Uplifts and Hassles in the Lives of Young Adolescents

Loyola University Chicago Loyola eCommons Master's Theses Theses and Dissertations 1994 Uplifts and Hassles in the Lives of Young Adolescents Lynda L. Cafasso Loyola University Chicago Follow this and additional works at: https://ecommons.luc.edu/luc_theses Part of the Psychology Commons Recommended Citation Cafasso, Lynda L., "Uplifts and Hassles in the Lives of Young Adolescents" (1994). Master's Theses. 3964. https://ecommons.luc.edu/luc_theses/3964 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Theses and Dissertations at Loyola eCommons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Master's Theses by an authorized administrator of Loyola eCommons. For more information, please contact ecommons@luc.edu. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 License. Copyright © 1994 Lynda L. Cafasso LOYOLA UNIVERSITY CHICAGO UPLIFTS AND HASSLES IN THE LIVES OF YOUNG ADOLESCENTS A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY by LYNDA L. CAFASSO CHICAGO, IL JANUARY, 1994 Copyright by Lynda L. Cafasso, 1994 All Rights Reserved ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to express sincere thanks and appreciation to the members of the thesis committee, Paul E. Jose Ph.D., and Fred B. Bryant Ph.D for their effort and encouragement during the course of this project. Special thanks are extended to Dr. Jose who, in the course of directing this project, provided invaluable guidance. I would also like to express my deepest gratitude to my parents, Dr. and Mrs. Fred A. Cafasso to whom this work is dedicated. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi LIST OF TABLES . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Chapter I. INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE •••. 1 Daily Events and Coping Hassles Model Uplifts Model Objectives of Present Research I I . METHOD . ..•••.•••.••••..••••...•.•••.•.••. 15 Subjects Procedure Measures III. RESULTS •.•..•••.•••••..•••••••••••..•••• 20 Test of Proposed Models IV. DISCUSSION ...•..••................•...... 32 Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 8 1. MODERATION GRAPHS Figure 4. Uplifts Path Moderated by Esteem-Enhancing Social Support for Depression Figure 5. Hassles Path Moderated by Uplifts for Depression iv 2. MEASURES USED Children's Everyday Life Events Scale Children's Uplifts Scale Children's Coping Strategies Scale Survey of Children's Social Support Self-Perception Profile for Children Children's Depression Inventory Savoring Beliefs Scale State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children Well-Being Scale-25 Index of Psychological Well-Being REFERENCES •••••••••••••••••••.•••••.••••••••••••• 6 5 VITA . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 v LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Hassles Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2. Uplifts Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 3. Interaction Model ............•........... 14 4. Uplifts Path Moderated by Social Support-EE for Depression .....•......... 39 5. Hassles Path Moderated by Uplifts for Depression ..............•.....•.•... 40 vi LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Page Correlations between Daily Events and outcome Measures ...........•....... 21 2. Correlations between Uplifts and Moderators of Proposed Uplifts Path .•.• 22 3. Correlations between Hassles and Moderators of Proposed Hassles Path ..•. 23 4. Correlations between Outcome Measures and Proposed Moderators ..........•••.•• 25 5. Significant Main Effects and Moderators of the Uplifts Path •...•..•. 27 6. Significant Main Effects and Moderators of the Hassles Path .•...•... 30 vii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE This research project will examine young adolescents' self-reports of positive and negative daily events, coping strategies, social supports, savoring and various outcome measures. The role of negative daily events (hassles) in the stress/coping process has been the subject of numerous recent investigations, however, the examination of the processes through which individuals experience positive daily events (uplifts) has been limited. Building on the concept of savoring, a model may be conceptualized in which savoring intensifies a positive daily experience and leads to positive adaptational outcomes. Uplifts have been shown to moderate the effects of hassles on negative adaptational outcomes. This raises the question of the reverse process: is there a moderating effect of hassles on the conceptualized uplifts path? The lack of information concerning the existence of a uplifts/savoring/positive outcomes path constitutes a significant gap in our understanding of how individuals react to positive events, as does the lack of information on how the possible interaction of positive and negative 2 daily experiences impacts various measures of psychological functioning. Daily Events and Coping Research concerning the dynamics of coping processes has received considerable attention recently. While this research has focused largely on adult populations (e.g., Folkman & Lazarus, 1980; Patterson & Mccubbin, 1984; Stone & Neale, 1984) the nature of coping processes in earlier stages of development has also been the subject of recent investigations (e.g., Bird & Harris, 1990; Jose, Cafasso & D'Anna, 1993). Coping events in childhood and adolescence have been viewed as important periods in an individual's development of later coping styles (Compas, 1987). In addition, childhood and adolescence have been explored to gain information regarding the characteristics of coping within a given stage. Traditionally, and in the adult literature, coping has been defined by Folkman and Lazarus (1985) as the"··· cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage (master, reduce, or tolerate) a troubled person-environment relationship" (p. 152). For children and adolescents, some examples of troubled relationships that have been studied are parental divorce or failing grades in school. More recently, researchers have begun to examine the influence of daily life events on coping (Kanner, Coyne, Schaefer & Lazarus, 1981; Lazarus & DeLongis, 1983; Stone & Neale, 1984). Daily 3 life events have been conceptualized in term of 'hassles' and 'uplifts'. Daily hassles have been defined as exasperating or aggravating events or demands that people face on a day-to-day basis. Daily uplifts is the term used to describe the day-to-day events which produce feelings of happiness, joy or contentment such as the completion of a long project or receiving a letter from a friend. Hassles and uplifts are important factors in the coping repertoire of an individual. Daily events can be both acute or chronic in nature (Lazarus & DeLongis, 1983). Transient hassles are not thought to affect long-range functioning, however, as hassles accumulate, the possibility of longterm effects increases (Kinney & Stephens, 1989). Lazarus and his colleagues (DeLongis, Coyne, Dakof, Folkman & Lazarus, 1982; Kanner et al., 1981) have found that hassles show a higher correlation to negative adaptational outcomes than do major life events. Uplifts have been hypothesized to intervene in the stress/coping process. Lazarus, Kanner and Folkman (1980) have identified three possible functions of uplifts: "sustainers" of coping mechanisms currently operating, "breathers" or respites from negative experiences, or "restorers" after the negative effects have been experienced. Previous research has utilized Lazarus' view of stress and coping for assessing the importance of daily events in coping (Stone & Neale, 1984). Daily stress has also been 4 investigated in child and adolescent populations (Pearlin, 1989; Wagner & Campas, 1990). It is widely understood that during late childhood and adolescence, numerous biological, intellectual and social changes occur which are unique to these developmental stages. Given this fact, it can be assumed that children and adolescents will experience stresses which may differ from the stresses experienced by adults. Many measures of late childhood and early adolescent daily stress have been developed (Bobo, Gilchrist, Elmer, Snow, & Schimke, 1986; Compas, Davis, Forsythe, & Wagner, 1987; Oise-Lewis, 1988; Jose, 1991; Kanner, Feldman, Weinberger, & Ford, 1987). In general, it has been found that young adolescents are able to identify and determine the severity of their daily hassles. While not as numerous, measures of positive daily experiences for young adolescents have also been developed (Compas et al., 1987; Kanner et al., 1987), and their use indicates that young adolescents can also identify and indicate the intensity of uplifts they experience. The application of these measures has also resulted in findings of relatively high frequencies of both hassles and uplifts in the lives of young adolescents. The relevance of hassles and uplifts in the lives of young adolescents appears to be well established (Kanner et al., 1987). However, the processes through which these 5 affect adaptational outcomes is clearly defined only for hassles. Research concerning potential moderators of the daily event-to-outcome relationship has been dominated by a focus on negative events, outcomes of psychological distress and the moderators of coping and social support. Very