements based on scores with APM in the range between 0.20 and 0.50, … This process is not only aimed at finding correct solution, but it is believed to be helping the subjects especially more intelligent ones to discover a regularity of a picture. (12) Pri tome, taj program kao tehniku inicijalnog faktorisanja koristi Minres metodu, þime smo uveüali šarolikost primenjenih faktorskoanalitiþkih tehnika i, sledstveno tome, ograniþili uticaj tehnike na rezultate. (Paper 1) In doing so, the program uses Minres method as a method of initial factoring technique, which allowed increased variability of the applied factor-analysis techniques, hence a limited effect of the technique on results. (13) Apstrakt: …Osnovni cilj ovog rada bio je da detaljnije analizira problem dimenzionalnosti ovog testa. …. Osnovni cilj ovog rada se odnosi na Abstract: … The basic aim of this paper was to analyze in more details the problem of dimensionality of the test…. The purpose of this paper is to The highly above-average participants from 1942 would nowadays be classified as mentally dull. Rushton et al. (2004) report that the prediction of academic and business achievement based on the scores of APM was in the range between 0.20 and 0.50, … For example, if you perceive that there are two clouds of dots, that is, two factors, which are in addition in keeping with theoretical expectations, your task is accomplished... In addition to this, this program uses Minres method as a technique of initial factoring, which helps us increase the variety of the factoranalytical techniques applied in order to be able to perceive the possible influence of the technique on the results. The main goal of the study was to determine the constructive validity of Raven’s Colored Progressive Matrices by means of item factor analysis… utvrÿivanje da li eksperimentalni program …(Paper 2) determine whether experimental programme … Acknowledgement paragraph presented in a footnote below text; Acknowledgement paragraph presented in a footnote below text; Non-existent acknowledgement Serbian (Paper 1). Non-existent text part of acknowledgement paragraph in English. (11) (14) part paragraph of in the The aim of this study was to identify effects of 2.5-year movement program… Acknowledgement presented as a separate paragraph of the text under the subheading “Acknowledgement” The study was supported by grant No. 177-0000000-3410 from the Croatian Ministry of Science, Education and Sports. Starting from an assumption that the writer’s chief preoccupation is to arouse interest in the findings, the text must be easy to follow and free of any polysemous, stylistic and semantically overlapping words since this often requires extra effort to decode. The above examples indicate that this requirement is not fulfilled in the initial English translation due to the following reasons. Firstly, it is due to a literal translation of a non-standard Serbian term into English, e.g. *dull-witted versus low-average intelligent (9), which is also true of the final English text even though different lexis is used (*mentally 79 Mira Milić dull). Secondly, the failure is due to the directly transferred non-transparent syntactical meaning of the source text where it is not clear whether it is prediction or APM (Advanced Progressive Matrices)2 scores that occur in a given range (10). The third reason is the misuse of passive voice in the initial English text due to which the researchers’ intention to emphasize the fact that their belief is not shared by other researchers is not transferred to the English text, which is additionally impoverished by the insufficiently detailed argumentation of the Serbian text (11). The fourth one is non-transference of full semantic content of inflectional forms from Serbian (čime smo uvećali) according to which the increase is due not only to a certain method (*which allowed increased) but also our doing it, which is duly transferred in the final English text (which helps us increase) (12). Eventually, the initial translation has failed in terms of motivation due to the inconsistent use of present and past tenses (different tense of a verb in two almost identical sentences of the paper) (13) and non-standard and insufficiently detailed Serbian-based formulation of acknowledgement paragraph in the English text (14). 3.4. Structure Pursuant to Göpferich (2009: 44), structure involves macro-level structure and micro-level structure. The former encompasses paragraphs or longer texts and the latter extends to no more than two adjacent sentences. In order to fulfil this requirement, paragraphs of the source text can be extended, rephrased and restructured, complex and long sentences from the source text can be split up to a number of simple ones, whereas thematic and rhematic elements can be rearranged by putting the former to the beginning and the latter at the end. Modifications that have affected structural improvements of translated texts in the analyzed corpus are the following. 2 http://www.pearsonclinical.com/psychology/products/100000414/ravens-advanced-progressive-matrices-apm.html?Pid=015-4686-786 80 PROCESS-ORIENTED APPROACH TO TRANSLATING SPORTS RESEARCH Serbian text (15) (16) (17) Non-existent in Serbian. (Paper 1) 1.1. Opis testa Progresivne matrice u boji sastoje se od tri serije od po 12 ajtema: A, Ab i B. U okviru svake serije ajtemi su (otprilike) poreÿani po težini, a sliþno je i kod serija – serija B je najteža. U gornjem delu svakog zadatka prikazana je slika u kojoj, u donjem desnom uglu, nedostaje jedan deo, a ispod nje šest predloženih rešenja, od kojih samo jedno taþno odgovara nedostajuüem delu slike. (Paper 1) Ovaj program smatramo odgovarajuüim zbog toga što kao polaznu matricu može da uzme matricu tetrahloriþnih koeficijenata korelacija, koja je pri tome tako “ispeglana“ da bi bila pozitivno definitna. (Paper 1) Initial English translation Non-existent in English 1.1. Description of the test Colored progressive matrices consist of three series of 12 items each: A, Ab, and B. Within each series, items are (roughly) ordered according to difficulty, and the same holds true of the series – B series is the most difficult one. On the top of each assignments there is a colored picture whose bottom part on the right is missing, with six offered solutions given below of which only one fits the deficiency of the picture. We believe that this program is appropriate one due to the fact that it allows taking a matrix of tetrachloric coefficients of correlation for an initial matrix, which is so well “trimmed“ that it can be a positive definite one. Final English translation What are the opinions on the unidimensionality of Raven’s tests? Test (subheading) Colored Progressive Matrices consist of three sets of 12 items each: A, Ab and B. Within each set, items are (approximately) arranged according to difficulty, and it is similar with sets – set B is the most difficult. In the upper part of each task there is a picture in which, in the lower right corner, one part is missing, and below it there are six suggested solutions, out of which only one fits exactly the missing part of the picture... This program is considered appropriate because it can take an initial matrix of tetrachloric coefficients , which is “smoothed“ in such a way to be positively definite. In order to make the presentation reader-friendly, an interrogative sentence is added in the final translated text, which is in the function of a subtitle (15). Owing to the fact that similar modifications have been introduced in other parts of the final English text, the intention of the researcher has probably been to enhance the readers’ motivation by establishing a direct contact with them. In the next example (16), CPM test description, which is a constituent part of the introductory section of the Serbian text and the initial English translation, is rephrased and moved from the beginning to the end of the section dealing with the research method, which is probably the result of the researcher’s additional processing of the text to increase its transparency. The rephrasing of the sentence shown in the last example (17) has contributed not only to concision but also to greater transparency and reliability of the given statement. 81 Mira Milić 3.5. Simplicity According to Göpferich (2009: 46), simplicity refers to lexis and syntax. The former is especially important when dealing with specialised terminology, purpose-specific selection of morpho-syntax and general words, as well as transformations of nominal-to-verbal constructions or negative-to-affirmative sentences. The following examples illustrate modifications in terms of terminology, as well as language-specific morpho-syntax and lexis. (18) (19) (20) Serbian text Initial English translation Final English translation Procena samovrednovanja Izabrani merni instrument za procenu samovrednovanja dece podržava multidimenzionalni pristup self-konceptu (Harter, 1985). (Paper 2) Uticaj specifiþnih domena na opšte samovrednovanje dece sa i bez odstupanja u posturalnom statusu. (Paper 2) Na osnovu dobijenih rezultata (Tabela 1), konstatovano je da izmeÿu dece sa i bez odstupanja u posturalnom statusu, razlike u domenima specifiþnog i opšteg samovrednovanja nisu statistiþki znaþajne. (Paper 2) Estimation of self-perception The chosen measuring instrument for the estimation of children’s selfesteem supports a multidimensional approach to self-concept (Harter, 1985). The differences in self-perception between children with and without deviations in postural status. Self-perception profile. The chosen measuring instrument supports a multidimensional approach to selfconcept >39@ Taking the obtained results into account (Table 1), it has been concluded that the differences in the domains of specific and general self-esteem between the children with and without deviations in postural status, are not statistically significant. The influence of domain-specific perceptions on Global Self-Worth of children with and without postural deviations Bearing the obtained results in mind (Table 1), it has been concluded that the differences in the domain-specific and global self-worth between the children with and without postural deviations, are not statistically significant. On the basis of the author’s own long-year work with sports professionals, terminology of the papers translated by linguists seems to be a matter of the highest concern, in spite of Newmark’s comment (1988: 160) that it accounts for only 5-10% of a technical text. As illustrated by the three examples above, some terms of the initial translation are modified or retranslated in order to match the standard requirements (e.g. *estimation of self-perception versus self-perception profile [18] and *specific and general self-esteem versus domain-specific and global self-worth [20]), the Serbian-based morpho-syntax is replaced by the English-based one (e.g. *deviations in postural status versus postural deviations and *domains of specific versus domain-specific [19]), whereas general lexical units 82 PROCESS-ORIENTED APPROACH TO TRANSLATING SPORTS RESEARCH are replaced by better fitting ones in the given context (e.g. taking the obtained results into account versus bearing the obtained results in mind [20]). 