The Use of Sheep Wool in Nest Construction by Hawaiian Birds

Technical Report No. 73 THE USE OF SEiEEP WOOL IN NEST CONSTRUCTION BY HAWAIIAN BIRDS Charles van Riper I11 Department of Zoology University of Hawaii Honolulu, Hawaii 96822 ISLAND ECOSYSTEMS IRP U. S. International Biological Program September 1975 ABSTRACT The u t i l i z a t i o n of sheep wool as a nesting material was examined from 1969 through 1975 on the i s l a n d of H a w a i i . incorporated wool i n t o t h e i r nests. Of the 10 b i r d species studied, six Both introduced and endemic b i r d s use wool, with a s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r usage by endemic birds. Use of wool i n n e s t construction appears correlated with the i n t r i c a c y of the n e s t t h a t a species builds, with a s i g n i f i c a n t difference between degree of usage i n complex and simple nests. Roughly b u i l t nests, l i k e those of t h e Cardinal (Cardinalis c a r d i n a l i s ) , contained no wool whereas the complex n e s t of the Elepaio (Chasiempis sandwichensis) had a great deal of wool. Wool is apparently used by t h e b i r d s because i t is a readily available material i n certain areas, and because of its binding quality. The wool is gathered from t u f t s t h a t snag on branches as the sheep pass o r from dried s k i n s on the ground. The amount of wool u t i l i z e d i n each nest v a r i e s both i n t e r s p e c i f i c a l l y and i n t r a s p e c i f i c a l l y , but i n a l l n e s t s only t h e body of t h e n e s t contained wool, the l i n i n g always being of other materials. A separate study w a s conducted t o determine i f wool is used only when available nearby o r is a sought- after material. Only the Elepaio w a s found t o consistently travel distances t o procure wool, whereas t h e other species studied used i t only when available within t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s , - i - TABLE OF CONTENTS Page i A B S T R A C T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii LISTOFFIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 DISCUSSION.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 LITERATURECITED.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 LISTOFTABLES.. LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1 2 3 Page The amount of sheep wool used i n n e s t c o n s t r u c t i o n where sheep were p r e s e n t and a b s e n t on t h e i s l a n d of H a w a i i 4 Comparison of wool i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o n e s t s from i n s i d e and o u t s i d e an exclosure a t Puu Laau, H a w a i i 5 ... .......... The d a t a of i n t r o d u c t i o n of b i r d s p e c i e s t o H a w a i i and t h e type of n e s t they b u i l d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 LIST OF FIGURES Page FIGURE 1 2 A map of f e r a l sheep d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e i s l a n d of Hawaii.. ......................... An Elepaio (Chasiempis sandwichensis) n e s t c o n t a i n i n g sheep wool from Puu Laau, H a w a i i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - ii - 2 9 INTRODUCTION Sheep were f i r s t introduced t o t h e Hawaiian I s l a n d s by Captain James Colnett i n A p r i l of 1791, when h e l e f t a ewe and ram on Kauai (Wyllie 1850). Captain Vancouver (1798) w a s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r i n t r o d u c i n g sheep t o t h e i s l a n d of H a w a i i . On 14 February 1793 h e landed a ram, two ewes, and a ewe lamb a t Kawaihae, H a w a i i , and then proceeded t o Kealakekua Bay where he landed another ram and two ewes. There i s l i t t l e record of t h e d i s p e r s i o n of sheep over H a w a i i ; however, Judd (1936) s t a t e d t h a t t h e Reverend Goodrich s a w e i g h t or 10 dead sheep near t h e summit of Mauna Kea i n 1822. This s u g g e s t s t h a t f e r a l sheep had become estab- l i s h e d on Mauna Kea w i t h i n 29 y e a r s of t h e i r i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e i s l a n d . (1852) estimated t h a t 3,000 wild sheep were roaming t h e i s l a n d by 1851. Bishop