limited attention has been given to uplifts, especially the process through which they lead to positive adaptational outcomes for young adolescents. This study will attempt to better define the important role of uplifts in this connection. Hassles Model It was discussed earlier that Lazarus and his colleagues (DeLongis et al., 1982; Kanner et al., 1981) have found that hassles show a higher correlation to negative adaptational outcomes than do major life events. The negative adaptational outcome most frequently examined in studies of coping is depression. The traditional view in the adult literature is that the more effective the coping mechanisms, the lower the depression. There is evidence to suggest that a similar relationship exists for young adolescents (Oise-Lewis, 1988; Kurdek, 1987). For example, various studies (Barrera, 1981; Swearingen & Cohen, 1985; Wagner & Compas, 1990) that have utilized the Adolescent Perceived Events Scale (Compas et al., 1987) have found positive correlations between depressive symptoms and high 6 frequencies of negative events. Allgood-Merton, Lewinsohn and Hoops (1990) reported high correlations between stressful events and both depression and low self-esteem, while Kanner et al. (1987) found a similar relationship as well as a relationship between the frequency of negative events and anxiety. In addition to examining adaptational outcomes, it is important to look at the variables which serve as moderators of the stressor-to-negative outcome path. Social support has been extensively studied in the adult literature and is known to play a moderating role in the relationship of stressors and negative adaptational outcomes (Cohen & Wills, 1985). There are few analyses of the role of social support for child populations. Recently Dubow and Ullman (1989) devised a children's self-report survey of social support which assesses the frequency of supportive behaviors the child experiences, the child's subjective appraisals of the support received, and the size of the child's support network. As in the adult literature, these three aspects of social support were found by Dubow and Ullman to be salient for children. Different sources of social support have been found to have different effects on adaptational outcomes for both adults (Dunkel-Schetter, Folkman, & Lazarus, 1987) and school-age children. For example, various studies on children have shown that peer support is more strongly related to general 7 self-concept and social adjustment, while parental support is strongly related to positive academic self-concept, competence and security (Cauce & Srebnik, 1989; Dubow, Tisak & Causey, 1991). One of the most important moderators of adaptational outcomes are the coping mechanisms used by an individual (Lazarus & DeLongis, 1983; Pearlin, 1989). The coping mechanism an individual chooses is dependent upon their appraisal of the impact of the event on their well-being and their appraisal of their personal resources for handling the situation (Lazarus & Folkman, 1980). Jose (1992) has developed the Children's Coping Strategies Scale which consists of five distinct coping strategies. This scale has been found to correlate highly with children's major and daily life stresses, social supports and various outcome measures. Jose found that for a large sample of 4th-8th grade children, maladaptive coping strategies (i.e., aggression and drug use) are positively correlated with depression and negatively correlated with self-esteem. Constructive coping strategies (rejuvenation, social support, problem-solving) were found to correlate positively with self-esteem and social skills, and to negatively correlate with depression. The model which emerges from the existing literature is shown in Figure 1. 8 Figure 1 : HASSLES MODEL COPING SOCIAL SUPPORT DEPRESSION II------------>·· I I HASSLES! ANXIETY SELF-ESTEEM A need exists to clarify the moderating effects of coping and social support in this model. Moderating effects are thought to be important because they could dampen or strengthen the effects of stressors. For example, the use of constructive coping processes may enable an individual to manage the demands of stressors, while the use of maladaptive coping strategies would be less effective in protecting the individual from the negative effects of stress. Uplifts Model The role of positive experiences on emotional and psychological functioning is still relatively unclear. ability to manage stressful events in ways that minimize distress is not necessarily the same ability required to The 9 maximize well-being (e.g. Bryant, 1992). Kanner et al. {1987) has found that young adolescents' reports of frequency of uplifts is correlated positively to positive outcomes of perceived social support and self-esteem, and correlated negatively to depression and distress. However, the frequency of uplifts was not found by Kanner et al. to be significantly correlated with anxiety. Thus, for young adolescents, uplifts are not negatively correlated with all types of psychological distress. These results suggest that important information concerning the nature of uplifts could be obtained through investigation of the relationship between uplifts and a range of adaptational outcomes. Only recently has the direct effect of positive experiences on psychological and emotional functioning been examined. Previous research with adults has shown the frequency of positive experiences to be positively associated with wellbeing (Reich and Zautra, 1981; Schlosser, 1985). Positive well-being also is thought to be influenced by an individual's ability to savor positive experiences in their lives (Bryant, 1992). Savoring beliefs are a form of perceived control over positive emotions. The concept of savoring was developed by Bryant (1989) within his FourFactor Model of Perceived Control. This model suggests that individuals assess their control over events and the corresponding emotional reactions differently and independently for positive and negative events. 10 Individuals attempt to avoid and cope with negative events, while they try to obtain and savor positive events. Positive experiences can promote well-being through savoring in three temporal dimensions (Bryant, 1989); present levels of well-being can be increased through 1) reminiscing about past positive experiences, 2) enjoying positive experiences at the time they occur and 3) anticipating future positive events. Bryant (1992) has examined savoring in populations of college students and older adults using his Savoring Beliefs Scale. Savoring beliefs were found to be 1) positively correlated with affect intensity, extraversion, and self-esteem and intensity and frequency of happiness and 2) negatively correlated with neuroticisn and anhedonia and the frequency of neutral and unhappy moods. Additionally, stronger relationships were found between the SBS and measures of subjective well-being than between the SBS and measures of subjective distress. Subjective well-being and savoring have also been found to be related to social support. In a study of adolescents, Meehan, Durlak and Bryant (1993) found that satisfaction with received social support was positively correlated with the well-being dimensions of happiness, gratification and confidence and with the perceived ability to obtain and savor positive events. Additionally, Dubow and Ullman (1989) found that adolescents' perception of the 12 Figure 2. UPLIFTS MODEL I SELF-ESTEEM I WELL-BEING UPLIFTS WELL-BEING I I I SOCIAL SUPPORT SAVORING Two measures of well-being were used in this study to increase the range of outcome measures. The first well- being scale assesses children's physical, cognitive and affective well-being. The second scale is an affect balance scale which assesses both positive and negative affect. Objectives of Present Research Kanner et al. (1987) examined the direct effects of hassles and uplifts upon measures of psychological functioning. It was found that uplifts contributed unique variance in outcomes beyond that attributable to hassles, yet Kanner et al. did not investigate whether hassles contributed unique variance in outcomes beyond that attributable to uplifts. Thus, the importance of examining 13 both uplifts and hassles as contributors to outcomes was established, but a question remains as to the nature of the influence of hassles on the proposed uplifts path. The stress and coping literature highlights the importance of examining both main effects and moderating effects of variables. The "buffering" hypothesis (Cohen & Wills, 1985), for example, posits that coping strategies exert a direct effect upon outcome measures and also interact with stressors to moderate the effect of stress on outcomes. A question arises, therefore, as to whether or not uplifts moderate stress to outcome relationships as do coping and social support. The existence of a buffering effect of uplifts would appear to be plausible. For example, at low levels of hassles, a high level of uplifts may dampen the negative effect of stress on outcomes. However, uplifts may not serve as a buff er when the level of hassles is extremely high. An analogous moderation effect of hassles upon the uplifts to outcome relationship can be envisioned. I hypothesize that interaction effects of this kind are operative and propose to investigate this proposition for the outcome measures of depression, anxiety, self-esteem and well-being. The specific model that results from this hypothesis is shown in Figure 3. 