3.6. Perceptibility This requirement involves the ease with which texts are perceived with our senses (cf. Göpferich 2009: 48), which mainly refers to typographical conventions and nonverbal elements (tables and figures). However, these requirements tend to be fixed by editor’s guidelines given in advance, owing to which they are usually, but not necessarily, taken care of by the writer of the source text before handing it over to the translator. (21) (22) Serbian text Initial English translation Final English translation Tabela 1. Osnovni pokazatelji ukupnog skora PMB po godinama i ukupno (Fajgelj i sar., 2007) – uzrast, AS, Std. greška, ı, N, procenat, pouzdanost Į. (Paper 1) Zarevski, P. (2000). Struktura i priroda inteligencije. Jastrebarsko: Naklada Slap. (Paper 1) Table 1. Basic indicators of CPM score per years and in total (Fajgelj et al., 2007) – age, M, SEM, SD, N, %, Reliability Į. TABLE 1 BASIC INDICATORS OF TOTAL SCORE ON CPM ACCORDING TO AGE AND TOTAL (Fajgelj et al., 2007) – age, X, Zarevski, P. (2000). Struktura i priroda inteligencije [Structure and Nature of Intelligence]. Jastrebarsko: Naklada Slap. … — 41. ZAREVSKI P, Struktura i priroda inteligencije. (Structure and Nature of Intelligence) (Naklada Slap, Jastrebarsko, 2000)… SEM, SD, ı, N, Percent, Reliability Į. The above examples show that the typographic conventions of the initial and final translated text are modified as follows. Sentence type case of table captions is replaced by the capitals and some full-word column headings are replaced by standard abbreviations and symbols (21), whereas alphabetically ordered references listed with line break are entered in the order in which they appear in the text, one after another (without line break) separated with a dash (22), which is in accordance with the manuscript layout and style guidelines of a particular journal. 83 Mira Milić 4. Conclusions The main aim of this paper is to raise awareness of the need for upgrading non-literary translation which is predominantly understood as a product-oriented activity of translators with linguistic qualifications. The analysis is based on the corpus containing three M21-M23 research papers that have been translated from Serbian into English, each with the initial and final version of the translated text. In accordance with the hypothesis put forward that the comprehensibility for the intended readership is the highest concern of researchers, both versions of English translation are analyzed in terms of six comprehensibility dimensions of technical writing discussed in Göpferich (2009). They are: concision, correctness, motivation, structure, simplicity and perception. The findings indicate that these dimensions are not only language-specific but also purpose-specific. Given that the corpus analysis has revealed a substantial number of modifications of source texts and their initial translated versions (in terms of lexis, terminology, morpho-syntax, structure and semantic content), it is reasonable to conclude that translation equivalence of the initial translated text becomes translation adequacy of its final version. Seen in this light, translation of research papers can only be looked upon as a creative process-oriented teamwork of translators and researchers, in which the initial translated text is just a working material to be further processed in order to fulfil the requirements of the target audience. This can suggest the need to raise researchers’ awareness of the need to include a peer review of translated texts, which should be fed back to translators for corrections. Although this study did not include translation of other types of non-literary texts, it may be assumed that this observation could hold for any specialised translation; however, this remains to be confirmed by further research. 84 PROCESS-ORIENTED APPROACH TO TRANSLATING SPORTS RESEARCH REFERENCES Bauer, L. (1983). English Word-Formation, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Byrne, J. (2010) “Are Technical Translators Writing Themselves out of Existence?” In: I. Kemble (ed.). The Translator as Writer. Portsmouth: University of Portsmouth, 14-27. Available at: http://www.port.ac.uk/ media/contacts-and-departments/slas/events/tr09-byrne.pdf. Retrieved on: 23 December 2013. Crystal, D. (2003). English as a Global Language, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Gibová, K. (2012). Translation Procedures in the Non-Literary and Literary Text Compared (based on an analysis of an EU institutional-legal text and a novel excerpt “The Shack“ by W. P. Young. Norderstedt: Books on Demand GmbH. Available on: http://www.pulib.sk/elpub2/FF/Gibova1/ pdf_doc/2.pdf. Retrieved on: March 15th 2014. Giehl, C. (2006). ”Optimizing and Translating LSP texts“. Hermes – Journal of Language and Communication Studies 37: 115-129. Available at: http://download2.hermes.asb.dk/archive/download/Hermes-37-8-Giehl. pdf. Retrieved on 24 December 2013. Göpferich, S. (2009). ”Comprehensibility Assessment Using the Kalsruhe Comprehensibility Concept”. JoSTrans: The Journal of Specialised Translation 11: 31-51. Available at: http://www.jostrans.org/issue11/ art_goepferich.pdf. Retrieved on 20 February 2014. Montgomery, S. L. (2009). “English and Science: Realities and Issues for Translation in the Age of an Expending Lingua Franca”. JoSTrans: The Journal of Specialised Translation, 11: 6-16. Available at: http://www. jostrans.org/issue11/art_montgomery.php. Retrieved on 2 March 2014. Newmark, P. (1988). A Textbook of Translation. Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall International (UK) Ltd. Newmark, P. (2004). “Non-literary in the light of literary translation”. JoSTrans: The Journal of Specialised Translation 1: 8-13. Available at: http://www.jostrans.org/issue01/art_newmark.pdf. Retrieved on: 14 March 2014. Novakov, P. (2008). Anglicističke teme [Topics in English Studies]. Novi Sad: Futura publikacije. 85 Mira Milić Prćić, T. (2008). “Prefixes vs Initial Combining Forms in English: A Lexicographic Perspective.” International Journal of Lexicography 18 (3): 313-334. Prćić, T. (2011a). Engleski u srpskom, 2. izdanje [English within Serbian]. Novi Sad: Filozofski fakultet. Prćić, T. (2011b). “English as the Nativized Foreign Language Revisited: Some Glocal Implications.” In B. Đorić-Francuski (ed.). Image_Identity_ Reality. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 75-82. Schubert, K. (2009). “Positioning Translation in Technical Communication Studies”. JoSTrans: The Journal of Specialised Translation 11: 1730. Available at: http://www.jostrans.org/issue11/art_schubert.pdf. Retrieved on: 24 December 2013. Zethsen, K., K. (1999). “The Dogmas of Technical Translation – Are They Still Valid?” Hermes 23: 65-75. Available at: https://pure.au.dk/portal/ files/9952/H23_05.pdf. Retrieved on: 23 December 2013. SOURCES OF THE CORPUS Fajgelj, S., Bala, G. and Katić, R. (2010). “Latent Structure of Raven’s Colored Progressive Matrices”. Collegium Antropologicum 34 (3): 1015–1026. Available at: http://collegium.hrvatsko-antropoloskodrustvo.hr/_doc/Coll.Antropol.34(2010)3_1015-1026.pdf. Retrieved on: 15 March 2014. Poček, S., Đorđić, V. and Tubić, T. (2012). “Postural status and self-perception profile of children”. HealthMED 6 (3): 1016-1022. Tubić, T. and Đorđić, V. (2013). “Exercise effects on mental health of preschool children”. Anale de Psicologia 29 (1): 249-256. 86 Jelena Pralas* University of Montenegro Podgorica, Montenegro UDC 81’25:378.1.147 USING MINI TEAM PROJECTS IN TRANSLATION CLASSES TO ACHIEVE THE COMPETENCES DEFINED IN THE EMT REFERENCE FRAMEWORK Abstract: In the process of developing a curriculum for the Specialist PostGraduate Translation Programme and in its regular updating, the Institute of Foreign Languages of the University of Montenegro has been guided by the European Master’s in Translation Reference Framework of the Competences for Professional Translators that was created on the EU level to ensure convergence among the training for translators in Europe. This sets out what is to be mastered at the end of the training for translators, regardless of where and when it is provided. The Framework is primarily concerned with the ends, but in no way pre-judges the means, and it is up to the individual institutions that provide translator training, to find the best means to achieve the ends. Among the means the Institute uses are the Mini Team-Translation Projects and this paper seeks to explain how. Key words: Translation training, EMT, translator competences, team-translation, classroom activity. 