Today sheep are d i s t r i b u t e d over t h e i s l a n d of H a w a i i i n t h e h i g h e r more a r i d regions, w i t h t h e herd on Mauna Kea estimated a t 1,800 (Fig. 1). While working i n t h e f o r e s t s of H a w a i i I have n o t i c e d t h a t , i n areas of f e r a l sheep h a b i t a t i o n , many b i r d n e s t s c o n t a i n sheep wool, whereas i n r e g i o n s where sheep are absent t h i s material is l a c k i n g i n t h e n e s t s . United S t a t e s many a u t h o r s (e.g. On t h e c o n t i n e n t a l Bent 1968, Bailey 1928) c i t e t h e u s e of sheep wool by b i r d s f o r n e s t i n g material, b u t I can f i n d no r e f e r e n c e t o t h i s i n Hawaiian l i t e r a t u r e . METHODS To compare t h e e x t e n t t o which wool w a s used by d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s , I c o l l e c t e d n e s t s from 1969 through 1975 on t h e i s l a n d of H a w a i i and recorded t h e amount of wool i n each. The d e n s i t y of sheep i n each l o c a l i t y w a s a l s o noted. The g r e a t e s t number of n e s t s w a s c o l l e c t e d on t h e southwestern s l o p e of Mauna Kea, where many of t h e f e r a l sheep on H a w a i i r e s i d e . To a s c e r t a i n i f sheep wool is a s o u g h t - a f t e r n e s t i n g material, a study w a s i n i t i a t e d i n 1970 a t Puu Laau, on t h e southwestern s l o p e of Mauna Kea. were examined from two a d j a c e n t areas: them absent. Nests one w i t h sheep p r e s e n t and t h e o t h e r w i t h I n 1950 t h e H a w a i i S t a t e Division of F i s h and Game c o n s t r u c t e d a 300-acre holding pen f o r Mouflon sheep a t approximately 7,500 f e e t e l e v a t i o n . I n 1967 a l l sheep were removed from t h e pen, and i t h a s s i n c e a c t e d as a n exclosure. There i s no wool a v a i l a b l e t o b i r d s t h a t n e s t w i t h i n t h e exclosure; i f wool is used i n c o n s t r u c t i n g n e s t s , t h e b i r d s must f l y o u t s i d e t h e fenced area - 2 - 1I wh TOTAL FERAL SHEEP RANGE PRIMARY FERAL SHEEP RANGE 1 I P OKAUA' AOAHU I 1 / -I ISLAND OF HAWAII 0 5 10 15 20 MILES I FIG. 1. 50 w 1550 A map of feral sheep d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e i s l a n d of H a w a i i . - 3 - t o c o l l e c t it. RESULTS Four of t h e 10 s p e c i e s of b i r d s s t u d i e d on H a w a i i were not found t o incorp o r a t e sheep wool i n nest c o n s t r u c t i o n when i t w a s a v a i l a b l e (Table 1). The Skylark (Alauda a r v e n s i s ) i s a ground- nesting b i r d , digging a shallow depression and l i n i n g i t w i t h g r a s s e s ; t h e r e f o r e , t h i s s p e c i e s h a s l i t t l e use f o r wool as a n e s t material. The Melodious Laughing-thrush (Garrulax canorus), Ricebird (Lonchura p u n c t u l a t a ) , and Cardinal ( C a r d i n a l i s c a r d i n a l i s ) a l l b u i l d nests of c o a r s e g r a s s e s o r twigs and were found n o t t o u t i l i z e sheep wool. The Red- billed L e i o t h r i x ( L e i o t h r i x l u t e a ) , Japanese White-eye (Zosterops japonica), and House Finch (Carpodacus mexicanus) i n f r e q u e n t l y use wool i n n e s t The Japanese White-eye i s n o t a common r e s i d e n t of t h e h i g h construction. a l t i t u d e dry f o r e s t s of H a w a i i ; t h e r e f o r e , I found very few nests. Guest (1974) noted t h e a d a p t a b i l i t y of t h i s b i r d and t h e numerous types of n e s t i n g material i t employed. The Red- billed L e i o t h r i x b u i l d s a semipendant n e s t u s u a l l y woven None around two branches, w i t h l a r g e l e a v e s o r b a r k s t r i p s used t o form t h e bowl. of t h e n e s t s I found on Mauna Kea contained wool, b u t one n e s t i n t h e Puu Lehua area of Mauna Loa d i d have wool incorporated between t h e l a r g e koa (Acacia +) leaves forming t h e body. contained wool. Of t h e 95 House Finch n e s t s I have found, only t h r e e The l a c k of sheep wool i n House Finch nests on Mauna Kea h a s been discussed by van Riper ( i n p r e s s ) . I found t h r e e s p e c i e s t h a t