14 OUTCOME MEASURES Figure 3. INTERACTION MODEL NEGATIVE OUTCOMES COPING SOCIAL SUPPORT HASSLES I I DEPRESSION ANXIElY I I ADAPTATIONAL OUTCOMES SELF-ESTEEM UPLIFTS POSITIVE OUTCOMES SAVORING SOCIAL SUPPORT I I WELL-BEING WELL-BEING I I The framework of this model rests upon the following four hypotheses which will be investigated in the present study: Hassles Path 1) There exist direct effects of hassles, uplifts, coping strategies, and social support upon outcome measures. 2) There exist moderating effects (interactions with hassles) of uplifts, coping strategies and social support. Uplifts Path 3) There exist direct effects of uplifts, hassles, savoring, and esteem-enhancing social support upon outcome measures. 4) There exist moderating effects (interaction with uplifts) of hassles, savoring, and esteem-enhancing social support. CHAPTER 2 METHOD Subjects The sample consisted of 365 young adolescents (164 males, 201 females) from the 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th grades (age range= 10 to 13). The subjects were students in five Chicago area parochial Catholic schools: one Chicago urban school and four Chicago suburban schools. 57% of the children were Caucasian, 21% were African-American, 9% were Asian-American, 7% were Hispanic-American and 6% were of other descent or mixed heritage. Procedure The students completed the measures in their classrooms. The measures were administered in two 45- minute sessions occurring within a single week. A graduate student in developmental psychology served as the experimenter for this study. It was explained to the students that this study was designed to find out what good and bad things children experience, and how they feel about and deal with things that happen in their daily lives. The experimenter fully explained the concept of confidentiality and how it allows the children to respond honestly. instructions for each measure are relatively self15 The 16 explanatory. During data collection for this and previous related studies, students have experienced minimal problems understanding how to complete the measures. Measures Children's Everyday Life Events Scale. This scale (Jose, 1991) consists of a list of 50 negative everyday life events (hassles) across a variety of life domains such as school, family, and peer stressors. Subjects are asked to indicate whether each event occurred within the past month; if it did occur, they are asked to further rate whether or not the event was experienced as a problem. If the subject indicated an event was a problem, they are asked to rate the severity of the problem by answering the question "How much of a problem?" on a three point scale: 1 "a little", 2 "some", and 3 "a lot". Cronbach's alpha for this measure with this sample was .88. Children's Uplifts Scale. This scale was created by the author and her advisor and consists of 50 positive everyday life events (uplifts) across the domains of family, friends, school, relaxation, and achievement. Items were generated from the responses of young adolescents (N = 120) to a questionnaire asking them to list events that make them happy. Additional items were adapted from a measure used by Kanner et al. (1987). The format of this scale is similar to the Everyday Life Events Scale. The subjects indicated whether or not an event had 17 occurred within the past month; if it did occur, they are asked to respond to the question "Did you feel happy?". If the subjects indicated that the event made them happy they were asked to rate the intensity of the events by answering the question "How happy?" on a three point scale: 1 "a little", 2 "some", and 3 "a lot". For this sample the Cronbach's alpha for this measure was found to be .93. Children's Coping Strategies Scale. Jose's (1992) coping measure consists of five distinct types of coping strategies: social support (alpha= .82), rejuvenation (.61), problem-solving (.76), aggression (.77), and drug use (.76). Subjects respond to the 32 items by indicating the frequency of their endorsement of each strategy on a 5point scale (1 =never to 5 =always). Preliminary analyses utilizing this measure has found the five coping strategies to be significantly correlated to adaptational outcomes in the expected directions (Jose, Cafasso, & D'Anna, in press). survey of Children's Social support. This measure by Dubow and Ullman (1989) consists of 3 open-ended questions asking the subjects to list the people that provide various types of support, and 24 objective questions in which the subjects indicate the frequency of supportive behaviors on a 5-point scale (1 =never to 5 =always). The six subscales of objective questions consist of emotional/informational, emotional/esteem-enhancing, 18 tangible, peer, family and teacher support. The two-week test-retest reliability for this measure is .74; Cronbach's alpha for the subscales ranged between .74 to .88. Self-Perception Profile for Children. The Harter (1985) self-esteem scale consists of 14 items for which the children choose one alternative from a pair of sentences which best describes themselves and then rate the accuracy of the description (very true or sort of true). Test- retest reliabilities have been found to be good and the Cronbach's alpha's range from .71 to .86 over the subscales. Children's Depression Inventory. Kovacs' (1985) 26- item measure requires subjects to choose one alternative out of three sentences which best describes how they have felt for the past two weeks. sentences. There are 27 triads of Good test-retest reliability (.84) and internal consistency (alpha = .87) have been found for this measure. Savoring Beliefs Scale. This measure is an adaptation of Bryant's (1992) original Savoring Beliefs Scale. The 24 items were rewritten to facilitate understanding by young adolescents. The revised scale was analyzed by the "Correct Grammar" (Wilson, 1990) reading level program and it was found that the revised version would be readable by subjects at a 5th grade reading level. The Savoring Beliefs Scale assesses subjects' ability to savor along three temporal dimensions, however the three factor model 19 was not found to be stable for this sample and all analyses were conducted using the overall savoring score. Cronbach's alpha for this measure was found to be .90. State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children. Spielberger's (1983) widely used measure instructs subjects to indicate the frequency (1 = hardly ever to 3 = often) with which 20 items describe aspects of their anxiety. The Trait subscale was used in this study. The test-retest reliability of this subscale over six weeks was found to be .68 and Cronbach's alphas range from .78 to .87. Well-Being Scale-25. Schlosser's (1990) well-being scale consists of 25 items which assess the frequency (1 = never to 5 being. = always) of statements reflective of well- Three subscales of well-being were identified: physical, cognitive and affective well-being. This measure was found to have a Cronbach's alpha of .94. Index of Psychological Well-Being. Berkman's (1971) revision of Bradburn's Affect Balance Scale measures the balance between the frequencies of positive and negative feelings rated on a 3-point scale (never, sometimes, often). The reliability and validity of this measure has been reported by Bradburn and Caplovitz (1965). CHAPTER 3 RESULTS Relation between Daily Events and Outcome Measures Table 1 presents the correlations between the measures of daily events and outcomes. expected direction. All correlations were in the A significant correlation between uplifts and anxiety was not expected, given the absence of this relationship in earlier work by Kanner et. al (1987). Uplifts were positively correlated with well-being and self-esteem, and negatively correlated with depression. Hassles were positively correlated with depression and anxiety and negatively correlated with self-esteem and both measures of well-being. Overall, the magnitude of correlations between daily events and outcomes was higher for hassles (absolute value range .38 to .64) than for uplifts (.20 to .35). Relation of Daily Events to Moderators The correlations between the daily events and the moderators are presented in Tables 2 and 3. In the proposed model the daily events were hypothesized to be moderators. A small (r = .18, p 20 = .009) but statistically 21 significant positive correlation was found between hassles and uplifts. An identical correlation between hassles and uplifts was found in previous work by Kanner et al. (1987). Table 1. -- Correlations between Daily Events and Outcome Measures Hassles Uplifts Depression .64*** (226) -.22*** (235) Anxiety .60*** (226) NS Self-Esteem -.44*** (222) .20*** (237) Well-Being1 -.38*** (214) .35*** (226) Well-Being2 -.48*** (220) .25*** (231) *** p<.001 22 Table 2. -- Correlations between Uplifts and Moderators of Proposed Uplifts Path Uplifts Savoring Social Support-EE .33*** .36*** (238) (224) Savoring .60*** (323) *** p<.001 For the uplifts path both savoring and esteem-enhancing social support were found to be significantly and positively related to uplifts (see Table 2). For the hassles path four of the proposed moderators were significantly correlated with hassles (see Table 3): social support and coping through rejuvenation were negatively correlated and aggression and problem-solving were positively correlated to hassles. 