1. Introduction The last 25 years in our region can be described as years of change — years of transition and transformation at various levels. We have seen the change from socialism to a new form of social order more similar to capitalism; we watched the transition from peace to war * pralas@t-com.me 87 Jelena Pralas and then the much slower transition back to peace; we have been going through the process of the transition to democracy, and transforming our societies to achieve the standards of the international alliances and entities that we want to be a part of. Hardly any of these changes could take place without translation which has become an important part of human interactions in the region and beyond. It actually became so omnipresent that, apart from being the years of change, the last 25 years in our region have also been the years of translation. Naturally, in the years of change, the translation microcosm has undergone changes too. The translation market has changed, both in terms of demand and on the side of supply, provoking changes in translation training and leading to the opening of numerous translation training programmes in the universities in the region. The situation has been similar at the EU level and this abundance and diversity of university programmes has led to the need for the harmonization and uniform standards setting, which resulted in the establishment of the EMT network of postgraduate university translation programmes, which has been active in setting the standards in the field of translation and translation training. Measuring its Specialist Translation Programme against the standards and translators’ competences set by the EMT, the Institute of Foreign Languages of the University of Montenegro identified the gaps and designed strategies for bridging them, one of which is presented in this paper. It is a practical example of something that started as a simple classroom activity and grew into a more complex exercise capable of contributing to the development of numerous EMT competences, which will hopefully lead to the Institute of Foreign Languages obtaining EMT observer status in due time. 2. Translation and translation training in Montenegro Although the smallest in the region and the country that was the least developed of all the former Yugoslav republics, Montenegro 88 USING MINI TEAM PROJECTS IN TRANSLATION CLASSES TO ACHIEVE ... has not lagged behind in the changes. On the contrary! Its dynamic transformation processes have put its already overstrained capacities under stress in various fields including translation, while the translation market has gone through a significant transformation. Unlike 25 years ago, it is today characterized by very low levels of supply and demand in literary translation (many literary translations are imported from the neighbouring countries which use similar languages), and by a huge demand for translation of specialised texts in the fields of law, economics, social sciences, civil engineering, environment, and medicine i.e. LSP translation. The increase in demand for specialised translation naturally influenced translation training. Similar to other countries in the region, Montenegro used to train its translators in university programmes aimed at training foreign language teachers. In such programmes, translation training usually focused on literary translation or translation of general texts with a view to training students in translation skills on texts with complex syntax, and demanding terminology. Developments in the market did not show that such training was wrong, but it showed that the students needed more training to cope with the challenges that the new market conditions had brought. That is why the last 15 years in our region have also been marked by a boom in the opening of brand new translation study programmes in our universities. It is true that in the Montenegrin context this meant only one translation study programme was opened, but given the size of the country and its market, the impact of that single translation study programme has indeed had the feel of a boom. Some additional efforts were invested in the field by a new university in Montenegro that developed its language study programme that contained more translation training than traditional programmes of the kind. The rationale behind their decision not to go for translation training study programme per se might have lied in their wish to produce human resources who, instead of being too specialized, would have multiple skills that would make them able to adapt more easily to the changing demands of the labour market. 89 Jelena Pralas The Institute of Foreign Languages of the University of Montenegro, however, opted for the specialist study programme for translation being of the opinion that translation training that students get in general language study programmes is not sufficient to equip them with all the competences they need to cope with the challenges of the demanding translation market. This Specialist Translation Programme became the basis for developing the Master and Undergraduate Programmes of the Institute that are specific not only because they focus on translation, but also because the students are required to study two foreign languages in parallel (as B languages) which was not the case in Montenegro before. 3. Specialist Translation Programme of the Institute of Foreign Languages The Specialist Translation Programme of the Institute of Foreign Languages of the University of Montenegro was designed by the faculty of the Institute that not only teaches and carries out research but also works very actively in the Montenegrin translation and interpretation market. This gave this team a deep insight into the dynamics of the market - both on the supply and on the demand side, and informed their decisions in developing the curriculum for the programme aimed at “providing students primarily with the opportunity to acquire practical skills in translation and interpretation based on the knowledge of translation theory, discourse analysis, as well as different thematic fields like the law or economics”. (Lakić, Pralas 2005: 108). Thus, the team designed the programme with the following structure4: 4 More information about the structure of the Programme can be found in Lakić, I. i Pralas, J. (2005). 90 USING MINI TEAM PROJECTS IN TRANSLATION CLASSES TO ACHIEVE ... Term I Subject Translation of Legal Texts into English Translation of Legal Texts from English Discourse Analysis Communication Translation Theory Basics of Law 1+1 1+1 2+0 1+1 2+0 2+0 Credits 6 6 5 5 4 4 1+1 1+1 0+3 1+1 2+0 2+0 - Credits 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 Term II Subject Translation of Business Texts into English Translation of Business Texts from English Basics of Consecutive Interpretation Academic Writing Basics of Economics Semantics Final Paper The Institute started implementing its Specialist Translation Programme in 2004, and so far has produced nine generations of graduates who are employed as translators in various institutions and private companies. 4. The European level, EMT and EMT competences We have to note that during the process of development of the above curriculum and in the first years of its implementation, the Institute was not sufficiently aware of developments in other countries, and at the EU level, which apparently followed a similar path. As the 91 Jelena Pralas Lithuanian scholars Ligija Kaminskiene and Galina Kavaliauskiene noted, those were the years of “dramatic changes for the translator’s profession: rapidly growing need for high-level linguistic services, enhanced by such factors as globalisation, technological progress and demographic movements, and dramatic increase in the number of official EU languages from 11 to 23 between 2004 and 2007, which brought to light the short supply of qualified professionals in some languages and language combinations” (Kaminskiene and Kavaliauskiene 2012: 139). Obviously, the dynamics of the translation markets were similar, and translation-training demands changed in a similar way, the result being that Europe in the mid-2000s had an abundance of diverse translation study programmes. Thus, “in 2006, there were at least 285 translation ‘programmes’ in European higher education, leading to a Bachelor’s and/or a Master’s degree” (EMT 2009: 1). This “diversification and multiplication of programmes” that was noted at the European level and “the search for convergence between training for translators in Europe and the concern to optimize it” (EMT 2009: 1) led to the establishment of the EMT - the “European Master’s in Translation Network” that currently has more than 60 members that meet the very high EMT standards. As stated on their website, the goal of this network is “to improve the quality of translator training and to get highly skilled people to work as translators in the EU” while “In the long run, the EMT seeks to enhance the status of the translation profession in the EU” (EMT website). One of the activities to achieve this goal was the establishment of the Expert Group in 2007 to work on “the definition of a true framework of reference, putting forward a minimum quality profile and specifying the competences necessary” (EMT 2009: 1). The document they proposed was adopted in 2009, under the title “Competences for professional translators, experts in multilingual and multimedia communication”. It defined competence as “the combination of aptitudes, knowledge, behaviour and know-how necessary to carry out a given task under given conditions” (EMT 2009: 3), and it referred not only to translators but also to other professionals in multimedia and multilingual communication setting out “what is to 92 USING MINI TEAM PROJECTS IN TRANSLATION CLASSES TO ACHIEVE ... be achieved, acquired and mastered at the end of training or for the requirements of a given activity, regardless where, when and how” (EMT 2009: 3). The competences are grouped in: the translation service provision competence (interpersonal dimension and production dimension), language competence, intercultural competence, information mining competence, thematic competence, and technological competence, and they are described as interdependent. The Institute of Foreign Languages perceived the “Competences for professional translators, experts in multilingual and multimedia communication” as an excellent tool to measure its translation programme against. And that is precisely what it did: comparing the competences defined by the EMT and the competences trained in the Specialist Translation Programme, the Institute identified the existing gaps and set about designing strategies for bridging them at the level of individual subjects and at the level of the overall programme. Due to numerous constraints that have existed in the context of the University of Montenegro (long and demanding procedures being only one of them), full alignment with the competences defined by the EMT is still an on-going process, which the Institute would like to see completed by the next EMT membership selection round announced for 2019, where it will consider applying for observer status. 