use wool e x t e n s i v e l y i n n e s t c o n s t r u c t i o n . The P a l i l a ( P s i t t i r o s t r a b a i l l e u i ) , an endangered species found only on Mauna Kea, had wool i n 22.2 p e r c e n t of i t s n e s t s . The Amakihi (Loxops v i r e n s ) , one of t h e two most abundant endemic b i r d s , incorporated wool i n t o 33.3 percent of i t s n e s t s . The Elepaio (Chasiempis sandwichensis) showed the g r e a t e s t usage, employing wool i n 60.9 p e r c e n t of i t s n e s t s . The use of wool i n n e s t b u i l d i n g v a r i e d w i t h i n s p e c i e s , depending on whether n e s t s w e r e l o c a t e d i n s i d e o r o u t s i d e t h e sheep exclosure a t Puu Laau (Table 2). Wool was not p r e s e n t i n any Melodious Laughing- thrush, Red- billed L e i o t h r i x , Skylark, Ricebird, o r Cardinal n e s t . Light usage w a s found i n t h e House Finch and heavy usage again occurred i n t h e P a l i l a , Amakihi, and Elepaio. There w a s a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e u t i l i z a t i o n of wool by endemic b i r d s i n s i d e and outside the exclosure (x: = 7.92, d. f .= 1, p = < 0.01) , b u t introduced b i r d s - 4 - TABLE 1. The amount of sheep wool used i n n e s t construction where sheep were present and absent on t h e i s l a n d of H a w a i i . __ SPECIES NESTS BUILT WHERE SHEEP WERE PRESENT without with percent wool wool with wool NESTS SHEEP without wool BUILT WHERE WERE ABSENT with percent wool with wool ~ -~ -~ Alauda arvensis 13 0 0 12 0 0 Garrulax canorus 6 0 0 7 0 0 Leiothrix l u t e a 8 1 11.1 11 0 0 Zosterops japonica 4 1 20.0 3.5 0 0 Carpodacus mexicanus 46 3 6.0 46 0 Lonchura punctulata 16 0 0 17 0 0 0 2 0 0 10 0 0 Chasiempis sandwichensis 11 31 73.6 14 8 36.4 Loxops v i r e n s 48 60 55.5 96 12 11.1 Psittirostra bailleui 10 8 44.4 18 0 Cardinalis c a r d i n a l i s 0 - TABLE 2. 5 - Comparison of wool i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o n e s t s from i n s i d e and o u t s i d e an exclosure a t Puu Laau, H a w a i i . Species Number inside Number with wool Percent with wool Number outside Number with wool -- 8 0 Percent with wool -- Alauda a m e n s is 2 0 Garrulax canorus 4 0 5 0 Leiothrix lutea 10 0 6 0 -- Carpodacus mexicanus 18 0 20 2 lo Lonchura p u n c t u l a t a 4 0 15 0 Cardinalis c a r d i n a l i s 1 0 4 0 -- Chasiempis sandwichensis 11 9 82 8 6 75 Loxops v i r e n s 33 4 12 26 10 38 Psittirostra bailleui 18 0 18 8 44 -- -- - 6 - showed no d i f f e r e n c e i n s i d e and o u t (x: = 0.18, d.f. = 1, p = >0.50). Sheep wool appears t o be a sought- after n e s t i n g material i n two s p e c i e s , as both t h e Amakihi and Elepaio w i l l t r a v e l o u t s i d e t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s t o procure wool f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n . Of t h e 33 Amakihi n e s t s found i n t h e 300-acre pen, f o u r (12%) contained wool from t h e o u t s i d e . Wool i s a p r e f e r r e d n e s t i n g material f o r t h e Elepaio as 82 p e r c e n t of t h e n e s t s I found w i t h i n t h e fenced area contained wool. One n e s t near t h e c e n t e r of t h e e x c l o s u r e had a l a r g e amount of wool, meaning t h a t t h e b i r d had t o f l y a t least one--quarter m i l e t o o b t a i n t h i s material. DISCUSSION The use of wool i n n e s t c o n s t r u c t i o n by b i r d s i n H a w a i i appears t o be determined by how i n t r i c a t e a n e s t they b u i l d (Table 3 ) . There were s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e use of wool among t h o s e b i r d s t h a t b u i l d i n t r i c a t e n e s t s and t h e f o u r species t h a t b u i l d s i m p l e n e s t s of only woven g r a s s e s o r twigs (x: = 26.91, d . f . = 1, p < .001). The f o u r s p e c i e s t h a t do n o t u t i l i z e wool a l l b u i l d r a t h e r simple n e s t s , whereas those b i r d s t h a t e x h i b i t some use of sheep wool a l l b u i l d a s l i g h t l y more complex s t r u c t u r e . The simple semipendant n e s t of t h e Red- billed L e i o t h r i x i s an example i n which l a r g e