23 Table 3. -- Correlations between Hassles and Moderators of Proposed Hassles Path c-ss Hassles c-ss NS C-PB C-RJ C-AG So Sup .22*** -.23*** (223) (227) .57*** (226) NS -.30*** (224) .14** .42*** (345) (352) -.10 (351) NS -.31*** (343) NS NS C-PB .19*** (348) C-RJ -.09.11* (354) (354) C-AG .20*** (340) .21*** (346) .20*** -.35*** (353) (345) C-DG -.14** (346) *** p<.001 c-ss = = C-RJ C-DG C-DG = ** p<.01 * p<.05 - p<.10 CCSS Social Support; C-PB = CCSS Problem Solving; CCSS Rejuvenation; C-AG = CCSS Aggression; CCSS Drug Use; SoSup = Social Support 24 Correlations among the moderators The correlations among all of the proposed moderators are also presented in Tables 2 and 3. Of particular interest are the correlations between the subscales of the coping measure. Due to the threat of multi-collinearity, low or non-significant correlations are desirable. Since the highest significant correlation exists between the subscales of social support and problem-solving (~ = .42; p < .000) multi-collinearity among the subscales of the CCSS was judged not to be a problem. Correlations between the moderators and outcome measures As can be seen from Table 4, the majority of the proposed moderators are correlated with outcome measures in the expected directions. The two moderators of the proposed uplifts path, savoring and esteem-enhancing social support, are positively related to well-being and selfesteem and negatively related to depression and anxiety. For the moderators of the hassles path, the maladaptive coping stratecy of aggression is positively correlated with depression and anxiety and negatively correlated with self-esteem and well-being. The maladaptive strategy of drug use did not conform to this expected pattern. The adaptive coping strategies of social support and rejuvenation and the social support measure 25 Table 4. -- Correlations between Outcome Measures and Proposed Moderators Depres. c-ss -.32*** (347) Anx. SE WB-1 WB-2 .22*** (328) -.12* (349) -.18*** (335) .34*** (320) C-PB -.15** (342) NS NS .18*** (317) C-RJ -.34*** (349) -.25*** (352) -.32*** (338) .41*** (322) C-AG .60*** (348) .41*** (351) -.41*** (337) C-DG .12* (349) NS So Sup -.53*** (345) -.53*** (345) .35*** (334) .48*** (318) .37*** (325) S9vo;r -.50*** (316) -.28*** (318) .45*** (320) .59*** (307) .43*** (313) SS-EE -.46*** (339) -.28*** (342) .39*** (343) *** p<.001 ** p<.01 *p<.05 NS -.30*** (321) NS .54*** (327) NS .31*** (331) -.36*** (330) NS .40*** (336) 26 were found to be negatively related to depression and anxiety and positively related to self-esteem and wellbeing. The strategy of problem-solving did not conform to the pattern found for the other adaptive coping strategies. Tests of Proposed Models The question of which variables serve as moderators of daily events on outcome measures was answered by using separate multiple regressions on each outcome measure. The first variable entered was always the daily events (hassles or uplifts), the other variables entered were the main effects of the proposed moderators, followed by the interaction terms (i.e. the product) of the daily events and moderators. Uplifts Path Table 5 lists the significant main effects and moderators of the uplifts path for each outcome measure. Examination of the Total R2 reveals that for all five outcome measures the proposed model accounts for a large amount of the possible variance (range .38 to .64). Main effects are those variables which exert a direct effect on outcome measures. A main effect of uplifts was found for all outcomes except anxiety. Main effects of hassles were found for all outcomes, justifying inclusion of hassles in the proposed model of uplifts-to-outcomes. Esteem-enhancing social support exerted a main effect upon 27 Table 5. -- Significant Main Effects and Moderators of the Uplifts Path Outcome Depression Total R2 .64 Main Effects R2Chg Beta Uplifts (. 04) Hassles (.51) SoSup-EE(.06) Savoring(.01)- [-.2019] [ .7249] [-.2930] [-.1166] Moderators R2Chg SoSup-EE (. 02) Anxiety .51 Hassles (. 4 7) SoSup-EE(.02) [ .6996] [-.4215] None SelfEsteem .38 Uplifts (.03) Hassles (.23) SoSup-EE(.09) Savoring(.02) [ .1757] [-.4215] [ .5080] [ .4260] None WellBeing1 .57 Uplifts ( .11) SoSup-EE(.36) Hassles (.08) Savoring(.02) [ [ .3334] .6830] [-.4395] [ .5780] None WellBeing2 .46 Uplifts (. 06) SoSup-EE(.33) Hassles (.07) .2383] .6177] [-.4293] None All R2 Changes, R > .05. [ [ 28 all outcomes and savoring was found to exert a significant main effect upon depression, self-esteem and the WBS-25 which assesses physical, cognitive and affective wellbeing. With regard to moderation, the situation is different. Moderating variables are those which in combination with daily events exert an effect on the outcome variables. Only one significant moderator of the uplifts path was found. Esteem-enhancing social support moderated the uplifts-to-depression relationship. As can be seen from Figure 4, as the intensity of uplifts increases, the level of depression decreases across all levels of esteemenhancing social support. However, across all intensities of uplifts, children who report higher levels of support report lower levels of depression. Thus the children who experience many uplifts and high levels of esteem-enhancing social support will experience the least amount of depression. Hassles Path Table 6 lists the significant main effects and moderators of the hassles path for each outcome measure. Examination of the Total R2 reveals that for all five outcome measures the proposed model accounts for a large amount of the possible variance (range .35 to .73). As would be expected, the proposed model accounts for more variance in the negative outcome measures of depression and 29 anxiety than in the adaptational and positive outcome measures of self-esteem and well-being. Note that for each outcome measure there is a different pattern of main effects and moderators. For all outcomes, significant main effects of hassles were found. In addition, for all outcomes (except anxiety) significant main effects of uplifts were found. This is an important finding, justifying inclusion of uplifts in the proposed model of daily events-to-outcomes. A significant main effect of social support was found for all outcomes and at least one coping strategy was found to exert a significant main effect on all outcomes except self-esteem and one well-being measure. As predicted, uplifts were found to significantly moderate the daily events-to-outcome relationship for the outcome of depression. effect of uplifts. Figure 5 illustrates the buffering As the intensity of hassles increases, the level of reported depression increases. However, at all intensities of hassles, children who experienced higher intensities of uplifts reported lower levels of depression regardless of the intensity of hassles. Thus, uplifts buffered, or dampened, the impact of stress on depression. Coping strategies and social support were also found to be moderators of the hassles-to-outcome relationship. The effect of these moderators differed, however, as a 30 Table 6. -- Significant Main Effects and Moderators of the Hassles Path Outcome Depression Total R2 .73 Main Effects Hassles Uplifts CC SS-AG So Sup CCSS-RJ ccss-ss R2chg (.43) (.12) (.06) (. 03) (-02) (. 02) Beta Moderators (R2Chg) [ .6588] So Sup (. 01) [-.3480] Uplifts(.02) [ .3225] CCSS-AG ( . 01 )[-.1944] [-.1440] [-.1348] Anxiety .61 Hassles (. 43) SoSup-EE(.13) CCSS-RJ (.01)- [ .6571] CCSS-PB(.01)[-.3772] [-.1050] SelfEsteem .35 Hassles (.18) Uplifts (. 07) So Sup (. 03) [-.4224] CCSS-PB(.02) [ .2651] [ .1894] WellBeing1 .49 Hassles ( .18) So Sup (.19) Uplifts (.05) [-.4293] CCSS-AG(. 02) [ .4782] [ .2429] WellBeing 2 .41 Hassles Uplifts SoSup ccss-ss CCSS-RJ [-.4266] SoSup .3122] [ .2255] [ .1704] [ .1300] All R2 Changes, ~ > .05. (.18) (.09) (. 