5. The mini team-translation projects of the Institute of Foreign Languages Several of the gaps that the Institute identified when comparing its translation programme against the EMT reference framework of competences fall within the group of translation services provision competences, or to be more precise, within their interpersonal dimension. These are: “knowing how to work in a team, including a virtual team; knowing how to comply with instructions, deadlines, commitments, interpersonal competences, team organisation; knowing how to work under pressure and with other experts, with a project head 93 Jelena Pralas (capabilities for making contacts, for cooperation and collaboration), including, in a multilingual situation)” (EMT 2009: 5). For the sake of easier reference in the text that follows, the competences that are mentioned in this paper will be assigned numbers in the order of their appearance in the text. For example, the above consequences will be referred to respectively as competence 1, competence 2 and competence 3. The introduction of team-translation projects seemed to be the obvious strategy to bridge these gaps. In the beginning, these were very simple projects, covered once in the academic year within the subject Translation of Business Texts from English, taught in the second term. Students would split into groups of three to five and, instead of translating the texts individually, they would proceed in groups. Very soon the faculty realized that team translation projects could be useful in developing not only the identified competences initially aimed at, but many more of them. That led to extending the initial projects to both terms, making them more complex and as a result, more useful. As projects that require our students to translate a particular given text, mini team-translation projects contribute, as does any other translation task, to the development of numerous competences defined by the EMT. In this part of the paper we will therefore not focus on those competences that can be worked on in any translation exercise, although we will mention them. Also, as mentioned above, these projects have been introduced with a view to developing the above mentioned competences 1, 2 and 3. Therefore, this paper will not focus on them either. It will focus instead on some of the other EMT competences, the development of which would require the design of a particular activity and to which these projects can significantly contribute. The mini team-translation projects have several clearly defined stages: selection of appropriate material; formation of the groups; translation stage; students’ presentations, and assessment. We will describe here each of these stages, link them to the EMT competences and show how they can contribute to development of the compe94 USING MINI TEAM PROJECTS IN TRANSLATION CLASSES TO ACHIEVE ... tences. The text will also offer a diachronic comparison between the initial team translation projects the Institute used in the past and the extended and more effective ones it uses today. 5.1. Selection of appropriate material In the initial team translation projects, as mentioned above, the Institute faculty used the texts that the students would otherwise translate individually at home and discuss in the class. Thus, in the beginning of the team translation projects, they would translate a text about banking, or macroeconomics, dealing with the terminology that was to be covered in the subject Translation of Business Texts from English. In such a way they would work on the competences that can be developed in any translation exercise (almost all the competences within the group of language competences and information mining competences, and most of the competences within the production dimension of the translation services provision competences: “knowing how to create and offer a translation appropriate to the client’s request, i.e. to the aim/skopos and to the translation situation” (competence 4); “knowing how to define stages and strategies for the translation of a document” (competence 5); “knowing how to define and evaluate translation problems and find appropriate solutions” (competence 6); “knowing how to proofread and revise a translation (mastering techniques and strategies for proofreading and revision)” (competence 7) and “knowing how to establish and monitor quality standards” (competence 8) (EMT 2009: 5). However, the faculty realized that by slightly changing the approach to the selection of the material for the mini team-translation projects they could offer students the opportunity to work on developing more EMT competences. The materials that are currently used are research articles in translation studies dealing with the thematic and terminological fields regularly covered within the curriculum. Thus, instead of a text in the field of tourism, which would regularly be translated and analysed within the subject Translation of Business 95 Jelena Pralas Texts from English, a team of students would be given the task of translating the article “Lost and Found in Translating Tourist Texts - Domesticating, Foreignising or Neutralising Approach” (Sanning 2010) published in The Journal of Specialized Translation. Instead of translating a legal text, which would normally be translated within the subject Translation of Legal Texts from English, a team would be given the task of translating the text “Caveat Translator: Understanding the Legal Consequences of Errors in Professional Translation” (Byrne 2007) published in the same journal. In this way, on top of the competences we already listed, the mini team-translation projects would contribute to development of the competence “mastering the appropriate meta language (to talk about one’s work, strategies and decisions)” (competence 9) (EMT 2009: 5), which is one of the most significant competences within the production dimension of the translation service provision competences; as well as to the competence of “developing a spirit of curiosity, analysis and summary” (competence 10) (EMT 2009: 7) from the group of thematic competences. 5.2. Formation of groups In our mini team translation projects, which now take place twice a year, the students are allowed to form groups as they choose. In this way they are given an opportunity to learn from practice about interpersonal relations in a translation team, working particularly on the interpersonal dimension of the translation service provision competences (working in a team, complying with professional ethics, working with other experts). Since the students are allowed to choose their groups twice a year, it is particularly interesting to observe the differences between the composition of the groups in the first and in the second term that shows how students learn who they feel comfortable to work with and who they are not comfortable to work with, regardless of the other aspects of their interpersonal relations. This also contributes to their critical thinking about their work in the 96 USING MINI TEAM PROJECTS IN TRANSLATION CLASSES TO ACHIEVE ... team and of the work of other team members, assessing not only their own, but also other students’ performance and participation. 5.3. Translation stage During the translation stage within the mini team-translation projects, students are allowed to decide themselves on the division of the roles in their teams and on the approach they want to take in dividing the texts and allocating tasks to different members of the group. They can consult the teacher about the issues related to the text and about translation problems they might have difficulties in solving, but not regarding the organization of work within their teams. When working on their translation assignments, they are aware that it is the final product that will be assessed and not the process they went through in order to produce the translation. To a certain extent the teacher here assumes the role of a client and the students are given the opportunity to work on developing the competence of “knowing how to clarify the requirements, objectives and purposes of the client, recipients of the translation and other stakeholders” (competence 11) (EMT 2009: 4) from within the interpersonal dimension of the translation service provision competences and the competence 4 referred to above from within the production dimension of the same group of competences. During the process of translation the students are aware that they will have to make a presentation about the process they went through and about their working together as a team. This awareness helps them focus, using the set of questions provided by the teacher in advance, on the stages in their translation process, on the division of the roles, on the discussions that they engaged in, on how they dealt with the revision process etc. In such a way they work on developing most of the competences within the production dimension of the translation service provision competences (already mentioned competences 5, 6, and 7 plus the competence of “knowing how to justify one’s translation choices and decisions” (competence 12) (EMT 2009: 5). 97 Jelena Pralas 5.4. Students’ presentations Our experience has shown that the student presentation of their work in teams is actually an extremely useful part of the mini teamtranslation projects. Students are given a set of pre-designed questions they are to use in preparing their presentations, which makes them reflect on different segments of the translation stage. Since the questions are given in advance they also serve as guidelines for their translation process (see above). In general, the whole process of preparing and making presentations contributes to the development of the above mentioned competence 9, while each of the questions the students are given is linked to one or several competences they work on during the translation stage of the project and reflect on while preparing their presentations. For easier reference they are presented in the Table below: Table 1 Question 1. How did you divide the roles in your team? Why? Did it prove to be the right choice? Why? 2. What were the stages in the process of translation in your team? How did you decide on them? EMT Competence “Knowing how to self-evaluate (questioning one’s habits; being open to innovations; being concerned with quality; being ready to adapt to new situations/ conditions) and take responsibility” (EMT 2009: 5) competence 13 “Knowing how to understand and analyse the macrostructure of a document and its overall coherence (including where it consists of visual and sound elements)” (EMT 2009: 6) competence 14 competence 5 competence 6 competence 12 3. What were the key translation issues you faced in translating your text in the team? How did you solve them? 4. How did you competence 7 organize any revision of competence 8 the translated text? 98 USING MINI TEAM PROJECTS IN TRANSLATION CLASSES TO ACHIEVE ... 