04) (.02) (.01)- [ (.02) 31 function of the nature of the moderator and the particular outcome. For example, as predicted, social support buffered the effect of hassles on depression. Additionally, aggressive coping strategies, which had been predicted to be maladaptive, did serve to exacerbate, or worsen, the effect of hassles on depression. The other variables showed cross-over patterns of moderation. Problem-solving coping as a moderator of the hassles-toanxiety relationship illustrated this cross-over effect. At low levels of hassles, children who utilized higher levels of problem-solving coping experienced higher levels of anxiety. At high levels of hassles, however, higher anxiety was experienced by children who utilized lower levels of problem-solving coping. CHAPTER 4 DISCUSSION Many questions relating to the manner in which daily events influence psychological outcomes for young adolescents were answered by this study. In general, evidence was obtained which supports the existence of the two proposed paths including both main effects and moderating effects. This evidence is discussed below in terms of the four hypotheses which evolve from the Interaction Model. Hassles Path Hypothesis 1: There exist direct effects of hassles. uplifts. coping strategies, and social SUPl>Ort upon outcome measures The finding that all of the above variables, except for two coping strategies (problem-solving and social support), exerted significant direct effects upon outcome measures strongly supports this hypothesis. The relative contribution of each main effect varied as a function of outcome. This suggests that different outcomes are influenced by differing patterns of main effects. For example, six variables (hassles, uplifts, social support, and the coping strategies of aggression, rejuvenation, and 32 33 social support) exerted main effects upon depression, while only three variables (hassles, uplifts, and social support) were significant contributors to self-esteem. Previous work by Kanner et al. (1987) found that, after controlling for hassles, uplifts contributed unique variance in depression and self-esteem. This work not only reproduced those findings, but also showed a unique contribution of uplifts to psychological well-being. Therefore, this finding implies that hassles and uplifts make unique contributions to outcomes comprised of positive psychological functioning and psychological distress. Hypothesis 2: There exist moderating effects of uplifts. coping strategies. and social support This hypothesis was also confirmed. Uplifts were observed to function as a moderator of the hassles path as were the coping strategies and social support. However, the variable of uplifts was not found to be a universal moderator. In fact they moderated only the hassles-to- depression relationship. Nevertheless, the novel moderation effect found of uplifts for the hassles path is consistent with the buffering hypothesis proposed by Lazarus (1966). With respect to the various coping strategies and social support that were found to moderate the effects of stress upon depression and other outcomes, buffering, 34 exacerbating and cross-over patterns of moderation were found. These results are consistent with previous work by Jose et al. (1993). The range of patterns of moderation and the range of variables that served as moderators suggest that different psychological outcomes should be investigated separately. These data highlight that all psychological outcomes are not influenced by the same variables in the same way. Young adolescents utilize different resources to manage stress depending upon which aspect of their psychological functioning is being threatened. For example, it appears that when faced with anxiety-provoking stressors, young adolescents draw upon their problem-solving ability, as evidenced by the significant moderation effect found of problem-solving coping for the outcome of anxiety. However, young adolescents utilize social support and the positive events they have experienced to protect themselves from depression. Uplifts Path Hypothesis J: There exist direct effects of uplifts, hassles. savoring, and esteem-enhancing social support upon outcome measures The existence of the proposed uplifts-to-outcome path was confirmed by the results of this work. Every variable exerted a main effect upon at least three outcome measures. The variables of uplifts, hassles and esteem-enhancing 35 social support were found to significantly contribute to all outcomes, except for anxiety to which uplifts did not contribute. This last finding is not surprising given the fact that previous research (Cohen, Burt, & Bjork, 1987; Kanner et al., 1987) has found uplifts and anxiety to be uncorrelated. Savoring was found to be associated with daily events, social support and outcome measures in the expected directions. Significant main effects of savoring were found for depression, self-esteem, and well-being. This is the first study to examine young adolescents' beliefs about their ability to savor positive events. A greater perceived savoring ability was associated with greater subjective well-being, a higher frequency of positive events and with less distress. This is an exciting finding in that savoring was found to contribute unique variance in psychological outcomes beyond that attributable to positive daily events. Thus, inclusion of savoring in the model of uplifts-to-outcomes is justified. Hypothesis 4: There exist moderating effects of hassles, savoring, and esteem-enhancing social support To a large extent this hypothesis was not supported. Hassles and savoring did not serve as moderators. Only esteem-enhancing social support moderated the uplifts-todepression relationship. At all levels of uplifts, greater amounts of esteem-enhancing social support were associated 36 with lower levels of depression. This suggests that the interaction of uplifts and esteem-enhancing social support served as a protective factor against feelings of depression among young adolescents. Given the finding here that children did savor positive experiences, the lack of a significant moderating interaction between savoring and uplifts is puzzling. In addition, contrary to expectation, the presence of hassles did not interact with uplifts to decrease well-being. This leads to the conclusion that although inclusion of the four variables (uplifts, hassles, savoring, and esteem-enhancing social support) which comprised the uplifts path is justified due to their significant direct effects upon outcomes, the variables conformed to a main effect model and not a moderation model. Thus, given the numerous moderators found for the hassles path, and the lack of moderators found for the uplifts path, the assumption of parallelism between the two paths, with respect to moderation, may be invalid. Reasons for this conclusion are obscure and should be the subject of future investigation. Conclusions: This work shows that both positive and negative daily events are significant contributors to many important aspects of the psychological functioning of young adolescents. Consequently, the examination of positive and 37 negative events simultaneously will provide a more realistic portrayal of young adolescents' experiences. This notion is incorporated in the proposed model which has been shown to be a good representation of the processes through which daily events influence psychological functioning. Finally, this work has produced the first evidence that young adolescents savor and that savoring in young adolescents is related to an array of adaptational outcomes. Further definition of the role of savoring in the lives of young adolescents would be a subject worthy of future investigation. 38 APPENDIX 1 MODERATION GRAPHS 39 Figure 4. by Esteem-Enhancing uplifts. Path Moderated I Support for Depression Socia 26 Esteem-Enhancing Social Support 25 24 23 22 21 -+ 20 19 18 17 16 15 z Cl in en w £1C 14 13 Q. w Cl 12 11 10 0 Low Moderate UPLIFTS High High 40 Figure 5. Hassles Path Moderated by Uplifts for Depression 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 iii!! Cl 14 en ..... 13 c;; cc D. ..... Cl 12 11 10 9 Uplifts 8 • 7 Low -o----- Moderate 6 High 5 4 3 2 0 Low Moderate HASSLES High 41 APPENDIX 2 MEASURES USED 42 Everyday Life E\·ent Scale Directions: Below is a list of different things that can happen to anyone. If one of these things has happened to you in the last month, make a check next to the number under the "yes" column. Go through all of the items marking whether they have happened or not. Then go back and indicate whether you considered them to be a problem or not: circle the "no" or "yes" under the "Problem?" heading. Finally, if it was a problem, please indicate how much of a problem it was by circling a number from 1 to 3. 1 a little Happened to vou? Yes No 1. you misplaced or lost things A problem? 2 3 some a lot How much? No Yes 1 2 3 2. kids teased or avoided you No Yes 1 2 3 3. someone in your family was sick No Yes 1 2 3 4. you didn't have enough money No Yes 1 2 3 5. schoolwork was too hard No Yes 1 2 3 6. you were rushed, you couldn't relax or take it easy you were sick No Yes 1 2 3 No Yes 1 2 3 doing your jobs at home. (cleaning your room, setting table, .etc.) difficulty in finding a quiet place at home you were bored, not enough fun things to do you were punished for something that you did or didn't do you did something foolish or embarrassing in front of others you don't have nice clothes No Yes 1 2 3 No Yes 1 2 3 No Yes 1 2 3 No Yes 1 2 3 No Yes 1 2 3 No Yes 1 2 3 you were picked on because of your nationality or skin color you were picked last for a team No Yes 1 2 3 No Yes 1 2 3 trying to get along with other kids in your class not being able to go back to live in the country you came from you went to the doctor or dentist or took medicine your mom or dad were mean to you No Yes 1 2 3 No Yes 1 2 3 No Yes 1 2 3 No Yes 1 2 3 i. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 4:;. 1 Happened to you? A 11roblem? Yes No a little 20. your mom and dad argued in front 1 No Yes of you 21. you translated for family members No Yes 1 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. _. 40. 41. 42. 2 3 some 2 a lot 3 2 3 your mom or dad told you about their.problems or worries you were unable to talk to other people about your feelings not being able to see grandparents or other relatives because they live far away not liking the way you look No Yes 1 2· 3 No Yes 1 2 3 No Yes 1 2 3 No Yes 1 2 3 not being liked by someone in your class your mom or dad not speaking English your mom or dad complained about not having enough money going to bed too early or too late you had to take care of younger children you received lower grades than you expected schoolwork was boring No Yes 1 2 3 No Yes 1 2 3 No Yes 1 2 3 No Yes 1 2 3 No Yes 1 2 3 No Yes 1 2 3 No Yes 1 2 3 not being with your mom or dad as much as you wanted not enough food to eat No Yes 1 2 3 No Yes 1 2 3 you dealt with someone from another culture who didn't understand your culture someone in your family was very angry or cried a lot you were not able to watch TV programs or play video games you had .trouble speaking English well gangs in the school or in the neigborhood yo·u took the bus to school No • Yes 1 2 3 No Yes 1 2 3 No Yes 1 2 3 No Yes 1 2 3 No Yes 1 2 3 No Yes 1 2 3 you saw a family member who was drunk too many people live in your· house or apartment No Yes 1 2 3 No Yes 1 2 3 r. i...... ....,. 1 A Happened to vou? So Yes 43. arguing with your parents 2 3 problem? some Yes a lot ~o a little 1 2 3 No Yes 1 2 3 No Yes 1 2 3 46. arguing with your brother(s) or sister(s) fighting or violence in the school or neighborhood being alone too much So Yes 1 2 3 47, weighing too much or too little No Yes 1 2 3 48. not enough time for play No Yes 1 2 3 49. someone has stolen something that belongs to you not feeling safe No Yes 1 2 3 No Yes 1 2 3 H. 45. 50. Have we missed anything that bothers you? Please describe these things beloi;: 51. No Yes 1 2 3 52. No Yes 1 2 3 53. No Yes 1 2 3 54. No Yes 1 2 3 55. No Yes 1 2 3 45 Uplifts Checklist Directions: Below is a list of different things that can happen to anyone. If one of these things has happened to you in the ~ month, make a check next to the number under the "yes" column. For the items that you marked as "yes", indicate whether that event made you feel happy by circling the "yes" or "no" under the "Did you feel Happy?" heading. Finally, if it did make you feel happy, please indicate how happy it made you feel by circling a number from 1 to 3. Happened to you? Yfil!. HQ 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. There was a school holiday. I talked with a friend on the phone. I spent time with my brother or sister. I got to see a movie I wanted to see. I read a book. I hung out with the kids at school. I ate food that I like. I got some new clothes. A friend shared a secret with me. I went on a vacation. My mother or father spent time with me. I played sports. My parents were pleased with a good grade. I had free time on the weekend. Someone gave me a present. I listened to my favorite radio station. I spent time with someone of the opposite sex who I like. I helped someone in my family. Did you feel How happy? Happy? a little some a lot Yes No 1 2 3 Yes No 1 2 3 Yes No 1 2 3 Yes No 1 2 3 Yes Yes No No 1 1 2 2 3 3 Yes Yes Yes No No No 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 Yes Yes No No 1 1 2 2 3 3 Yes Yes No No 1 1 2 2 3 3 Yes No 1 2 3 Yes No 1 2 3 Yes No 1 2 3 Yes No 1 2 3 Yes No 1 2 3 46 Happened to you? Yes No lot 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. Did I finished something I was working on. I watched sports. I went to a family party to celebrate a sp~cial occasion. I played a game or contest. I spent time outdoors. I made a friend or met someone new. I got some money. I wrote a poem or story. I saw relatives or friends I hadn't seen in awhile. I got a new tape or CD I wanted. I did something special with my mother or father. Someone I like of the opposite sex likes me. I went to a party with friends. I watched TV. I played with a pet or other animal. I told someone how I felt. I went to see a baseball game, football game, etc •• My teacher was pleased with me. I got to dance. I got to sleep longer than usual. I learned something interesting in a subject at school. I helped someone. I got a good grade on a paper or exam. I made something: a craft, a hobby, I cooked .•• My class went on a field trip. :i:OU feel How Happy? a little some g Ha:g:g:t? Yes No 1 2 3 Yes Yes No No 1 1 2 2 3 3 Yes No 1 2 3 Yes Yes No No 1 1 2 2 3 3 Yes Yes Yes No No No 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 Yes No 1 2 3 Yes No 1 2 3 Yes No 1 2 3 Yes No 1 2 3 Yes Yes No No 1 1 2 2 3 3 Yes No 1 2 3 Yes No 1 2 3 Yes No 1 2 3 Yes Yes No No 1 1 2 2 3 3 Yes No 1 2 3 Yes Yes No No 1 1 2 2 3 3 Yes ·No 1 2 3 Yes No 1 2 3 47 Happened to you? Yes NQ 44. I went to a friend's 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. house. I played a musical instrument. I was given a job to do at school. I got a letter or note from a friend. I got to go shopping I told a funny joke. I got to play a video game I wanted to play. I;!id you feel How happy? a little some a lot Happy? Yes No 1 2 Yes No 1 2 Yes No 1 2 3 Yes No 1 2 3 Yes Yes Yes No No No 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 2 3 3 Have we missed anything that makes you happy? Please describe these things below and rate them as you did above: 51. Yes No 1 2 3 52. Yes No 1 2 3 53. Yes No 1 2 3 54. Yes No 1 2 3 55. Yes No 1 2 3 ccss I am interested in how you usually respond to stressful episodes. Could you please tell below how you usually respond to upsetting situations? Please think about bow you reacted to the major life events and the everyday life events that you listed above. Remember: there are oo right or wrong answers, please tell me honestly what you really do. never 2 3 4 s rarely sometimes often always 1. I cry. 2. I do something that I enjoy. 3. I get into fights or argue with people. 4. I smoke cigarettes. S. I talk to others about how I'm feeling. 6. I try to change something about the situation to make it better. 7. I avoid the problem. 8. I change myself to make things better. 9. I release my feelings. _ 10. I exercise or play a sport. _ 11. I take out my frustration on someone or something else. 12. I think about hurting myself. _ 13. I succeed at telling others how I feel. 14. I try to convince somebody to act differently. 15. I keep my feelings and thoughts to myself. _ 16. I change my actions to be a better person. _ 17. I just let my feelings out. 49 never 2 3 4 s rarely sometimes often always _ 18. I go somewhere in order to relax. _ 19. I throw things or break things. 20. I take drugs or drink alcohol. 21. I find a close friend or family member to talk to about my problem. 22. I act to correct the problem in somebody or something else. 2J. I act as though nothing has happened. 24. I change something about myself to solve the problem. _ 25. I yell and scream. _ 26. I take a nap or go to sleep. 27. I hurt somebody who didn't have anything to do with the problem. _ 28. I do something dangerous or risky. _ 29. I show people I'm close to how I'm feeling. _ 30. I solve the problem by getting someone else to change. _ 31. I go off by myself. _ 32. I try to act differently myself in order to solve the problem. so socss List as many people, adults and children, wbo help you with different problems. Just give their first name ("Erik") or say "Morn" or "Dad", or whatever. Remember, list ;is many as you can think of. 1. Who helps you when you need to talk about your feelings? 2. Who gives you things you need or like, but don't have? 3. Who helps you when you need to know something that you·re not sure of? . 1 2 never rarely 3 sometimes 4 often 5 always l. How often can you find someone to talk to when you are mad about something? 2. 4. How often does somebody help you calm down when you are nervous about something? When you want to learn how to do something new, how often does somebody teach you how to do it? How often does somebody make you feel better when you mess up at something? 5. How often does somebody cheer you up when you are sad? 6. How often does somebody say nice things to you when you do something well? 7. How often can you find someone to help you when you get in trouble? 3. 51 3 2 never rarely sometimes 4 often 5 always 8. How often can you find somebody to be with when you don't feel good? 9. When you want to go someplace, how often does somebody take you? · 10. 12. When you want to play with somebody's new toy or game, how often do they share it with you? How often does someone give you money when you want to buy candy or something else? How often do you get a special reward or treat? 13. Do your friends make fun of you? 14. Do your friends like to hear your ideas? 15. Can you count on your friends for help or advice when you have problems? 16. Do your friends make you feel bad? 17. Can you count on your family for help or advice when you have problems? 18. Do you and your family do a lot of things for each other? 19. Does your family make you feel bad? 20. Do you feel like your family is never there when you need them? 21. Do you think your teachers care about you? 22. Are your teachers good to ask for help or advice about your problems? 23. Do your teachers make you feel like you are not good enough? 24. Do you have a hard time taUcing to your teachers? 11. 52 SOCSS-EE Directions: provided. Please answer the questions below using the scale never rarely sometimes often always 1. When you have a secret you want to share, how often can you find someone to tell it to? 1 2 3 4 5 2. How often does somebody say nice things to you when you do something well? 1 2 3 4 5 3. When you are happy, how often can you find someone who will be happy with you? 1 2 3 4 5 4. When you do work (like 1 drawings or other papers), how much are people interested in it (by hanging it up, or sending it to your grandparents)? 