5.5. Assessment As in every teaching and learning exercise, assessment is a very important and relevant part. In our mini team-translation projects it is done in three stages. The first stage is dedicated to students assessing themselves, describing in a few words their view of their own contribution to the teamwork in the project, and allocating themselves points on the scale of 1 to 5. In the second stage of the assessment process they have to do the same for each of their teammates. In these two stages they work on the competence 13 that belongs to interpersonal dimension of the translation services provision competences; but maybe even more importantly, they work on the competence of “knowing how to comply with professional ethics” (competence 15) (EMT 2009: 4) from the same group of competences related to what behaviour is ethical and professional, and what is not, and assessing them accordingly. In the third stage of the assessment process, the teacher assesses their product, giving them detailed feedback on the translated text and, combining that assessment with the assessments they gave to themselves and each other, sets the final score each student gets for the project. This score can amount to 10% of the final grade for the subject. The assessment stage is finished by a brief class discussion about the whole exercise giving the students an opportunity to comment on the activity and underlining the lessons learnt. 6. Conclusion Operating within a country with strong aspirations to integrate into the European Union and to adopt all its relevant standards, the Institute of Foreign Languages of the University of Montenegro naturally guides its efforts to train translators to comply with the standards set at the level of the European Union. Its task has been made much easier by the adoption of the EMT reference framework of competences for professional translators, experts in multilingual 99 Jelena Pralas and multimedia communication that the Institute now uses as a tool to measure its translation training programme against and to undertake measures to achieve the goals set out there. Contributing to many of the competences defined by the EMT as required for trained translators, the mini team-translation projects presented in this paper, are among many of the activities undertaken by the Institute of Foreign Languages with the aim of improving its performance and practices in translator training in such a way that in five years time it can apply for the status of an observer in the EMT network. But, even if we do not manage to do that, exercises of this kind will definitely improve the quality of translation training we provide, which will in its turn improve the quality of translation in the market in general and that is the ultimate goal of every translation training programme. If, on top of that, this paper inspires other translation trainers to undertake similar activities, our success will be complete. REFERENCES Byrne, J. (2007). “Caveat Translator: Understanding the Legal Consequences of Errors in Professional Translation”. Journal of Specialized Translation 7, Available at: http://www.jostrans.org/issue07/art_byrne.pdf. Retrieved on 25 September 2014. EMT Expert Group (2009). “Competences for Professional Translators, Experts in Multilingual and Multimedia Communication” Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/translation/programmes/emt/key_documents/ emt_competences_translators_en.pdf. Retrieved on 25. September 2014. Kaminskiene, L. and Kavaliauskiene, G. (2012). “Competences in Translation and Interpreting”, Studies about Languages, 20/138-145. Lakić, I. i Pralas, J. (2005). „Izazovi i iskustva u nastavi stručnog prevođenja na postdiplomskim specijalističkim studijama“, in Vučo J. (ed) Uloga nastavnika u savremenoj nastavi jezika, Nikšić, Filozofski fakultet, 105-114. Sanning, H. (2010). “Lost and Found in Translating Tourist Texts Domesticating, Foreignising or Neutralising Approach”, Journal of Specialized Translation 13, Available at: http://www.jostrans.org/ issue13/art_sanning.pdf. Retrieved on 25 September 2014. 100 Borislava Šašić* UDC 81’255.2:6[341.4 International Association of Conference Translators (AITC) Geneva, Switzerland NEGOTIATED TRANSLATION: INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW – IMPLICATIONS FOR THE SPECIALIZED TRAINING OF TRANSLATORS AND INTERPRETERS Abstract: The aim of the paper is to show the need for an interdisciplinary approach to translation in the field of international criminal law. On the one hand, international criminal law is a hybrid legal system operating with legal concepts and doctrines from both common and civil law with no ready-made translation equivalents. On the other hand, translated evidentiary material and other documents have to resist the challenge test by the parties to the trial. In this multi-lingual working environment of international criminal justice all parties to the trial must have the same understanding of the concepts they work with, of the procedure and evidentiary material. Translating in such an environment should be interdisciplinary and involve all stakeholders: judges, the prosecution, defence, legal officers, registry and translators/ interpreters. By way of illustration, the paper focuses on the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia where I worked as a translator/ reviser from Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian and French into English. Keywords: international criminal law, hybridity, multilingualism, translation, interdisciplinarity 1. International criminal law International criminal law (ICL) is a subset of public international law. It regulates the responsibility of the individual and proscribes and punishes acts that are defined as crimes by international law. * bebasas@hotmail.com 101 Borislava Šašić Public international law deals with inter-state relations and regulates the responsibility of states or organisations. The five basic sources which international and hybrid criminal courts rely on are: (1) treaty law; (2) customary international law (custom, customary law), (3) general principles of law, (4) judicial decisions (subsidiary source), (5) learned writings (subsidiary source) (ICLS 2009: 3-5). The international criminal tribunals established by United Nations Security Council (UN SC) resolutions are: the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) (UN SC resolution 827 of 25 May 1993), the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) (UN SC resolution 955 of 8 November 1993) and the Special Tribunal for Lebanon (STL) (UN SC resolution 1644 of 29 March 2006). The Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL) was set up jointly by the Government of Sierra Leone and the United Nations pursuant to UN SC resolution 1315 of 14 August 2000. The International Criminal Court (ICC) is not part of the UN system. It was established by the States Parties to the Rome Statute which was adopted on 17 July 1998 by 120 States and which entered into force on 1 July 2002 after ratification by 60 countries. The fundamental difference between the ICC and the other tribunals mentioned here is that it is not limited to one conflict and a specific time-frame but has “jurisdiction over the most serious crimes of concern to the international community as a whole” (ICC 1998: 1). 2. Translation as part of the judicial procedure1 Translation and interpretation at the international criminal tribunals are an integral part of the judicial procedure. At all international criminal tribunals, language rights are vested in the suspect/accused. These rights are based on the principles laid out in the European 1 As a former translator/reviser with the ICTY, I state that all ICTY and ICTR documents cited in the text are in the public domain. I would also like to thank my former ICTY colleague Ellen Elias-Bursać for kindly accepting to proofread my text. 102 NEGOTIATED TRANSLATION: INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW ... Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) which states: “Everyone who is arrested shall be informed promptly, in a language which he understands, of the reasons for his arrest and the charge against him” (Article 5(2)), Article 6 covers aspects of the right to a fair trial including the right “to be informed promptly, in a language which [the accused] understands and in detail, of the nature and cause of the accusation against him” (Article 6(3)(a)) and the right “to have the free assistance of an interpreter if he cannot understand or speak the language used in court” (Article 6(3)(e)). These rights are embedded in the respective Rules of Procedure and Evidence (RPE) of the international criminal tribunals. Consequently, translation and interpretation constitute an integral part of the various stages of the judicial proceedings: investigations, pre-trial, trial, appellate and review proceedings. There would be no juridical proceedings without translation and interpretation. That translation and interpretation play an important part in national juridical proceedings as well is evident from the fact, among others, that only one year after the founding in 2009 of the European Legal Interpreters and Translators Association (EULITA), the European Parliament and Council adopted Directive 2010/64/EU on the right to interpretation and translation in criminal proceedings that is binding to the EU Member States. More specifically, in the ICTY the accused has to be served all the material supporting confirmation of the indictment in a language he understands (ICTY Manual: 62, para. 36) as well as other procedural documents regarding other persons involved in the trial, for example subpoenas (ICTY Manual: 84, para. 27). Translation and interpretation thus run parallel to all aspects of the Tribunal’s work. Defence counsel too must have both the necessary qualifications and the necessary language skills to be placed on the Registrar’s list of counsel “eligible to represent accused before the Tribunal” (ICTY Manual: 55, para. 8).2 2 On the question of assigned counsel and language requirements see also: ICTY RPE 2009: Rule 44(A)(ii), and the ICTY Directive 2006: Art. 14(A)(ii). 103 Borislava Šašić The difficulties in implementing the accused’s language rights are numerous and entail extensive procedural time limits and, at times, delays pending translations of trial judgements into a language understood by the appellant. The procedure might also involve states where the state language is not one of the ICTY’s working languages which will cause further delays. For example, before a convicted person can be transferred to serve his sentence in the state of his choice, such a state has to decide whether it will take him on. If the legislation of this state requires an exequatur procedure (a transcript of a judgement from a foreign country authorising the execution of the judgement) prior to the execution of the sentence, the Tribunal’s judgement has to be translated into the language of that enforcement state (ICTY Manual: 153, para. 13). Or, if a case is referred to a domestic jurisdiction, the trial material will have to be translated into the language of the referral state (ICTY Manual: 174, para. 25). 3. The hybridity of the legal system “Hybridity” in the context of the ICTY signifies that the Tribunal has adopted legal concepts from both common and civil law. In terms of procedure this means that there is a trial chamber of four judges (the presiding judge, two permanent judges and a reserve judge) and no jury. The judges reach their judgement based on the evidence presented by the prosecution and defence. The chamber itself does very little investigative work, other than the occasional on-site visit. Evidence is introduced from a wide range of fields.3 In terms of legal concepts it is general knowledge that these legal systems differ but it is less obvious how to deal with these differences either from the point of view of legal practice or, as is relevant for us here, in terms of translation. Such concepts pose difficulties to the practicing legal officers who have to negotiate the content, and to the translators - who have to negotiate language equivalents. 3 Alice Copple-Tošić’s contribution to co-authored 2009 EULITA conference paper. 104 NEGOTIATED TRANSLATION: INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW ... Here are some examples. Through its case-law the ICTY introduced the legal doctrine of the “Joint Criminal Enterprise” or, as it is known, the “JCE”. It is a concept that “allows courts to hold individuals criminally liable for group activities to which they have contributed in a criminally relevant way” and allows “for an attribution of criminal responsibility of unforeseen consequences of such group activities … to enable the prosecution and the courts to extend criminal liability to high-level perpetrators that use subordinated persons for their criminal aims” (Hamdorf 2007: 1). In the ICTY context, JCE is evoked to prosecute political and military leaders for war crimes and thus it represents a form of criminal liability. This aspect of “liability” did not exist in the domestic laws of Bosnia, Croatia and Serbia (and their respective languages – or BCS, a working concept adopted by the ICTY) which defined instead the criminal acts of “udruživanje radi počinjenja krivičnog dela” (complicity to commit a crime) and “zločinačka organizacija” (criminal organisation). It was therefore necessary to bring out this difference in the translation of “Joint Criminal Enterprise” into BCS. The negotiated translation was “udruženi zločinački poduhvat”.4 Another example is the translation of the concept “aiding and abetting” from English into French. Article 7(1) of the Statute of the ICTY on “Individual criminal responsibility” reads as follows: “A person who planned, instigated, ordered, committed, or otherwise aided and abetted [my emphasis] in the planning, preparation, execution of a crime . . . shall be individually responsible for the crime.” The French text of this Article in the ICTY Statute reads: “Quiconque a planifié, incité à commettre, ordonné, commis ou de toute autre manière aidé et encouragé [my emphasis] à planifier, preparer ou executer un crime . . . est individuellement responsable dudit crime”. While the French rendering of “aiding and abetting” (“aidé et encouragé”) is used consistently in the Statute of the ICTY, there was some confusion in ICTY’s other documents since civil law in French does not provide for the concept of “encourager” in French. In 4 This example was brought to my attention by ICTY colleague Radmila Schneider. 105 Borislava Šašić Cornu’s Vocabulaire juridique (1987) there is no entry for “encourager”, or for “aider” for that matter, but only for “complicité”. “Aidé et encourager” was adopted as the adequate translation following the expressed preference by the ICTR Appeals Chamber for “aide et encouragement” the explanation being that the common law notion of “complicity”, in the context of the ICTY’s and ICTR’s respective statutes, covers other acts besides “aiding and abetting” and that, in legal terms, “complicity” is a more general term (ICTR Nahimana et al. Judgement 2007: para. 482, fn. 1165).5 Another term which caused difficulty to English translators is the French term “residence surveillée”,6 which is used consistently in French, but has had different renderings in English: “assigned residence” and “house arrest” as a security measure taken by a state during an armed conflict but as “home confinement” in the context of provisional release of detainees. For the purposes of the latter situation it was considered that the term “home confinement” as defined by USA courts7 was the most appropriate one as it covered the different aspects of this particular condition. 4. Evidentiary material Very early in the life of the ICTY, the issue of what documents had to be translated for the accused was raised before the ICTY Trial Chamber in the Zejnil Delalić et. al. Case. In 1996, the Defence 5 This is only one of the many examples of what I consider particularly interesting in the practice of the ICTR and ICTY (certainly of other international tribunals as well) and that is that the court “rules” (by way of legal reasoning) on a most appropriate translation while defining a term or concept, or on what should be adopted as inhouse terminology. For more examples on court-room translation negotiations see Elias-Bursać 2012. 6 In Bridge 2002 the concept “residence surveillée” is translated with a descriptive phrase: “order requiring a person to reside in a limited area and report to the police”. 7 U.S. Courts, http://www.uscourts.gov/fedprob/supervise/home.html: “Home confinement is a tool that helps U.S. probation and pre-trial services officers supervise, or monitor, defendants and offenders in the community.” 106 NEGOTIATED TRANSLATION: INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW ... Counsel in the case requested the Trial Chamber to allow it to have documents forwarded to it in the language of the accused. The Trial Chamber heard all the parties (Counsel, Prosecution and the Registrar) and rendered its Decision. The six (6) categories of documents were identified: (1) evidence admitted for trial, (2) discovery,8 (3) motions filed with the International Tribunal, (4) private correspondence between the parties (ICTY Delalić Decision 1996: para. 3), (5) transcripts of the proceedings and (6) Orders and Decisions issued by the ICTY (ICTY Delalić Decision 1996: para. 14). In taking its decision, the Trial Chamber was guided by the relevant articles of the ICTY Statute and RPE. It found that category (1) documents - all evidence - “should be made available in one of the working languages [of the Tribunal] and in the language of the accused” (ICTY Delalić Decision 1996: para. 6) to satisfy the guarantees that “[a]ll persons shall be equal before the International Tribunal” (ICTY Statute 2009: Article 21(1)) and in order to have the accused “informed promptly and in detail in a language that he understands of the nature and cause of the charge against him [my emphasis]” (ICTY Statute 2009: Article 21(4)(a)). The same applied to material accompanying the indictment (ICTY RPE 1996: Rule 66(A)). The Trial Chamber further concluded that, since the rights of the accused were thus fully protected and given the time and cost required for the translation, the other category of documents, excluding orders and decisions issued by the ICTY, did not have to be translated by the Registry into the language the accused understands. The main argument of the Trial Chamber for not having category 2, 3, 4 and 5 documents (discovery material, motions, correspondence and transcripts of proceedings respectively) translated was that this material had to be in one of the working languages (English and French) of the Tribunal and counsel had to be proficient in one of these languages. Evidentiary material in the context of the ICTY covers all aspects of military warfare, municipal life, laws decrees, decree-laws and various government decisions published in official gazettes, docu8 “Discovery”: disclosure of evidentiary material. 107 Borislava Šašić ments from various stages of criminal proceedings, expert reports (e.g. ballistic, biological – e.g. visibility through the leaves of a tree enabling sniper fire, demographic reports, etc), medical forensic documents, etc. Here are a few examples.9 In the military context it was necessary to find a way to distinguish in English the two BCS terms “komandant” and “komandir”. The English term for both is “commander” even though the BCS term “komandir” is for lower-level units such as companies and platoons. If the two terms appeared in the same text or if a clear distinction was necessary between the two (because of the question of degree of responsibility) it was “negotiated” to keep the English term “commander” followed by the BCS term “komandant” or “komandir” respectively in slash brackets. Another important military concept in terms of determining responsibility was “command and control”. The BCS terms that came up in military reports varied: “rukovođenje i komandovanje”, “zapovijedanje i upravljanje”, “vođenje i zapovijedanje”, “zapovijedanje i rukovođenje”, “komandovanje i rukovođenje” and rarely “komanda i kontrola”. It was thanks to an expert opinion in BCS that quoted NATO documents and definitions that resulted in the single consistent English translation of the BCS variants as “command and control”. Laws, decrees and various government decisions issued in the socialist self-management era of the SFRY contained terminology that was hardly transparent to the reader of English. However, because these had generally been accepted at the time by English speakers and because their seemingly clumsy translation also helps the reader to establish the social and political period in which such texts were published they were generally retained. Such terms are, for example, “radna organizacija” = “work organisation”, “složena organizacija udruženog rada” = “complex organisation of associated labour”, “osnovne organizacije udruženog rada” = “basic organisations of associated labour”, etc. 9 The following examples of translations from BCS into English are Ana Stefanovski’s contribution to the co-authored 2009 EULITA conference paper. 