2 3 4 5 5. How often do people listen to you when you have ideas? l 2 3 4 5 6. How often do people say things that make you feel good, happy or important? 1 3 4 5 3 4 5 7. How often are people happy 1 for you when you do something well? 2 2 53 WHAT I AM LIKE l. Read the sentences in the 2 boxes below. is most like you and circle it. I have a lot of friends. or D sort of true Put an X in one of the D 2. I am not popular with other kids. very true D I am popular or with other kids. sort of true D 3. I am easy to like. very true D I am not or easy to like. sort of true D 4. I don't do things with other kids. very true D I or sort of true .do things with other kids. D 5. It is easy for me to make friends. very true D I t is not easy or t~at I don't have a lot. of friends. Now say how much this is true for you. 2 boxes. very true Choose the one for me to make friends. sort of true D 54 6. Read the sen~ences in the 2 boxes below. is most i1ke you and circle it. am not vec-y impoc-tant to my classmates. I I am important or to my classmates. Now say how this much is tr-ue for you. 2 boxes. very true D Choose the one that sort of true Put an X in one of the D 7. Host otherkids 1ike me. very true D Host other kids don't like me. or sort of true D 8. I am not sure of myself. very true D I or sort of true am usually sure of myself. D 9. I am happy with the way I am. very true D or I am not happy with the way I am. sort of true D 10. I don't feel 9ood about the way I act. very true D or I feel 9ood about the way I act. sort of true D 55 11. Read the sentences in the 2 boxes below. is most like.you and circle it. I am sure I am doing the right thing. I am not sure or am doing the r."ight thing. I Now say how much this is true for you. 2 boxes. very true D Choose the one that Put an X in one of the sort of true D or I am a good person. 12. I am not a good person. very true D D sort of true 13. I want to I want to stay the same. very true D change. or sort of true D 14. I don't do things well. very true D I do things or sort of true well. D 56 Ho11 l Feel Kids scmetimes have different feelings and ideas. For each n:Jmber below, pick one sentence out of each group of three that describes best ho• you have felt for the past t110 weeks. There is no right ans11er or wrong answer. Just pick the sentence that best describes the 11a! you ha\·e felt recently. Put a check mark on the line next to your ans11er. Here is an example of how this form works. sentence that describes you best. Try it. Put a check mark next to the onf Example: read books a lot read books once in a while never read books Remember, pick out the sentences that describe your feelings and ideas in the past t110 weeks. 1. 2. 3. am sad once in a while 5. am bad all the time am sad many times am bad many times am sad all the time am bad once in a while ~othing will ever work out for me I am not sure if things will work out for me Things will work out for me O.K. do most things O.K. 6. _ _ I think about bad things happening to me once in a while worry that bad things will happen to me am sure that terrible things will happen to me 7. _ _ I hate myself do many things wrong do not like myself do everything wrong like myself have fun in many things have fun in some things ~othing is fun at all 8. _ _ All bad things are my fault _ _ Many bad things are my fault _ _ Bad things are not usually my fault 57 9. 10. 11. I do not think about harming myself I think about harming myself but I would not do it I want to harm myself feel like crying everyday I· have trouble sleeping every 16. have trouble sleeping many night:; _ _ ! sleep pretty well 1i. __r am tired once in a"·hile feel like crying many days am tired many days feel like crying once in a while am tired all of the time Things bother me all the time Things bother me many times 18. _ _ Most days do not feel like eating _ _Many days do not feel like eating Things bother me once in a while 12. like being with people do not like being 1d th people many times I do not want to be with people at all 13. 14. eat pretty well 19. _ _ I do not worry about aches and pains _ _ I worry about aches and pains many times worry about aches and pains all the time 20. I cannot make up mind about things It is hard to make up my mind about things I make up my mind about things easily I look O.K. 21. There are some bad things about my looks I look ugly 15. nigh~ I have to push myself all the time 22. to do my schoolwork I have to push myself many times to do my schoolwork Doing schoolwork is not a big problem do not feel alone feel alone many times feel alone all the time - -I never have fun at school have fun at school only once in a while _ _ I have fun at school many times have plenty of friends - -I have some friends but I wish I had more do not have any friends 58 23. My school work is alright My schoolwork is not as good as before I do very badly in subjects I used to be good in 24. can never be as good as other kids can be as good as other kids if I want to am just as good as other kids 25. So body really loves me am not sure if anybody loves me am sure that somebody loves me 26. usually do what I am told do not do what I am told most times never do what I am told 27. get along with people get into fights many times get into fights all the time 59 Savoring Beliefs Scale Directions: For each statement listed below, please circle the one number that best indicated how true each statement is for you. There are no right or wrong answers. Please be as honest as you can. strongly 1. I know how to have a good time. strongly disagree 1 2 agree 3 4 5 6 7 2. I don't like to look forward to good times too much before they happen. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 3. It's hard for me to hold onto a good feeling for very long. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 4. It makes me happy to think about good 1 things that are going to happen. 2 3 4 5 6 7 5. I don't look back on good things after they are over. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6. It is a waste of time to think about good things that may happen. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7. I enjoy looking back on happy times that have already happened. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8. I often stop myself from having a good time. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9. I feel excited when I think about 1 good things that are going to happen. 2 3 4 5 6 7 10.When I remember good memories, I feel bad or let down. 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 60 strongly strongly agree disagree 11. When fun times are over, I can make good feelings from those fun times last longer by thinking or doing certain things. 1 12. It's hard for me to get excited 1 about fun times before they happen. 2 4 3 7 6 5 ·2 3 4 5 6 7 13. I feel happy when I think about good things from my past. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 14. I can enjoy good things before they happen. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 15. It is a waste of time to think about good things that happened in the past. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 16. I am able to enjoy good things that happen to me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 17. It bothers me when I think about good things before they happen. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 18. I like to remember fun times so that I can think about them later. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 19. I am not able to feel joy at happy times. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 20. I can feel good by thinking about 1 a good thing that is going to happen. 2 3 4 5 6 7 61 strongly strongly agree disagree 21. When a fun time is over, I don't 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 think about it anymore. 22. I don't enjoy good things as much as other people do. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 23. It is easy to bring back the good feeling from happy memories. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 24. When I want to, enjoy something. I am able to 62 ~ell-Being Directions: Scale-25 Below is a list of statements that describe different beliefs and feelings. Please read each statement carefully and circle the number that indicates how true each statement is for you. often always 1. I feel like laughing. never 1 2 3 4 5 2. make decisions well. 1 2 3 4 5 feel energetic. 1 2 3 4 5 have a good appetite. 1 2 3 4 5 5. I like myself. 1 2 3 4 5 6. feel vigorous. 1 2 3 4 5 7. I feel hopeful. 1 2 3 4 5 8. am in control. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 I 3. I 4. I I I feel better off than most people. 9. I rarely sometimes 10. I feel pretty good. 1 2 3 4 5 11. I am self-confident. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 feel really great. 1 2 3 4 5 feel fantastic. 1 2 3 4 5 15. I sleep very well. 1 2 3 4 5 16. I feel strong. 1 2 3 4 5 17. I am happy. 1 2 3 4 5 18. I feel healthy. 1 2 3 4 5 19. I am in good spirits. 1 2 3 4 5 12. My digestive system works well. 13. I 14. I 63 never rarely sometimes often always 20. I feel physically fit. 1 2 3 4 5 21. I feel cheerful. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 22. I fe.el relaxed. feel balanced mentally and physically. 