108 NEGOTIATED TRANSLATION: INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW ... 5. Negotiated translation Translation in a hybrid legal environment or cross-border or multi-lingual domestic setting requires an inter-disciplinary approach, openness to innovation, creativity and criticism. I see translation as a close reading exercise, among other things, and therefore translation must be acknowledged as a content and textual critical tool. As such it should be empowered and have its rightful place in the drafting of texts. Obviously this could apply only to specific contexts. I argue that international criminal tribunals allow for it. I am certain it can work on a national level as well. Translators who practice legal translation are qualified as: legal translators, lawyer-linguists and jurilinguists. The legal translator would ideally have had instruction on the BA level in the different branches of law and in translation competence following relevant training in translation methods and techniques (Biel 2011) or would be a BA or MA qualified translator who has specialised, through work experience, in legal translation. The lawyer-linguist would have read law and be a holder of a law degree, have perfect command of the TL and a thorough command of the SL.10 The most interesting for my purposes here is the Canadian “jurilinguist” and again I quote from the job description as provided by Priorier: “professional services on all jurilinguistic and linguistic aspects /emphasis added/ of legislative drafting in one official language and on the legal and cultural consistency of meaning between … official language versions11 of … government legislative texts” (Priorier 2010: 58). My aim is to superimpose, and adapt as needed, the jurilinguist concept for the purposes of international criminal law tribunals hence the qualification “linguist-jurist”. Now that we have a representative number of ICL tribunals and a significant body of texts, I believe that MA level 10 See “lawyer-linguist” job description in the brochure of the Court of Justice of the European Union (http://curia.europa.eu/jcms/upload/docs/application/pdf/2009-03/ brochure_en.pdf). 11 The key here is the “official language versions”. ICL tribunals have at least two official languages and generally one or more working languages. 109 Borislava Šašić training is feasible. Also relevant regarding the jurilinguist concept as practiced in Canada is the issue of the work methodology. ICL tribunals have traditionally organised language services (i.e. the stakeholders work separately with hardly any or no communication between them). Interdisciplinary linguist-jurist translation instruction with all stakeholders involved would help raise awareness on the need for a change in the perception of the role and function of translators/interpreters in ICL tribunals. This brings me to the idea of “negotiated” translation of terms/ concepts. We are familiar with the term “in-house” terminology which I understand as consensual terminology specific to the context and purpose of an institution. But then, is not reaching such a consensus also the result of a negotiation? “Negotiated” translation in the field of international criminal law and its legal doctrines should be the result of a joint effort by all the parties involved in the proceedings, including the translators/interpreters, to come up with terminology that will best transfer the meaning of the legal concepts initially conceived in one legal system (and a language) to another legal system (and another language), to agree on in-house terminology, and establish common style guides and manuals appropriate to the respective language codes of editing and referencing. So far, in my experience finding translation solutions to new terminology has been left to the translator. And if the legal experts are not happy it is the translator whose fingers are slapped. In a legal setting, in this case international criminal law, where in the process of rendering justice every word is weighed, I strongly believe that such issues have to be discussed between all the parties involved, that all the parties can bring their expertise to the table. One way of tackling the problem is to have jurists-linguists as for example in the European Court of Human Rights where a jurist-linguist translates into a language in which he/she read law. But as we are living in an increasingly cross-border world I do not think there will be enough jurists-translators to go round. Hence, I argue for more dedication to specialisation in translation that would add value, credibility and weight to the translator’s voice. 110 NEGOTIATED TRANSLATION: INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW ... 6. The linguist-jurist: a proposal My basic argument is that legal translation training should be interdisciplinary. Since the focus of this paper is on international criminal law, I offer here an outline of what I consider an international criminal law translation programme should cover. Obviously, because this is such a highly specialised field (but one which will certainly expand in global terms) it should be considered at the MA level. The main aim of such a programme would be to teach linguists the basics of legal thinking and the fundamental tenets of national and international criminal law since a translator must understand the ideas behind a legal concept. In addition to practical training in translation methods and techniques as, for example, described in detail by Biel, the linguist-jurist should be able to produce translations and/ or “co-draft” (Priorier 2010) juridical and other texts relevant in the context of international criminal tribunals so that these texts can be uniformly interpreted and applied (Šarčević 2000: 5-6).12 Regarding international criminal tribunals (this is applicable to other courts as well), the translator must have knowledge of the procedures in place, of a tribunal’s legal system, the founding texts. Instruction in the relevant aspects of law would ideally be both in the source language (SL) and target language(s) (TL).13 Practical work would include exercises in the translation of excerpts from the statute, rules of procedure and evidence, indictments, judgements, court orders and decisions, defence and prosecution motions, and registry documents. In the spirit of interdisciplinarity, all parties to international criminal proceedings (translators/interpreters included since, as I have already said, they are part of the judicial process) should provide classroom instruction in their respective field of specialisation. Instructors need to submit course descriptions and reading lists in 12 Importantly, Šarčević also notes that this has been achieved in plurilingual countries. One has to bear in mind that international tribunals are multilingual working environments and that translators are generally required to have a working knowledge of more than one of the tribunal’s working languages. 13 111 Borislava Šašić advance. Given that this is a new field of specialization, the translation instructor would be a (legal) translator who has been working in an ICL environment. He/She would act as a programme director, would negotiate the syllabus content with the other instructors (the “stakeholders”), train students in translation methods and techniques and prepare relevant real-life texts for translation. Students would be requested not only to translate but to point out problematic areas in the texts: ambiguities, inconsistencies, stylistic issues, referencing, etc. They would be encouraged to engage in close reading of the texts, to challenge the respective legal specialists on SL textual ambiguities, obscurities, inconsistencies.14 It is these challenges that I see as giving a voice to the translator, a form of empowerment in the joint effort. The aim is also to open a channel of dialogue among the stakeholders and to raise their awareness that translation works better if it is a part of the process and not when it comes after the fact. This cannot always be achieved but there are definitely contexts in which it can be practiced. The advantage of international criminal tribunals over national courts is that they have the setting and funding to facilitate such an interdisciplinary approach with respect to their translation/interpretation needs. All parties are present full-time in the same space and at the same time. The linguist-jurist, with university level specialization in the field, would be an asset and would also have the tools to contribute to the constantly evolving linguistic needs of international criminal tribunals. 14 These are some of the difficulties I experienced as an ICTY translator /reviser and as a free-lance translator when working on legal texts. For example, BCS laws/ bills do not have definitions of terms used in that particular law/bill at the beginning of the actual text (as can be found in English-speaking countries). This often leads to terminological inconsistencies among the drafters of the text. In the context of international criminal tribunals one has to bear in mind that the drafters will not necessarily be native speakers of the SL text. As a result there will be ambiguities, lack of clarity in the legal reasoning, etc. 112 NEGOTIATED TRANSLATION: INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW ... List of Abbreviations BCS: ECHR: EULITA: ICC: ICL: ICLS: ICTR: ICTY: JCE: RPE SCSL: SFRY: SL: STL: TL: UN SC: Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian European Convention on Human Rights European Legal Interpreters and Translators Association International Criminal Court International criminal law International Criminal Law Services International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia Joint Criminal Enterprise Rules of Procedure and Evidence Special Court for Sierra Leone Socialist Federative Republic of Yugoslavia Source Language Special Tribunal for Lebanon Target Language United Nations Security Council REFERENCES Biel, Łucja. (2011). “Professional Realism in the Legal Translation Classroom: Translation Competence and Translator Competence”. Meta: Translators’ Journal, 56/1:162.178. Available at: https://www.academia. edu/7295719/Professional_Realism_in_the_Legal_Translation_Classroom_Translation_Competence_and_Translator_Competence. Retreived on: 20 November 2014. Bridge, F.H.S. (2002). The Council of Europe French-English Legal Dictionary. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. Copple-Tošić, A., Stefanovski, A. and Šašić, B. (2009). Translation Problems Specific to Documents in ICTY Trials. Unpublished paper presented at: EULITA Conference “Aspects of Legal Interpreting and Translation”, Antwerp, Belgium, 26-29 November 2009. Cornu, Gérard. (1987). Vocabulaire juridique. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. 113 Borislava Šašić Council of Europe. (1950). The European Convention on Human Rights. Available at: http://www.hri.org/docs/ECHR50. Retreived on: 20 September 2014. Elias-Bursać, Ellen. (2012). “Shaping International Justice: The Role of Translation and Interpreting at the ICTY in The Hague”. The Journal of Translation and Interpretation Studies 7/1: 34-53. Hamdorf, Kai. (2007). “The Concept of a Joint Criminal Enterprise and Domestic Modes of Liability for Parties to a Crime: A Comparison of German and English Law”. International Criminal Justice 5:1. Available at: http://jicj.oxfordjournals.org/content/5/1/208.abstract. Retrieved on: 20 September 2014. International Criminal Court. (1998). Rome Statute. International Criminal Law Services. (2009). “Module 2: What is International Criminal Law”. In: International Criminal Law and Practice: Training Materials for: Bosnia & Herzegovina, Croatia and Serbia. Available at: http://www.iclsfoundation.org/publications. Retrieved on: 20 September 2014. International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda. Ferdinand Nahimana, JeanBosco Barayagwiza, Hassan Ngeze (Appellants) v. The Prosecutor (Respondent), Case No. ICTR-99-52-A, “Judgement”, 28 November 2007. International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. (2006). Directive on the Assignment of Defence Counsel. Directive No. 1/94. IT/73/REV. 11. International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. (2009). ICTY Manual on Developed Practices. Turin, Italy: UNICRI. Available at: http://www.unrol.org/doc.aspx?d=2300. Retrieved on: 20 September 2014. International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. (1996). Rules of Procedure and Evidence. RPE: IT/32/Rev. 9. International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. (2009). Rules of Procedure and Evidence. RPE: IT/32/Rev. 43. International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. The Prosecutor v. Zejnil Delalić et. al., Case No. IT-96-21-T, “Decision on Defence Application for Forwarding the Documents in the Language of the Accused”, 25 September 1996. 114 NEGOTIATED TRANSLATION: INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW ... International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. (2009). Updated Statute. Poirier, Lise. 2010. Whose law is it? A jurilinguistic view from the trenches. Available at: http://www.opc.gov.au/calc/docs/Loophole_papers/ Poirier_Jan2010.pdf. Retrieved on: 22 November 2014. Šarčević, Susan. (2000). “Legal Translation and Translation Theory: A Receiver-oriented Approach”. In: La traduction juridique: Histoire, théorie(s) et pratique. Available at: http://www.tradulex.com/Actes2000/ sarcevic.pdf. Retrieved on: 22 November 2014. 115 BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES Editors Borislava Eraković is Assistant Professor at the English Department, Faculty of Philosophy, University of Novi Sad, where she teaches a number of translation courses. Her main research interest lies within Translation Studies and her publications cover topics on translation theory and criticism, translation pedagogy and English into Serbian translation of books for children. Her pedagogical research deals with the acquisition of translation and translator competence, application of social-constructivist models in translation teaching and curriculum and syllabus design. She has been actively involved in setting up the first MA in Conference Interpreting and Translation in Serbia, developed as part of the Tempus Refless Project, and in drafting the programme for this MA. She has published translations of a number of novels from English into Serbian and has over ten years of experience translating in the field of humanities. Marija Todorova has taken part in the establishment of the Translation Programme of the University American College Skopje, and has also taught on this programme. Currently, she is UGC Research Fellow in Translation Studies at the Hong Kong Baptist University. She has more than 10 years of experience as interpreter for various international organisations, such as OSCE, UNHCR and ECMM. She contributed to the translation of the acquis-communautaire into Macedonian. For her literary translations she received the 2007 National Best Translation Award. Todorova is an Executive Council member of IATIS and Kontakt. Her research interests include interpreters in mediation, intercultural education, literature for children and young adults and visual representation in translation. 117 BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES Contributors Rafat Y. Alwazna is Assistant Professor of Translation Studies, TESOL and Legal Translation at the Department of European Languages and Literature, Faculty of Arts and Humanities, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. He has published a number of papers in the field of Translation Studies and Legal Translation, some of which have appeared in academic journals, while others have featured in conference proceedings. His PhD thesis on translating Hanbali Sharia Code was also published in book form in 2013. He has served as reviewer for a number of MA programmes in Translation and Interpreting Studies and currently serves as an International Advisor for the International Journal for the Semiotics of Law. Anca Greere is Director of the European Master’s in Translation Studies and Terminology (programme member of the DGT’s EMT Network) at the Department of Applied Modern Languages, Faculty of Letters, ‘Babeş-Bolyai’ University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania. As translator trainer, she has been actively involved in trainer mentorship, research into training methodology for translators and BA/ MA syllabus and curriculum design. As professional translator, she was a translator/reviser in the working group for the translation of the acquis-communautaire into Romanian and a member-translator for the Romanian Standards Association (the Technical Committee for the Translation and Implementation of the standard EN 15038 in Romania). Greere was also on the board of LANQUA, SPEAQ and of OPTIMALE, among other organisations. In collaboration with the Directorate-General for Translation, she has been actively involved in the European Master’s in Translation Network, and has delivered development workshops for the European Commission. Jim Hlavac is Senior Lecturer in Translation and Interpreting Studies at the School of Languages, Literatures, Cultures and Linguistics, Monash University, Melbourne. He is an accredited and practising professional interpreter and translator for Croatian, English and German. He has published widely in the field of Translation and 118 BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES Interpreting Studies and also in the related disciplines of multilingualism, contact linguistics, intercultural communication, pragmatics and language maintenance/shift. Mira Milić is Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Serbia, where she teaches ESP at graduate and master level. She has authored numerous research papers, an English-Serbian Dictionary of Sports Terms (2006), an ESP textbook for graduate students of sport (2012) and a monograph on Anglicisms used as synonyms in Serbian (2013). Her professional interests include contrastive English-Serbian studies, terminology and specialized lexicography. Jelena Pralas is currently Assistant Lecturer at the Institute of Foreign Languages, University of Montenegro, Podgorica, where she teaches Translation Studies modules at undergraduate and postgraduate levels. For the last five years she has also held the position of Head of Postgraduate Translation Studies. While this study programme was being established, she was actively involved in designing its curriculum and she is currently working on aligning the undergraduate and postgraduate translation curricula with the EMT standards. She is also active as a translator and interpreter, accredited for UN, Council of Europe and EU institutions, and she draws on her rich practical experience of the field in the classroom. The bulk of her research is focused on literary translation. Borislava Šašić has been a freelance translator/reviser and editor since 1980. She works with government and international organisations based in Geneva. From 2004 to 2014 she worked as a translator/ reviser at the UN International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. She was teaching assistant and student counsellor (19942000) at the Department of English Literatures and the Comparative Literature Programme at the Faculty of Letters, University of Geneva. She obtained her MA in English Literatures from the University of Notre Dame, USA. Her MA thesis focused on the theory of translating poetry. She has published papers on translation and literature as well as literary and other translations. 119 Faculty of Philosophy University of Novi Sad English Department Dr. Zorana Đinđića 2 21000 Novi Sad www.ff.uns.ac.rs Printed by: Sajnos, Novi Sad Circulation: 100 CIP - К Б ц ј ц , ц ј С 81’255(082) IATIS Regional Workshop on Translator and Interpreter Training (3 ; 2014 ; Novi Sad) Topics in Translator and Interpreter Training / proceedings of the Third IATIS Regional Workshop on Translator and Interpreter Training, 25-26 September 2014, Novi Sad, Serbia ; [editors Borislava Eraković, Marija Todorova]. - Novi Sad : Faculty of Philosophy, 2014 (Novi Sad : Sajnos). - 119 str. : tabele ; 21 cm Tiraž 100. - Bibliografija uz svaki rad. ISBN 978-86-6065-299-9 a) П ђ њ -З ц COBISS.SR-ID 292540423