23. I 24. I feel well. 1 2 3 4 5 25. I feel alert. 1 2 3 4 5 64 IPWB Directions: Here is a list that describes so~e of the ways people feel at different times. How often do you feel each of these ways? never sometimes of ten 1. Very lonely from other people. 1 2 3 2. Pleased about having accomplished something. 1 2 3 3. Bored. 1 2 3 4. Particularly excited or interested in something. 1 2 3 5. Anxious about something without knowing why. 1 2 3 6. So restless I can't sit long in a chair. 1 2 3 7. On top of the world. 1 2 3 8. Depressed or very unhappy. 1 2 3 65 REFERENCES Allgood-Merton, B., Lewinsohn, P. M., & Hops, H. Sex differences and adolescent depression. (1990). Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 99, 55-63. Barrera, M. (1981). Social support in the adjustment of pregnant adolescents: Assessment issues. In B. H. Gottleib (Ed.), Social networks and social support (pp. 69-96). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Berkman, P. L. (1971). Measurement of mental health in a general population survey. American Journal of Epidemiology, 94, 105-111. Bird, G. W., & Harris, R. L. (1990). A comparison of role strain and coping by gender and family structure among early adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 10, 141-158. Bobo, J. K., Gilchrist, L. D., Elmer, J. F., Washington, Snow, w. H., & Schinke, s. P. (1986). Hassles, role strain, and peer relations in young adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, §, 339-352. Bradburn, N. M., & Caplovitz, D. (1965). Reports on happiness: A pilot study of behavior related to mental health. Chicago, IL: Aldine Press. 66 Bryant, F. B. (1989). A four-factor model of perceived control: Avoiding, coping, obtaining, and savoring. Journal of Personality, 57, 773-797. Bryant, F. B. (August, 1992). A scale for measuring beliefs about savoring. Paper presented at the 1992 convention of the American Psychological Association. Cauce, A. M., & Srebnik, D. s. (1989). Returning to social support systems: a morphological analysis of social networks. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18, 609-616. Cohen, L. H., Burt, C. E., & Bjork, J. P. (1987). Effects of life events experienced by young adolescents and their parents. Developmental Psychology, Cohen, S., & Wills, T. A. 2_1, 583-592. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 98, 310-357. Compas, B. E., Davis, G. E., Forsythe, M. c. J., & Wagner, B. (1987). Assessment of major and daily stressful events during adolescence: The adolescent perceived events scale. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 534-541. Compas, B. E. (1987). stress and life events during childhood and adolescence. Clinical Psychology Review, z, 775-802. 67 DeLongis, A., Coyne, J. c., Dakof, G., Folkman, s., & Lazarus, R. s. (1982). Relationship of daily hassles, uplifts, and major life events to health status. Health Psychology, 1, 199-136. Oise-Lewis, J. E. (1988). The life events and coping inventory: An assessment of stress in children. Psychosomatic Medicine, 50, 484-499. Dubow, E. F., Tisak, J., & Causey, D. (1991). A two-year longitudinal study of stressful life events, social support, and social problem-solving skills: Contributions to children's behavioral and academic adjustment. Child Development, 55, 1969-1982. Dubow, E. F., & Ullman, D. G. (1989). Assessing social support in elementary school children: The survey of children's social support. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 18, 52-64. Dunkel-Schetter, c., Folkman, s., & Lazarus, R. s. (1987). Correlates of social support receipt. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 71-80. Folkman, s., & Lazarus, R. S. (1985). If it changes it must be a process: study of emotion and coping during three stages of a college examination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 150-170. 68 Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. s. (1980). An analysis of coping in a middle-aged community sample. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21, 219-239. Harter, s. (1985). Manual for the Self-Perception Profile for Children. Denver, co: University of Denver. Jose, P. E. (1991). The Everyday Life Events Scale for Children. Unpublished manuscript, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, Illinois. Jose, P. E., D'Anna, C., & Cafasso, L. (June, 1992). Coping strategies and social support moderate the effects of stress upon outcome measures for children. Paper presented at the 1992 convention of the American Psychological Society. Jose, P. E., Cafasso, L. L., & D'Anna, c. A. (in press). Ethnic group differences in children's coping strategies. Sociological Studies of Children. Kanner, A. D., Feldman, S. S., Weinberger, D. A., & Ford, M. E. (1987). Uplifts, hassles, and adaptational outcomes in early adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescents, z, 371-394. Kanner, A. D., Coyne, J. C., Schaefer, C., & Lazarus, R. S. (1981). Comparison of two modes of stress management: Daily hassles vs. major life events. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, ~' 1-39. 69 Kinney, J.M., & Stephens, M. P. {1989). Hassles and uplifts of giving care to a family member with dementia. Psychology and Aging, ~, 402-408. Kovacs, M. {1985). The children's depression inventory {CDI). Psychopharmacological Bulletin, 21, 995-998. Kurdek, L. A. (1987). Gender differences in the psychological symptomology and coping strategies of young adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, z, 395-410. Lazarus, R. s., & DeLongis, A. (1983). Psychological stress and coping in aging. American Psychologist, March, 245-254. Lazarus, R. s., DeLongis, A., Folkman, s., & Gruen, R. (1985). Stress and adaptational outcomes: the problem of confounded measures. American Psychologist, July, 770-779. Lazarus, R. s., Kanner, A. D., & Folkman, S. (1980). Emotions: A cognitive-phenomenological analysis. In R. Plutchik, and H. Kellerman (Eds.), Theories of emotion (pp. 189-217). New York: Academic Press. Lazarus, R. s. (1966). Psychological stress and the coping process. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Meehan, M. P., Durlak, J. A., & Bryant, F. B. (1993). The relationship of social support to perceived control and subjective mental health in adolescents. 70 Journal of Community Psychology, 21, 49-55. Patterson, J. M., & Mccubbin, H. I. (1984). Gender roles and coping. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 46, 95-104. Pearlin, L. I. (1989). The sociological study of stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 30, 241-256. Reich, J. w., & Zautra, A. (1981). Life events and personal causation: Some relationships with satisfaction and distress. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 1002-1012. Schlosser, M. B. (1985). Stress, coping, hardiness, and health-protective behaviors. Dissertation Abstracts International, University Microfilms. Schlosser, B. (1990). The assessment of subjective wellbeing and its relationship to the stress process. Journal of Personality Assessment, 54, 128-140. Spielberger, C. D. (1983). Manual for the State Trait Anxiety Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Stone, A. A., & Neale, J. M. (1984). New measure of daily coping: Development and preliminary results. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 892-906. Swearington, E. M., & Cohen, L. H. (1985). Life events and psychological distress: A prospective study of young adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 21, 1045~1054. 71 Wagner, B. M., & Compas, B. E. (1990). Gender, instrumentality, and expressivity: Moderators of the relation between stress and psychological symptoms during adolescence. American Journal of Community Psychology 1 18, 383-406. Wilson, c. (1990). Correct grammar [Computer program]. San Francisco: Lifetree Software, Inc. 72 VITA Ms. Cafasso attended Loyola University Chicago where she graduated magna cum laude with the degree of Bachelor of Arts in Psychology in May, 1991. While attending Loyola Ms. Cafasso completed a research internship at the School of Public Health of the University of Illinois at Chicago. The article entitled "Gender Differences in Caregiving: Fact or Artifact?" published in The Gerontologist, Vol 32, 1992, resulted from her internship work. In the fall of 1991, Ms. Cafasso entered the doctoral program in Developmental Psychology at Loyola University Chicago with a research assistantship in psychology. Her graduate work includes investigations of children's stress and coping processes and children's savoring beliefs. The results of her work have been presented at several psychological conferences. Ms. Cafasso will complete her Masters of Arts. degree in January, 1993. APPROVAL SHEET The thesis submitted by Lynda L. Cafasso has been read and approved by the following committee: Dr. Paul E. Jose Associate Professor, Psychology Loyola University Chicago Dr. Fred B. Bryant Professor, Psychology Loyola University Chicago The final copies have been examined by the director of the thesis and the signature which appears below verifies the facts that any necessary changes have been incorporated and that the thesis is now given final approval by the Committee with reference to content and form. The thesis is therefore accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts. Date