leaves o r peeled bark are used t o hold t h e n e s t t o g e t h e r s o t h a t t h e r e i s apparently l i t t l e need f o r t h e binding q u a l i t y of wool. Since sheep are such a r e c e n t a d d i t i o n t o H a w a i i , i t is i n t e r e s t i n g t o f i n d t h e t h r e e s p e c i e s u t i l i z i n g wool t o t h e g r e a t e s t e x t e n t are a l l n a t i v e , Endemic s p e c i e s use sheep wool w i t h much g r e a t e r frequency than do e x o t i c s p e c i e s , and t h e r e are s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n u t i l i z a t i o n : d.f. = 1, p < ,001) and absence (x: = 15.23, i n t h e presence d.f. = 1, p < .001) (x: = 73.38, of sheep. The Amakihi and P a l i l a both use approximately t h e same percentage of wool, and both b u i l d s t a t a n t n e s t s , w i t h t h e o u t s i d e composed of smaller woven g r a s s e s and a s e p a r a t e cup of f i n e r o o t l e t s or l i c h e n ( s e e Berger 1972). Of a l l t h e s p e c i e s examined, t h e Elepaio b u i l d s t h e most complex n e s t and a l s o e x h i b i t s t h e g r e a t e s t preference f o r wool. Conant (1975) found t h a t t h e Elepaio u s e s l a r g e amounts of s p i d e r web t o hold t h e n e s t t o g e t h e r . When wool is a v a i l a b l e t h e Elepaio apparently uses t h i s more and s p i d e r web less. There appear t o be two main reasons t h a t b i r d s select wool as a n e s t i n g material. F i r s t , i n many areas wool is a read.ily a v a i l a b l e commodity. I n areas - TABLE 3. 7 - The date of introduction of bird species to Hawaii and the type of nest they build. Type of nest construction Species Date introduced* Alauda arvensis Simple Garrulax canorus 1865-1870 1900-1918 Leiothrix lutea 1918-1929 Zos terops japonica 1929 1870 Complex Complex Complex Carpodacus mexicanus Lonchura punctulata Cardinalis cardinalis Chasiempis sandwichensis Loxops virens Psittirostra bailleui 1865 1929-1931 Endemic Endemic Endemic Simple Simple - - - coarse grasses intricate coarse grasses Simple coarse grasses Complex - intricate Complex Complex - 8 - t h a t have been h e a v i l y grazed, such as tree l i n e on Mauna Kea, I f i n d t h a t a g r e a t e r percentage of n e s t s c o n t a i n wool than i n areas where ground cover is available. Secondly, t h e l i g h t n e s s and binding q u a l i t y of wool makes i t an e a s i l y manipulated n e s t i n g material. The wool t h a t is used i n n e s t c o n s t r u c t i o n is gathered from two d i f f e r e n t sources. As t h e sheep move through t h e v e g e t a t i o n t h e i r wool catches on d r i e d branches, is p u l l e d o f f i n t u f t s , and b i r d s c o l l e c t what remains hanging. A second source is d r i e d s k i n s , e i t h e r l e f t by h u n t e r s o r from dead animals. An example of t h i s usage occurred during A p r i l 1974 when I observed a male Elepaio f r e q u e n t i n g a sheep head I had placed i n a w i r e fence. The b i r d would f i r s t s e a r c h f o r insects, then p i c k wool from t h e head and c a r r y i t o f f t o t h e nest site. The amount of wool a s p e c i e s uses i n n e s t c o n s t r u c t i o n v a r i e s from only a small p i e c e , as i n t h e House Finch (van Riper 1975), t o almost t h e whole n e s t constructed of wool, as i n t h e Elepaio (Fig. 2). Wool is used only i n t h e body of t h e n e s t ; I have never found wool i n t h e l i n i n g . The t u f t s are placed i n t o t h e e x t e r i o r and, except by t h e Elepaio, are n o t spread o r woven around o t h e r materials. I f wool is immediately a v a i l a b l e , some b i r d s w i l l use i t , b u t only t h e Elepaio and Amakihi w i l l f l y any d i s t a n c e f o r i t . P e t t i n g i l l (1971) found t h a t t h e Tree Swallow (Tridoprocne b i c o l o r ) may sometimes f l y several m i l e s t o a chicken farm t o o b t a i n t h e much-preferred white f e a t h e r s , Almost a l l of t h e Elepaio n e s t s w i t h i n t h e experimental exclosure contained wool, meaning t h a t t h e s e b i r d s had t o f l y some d i s t a n c e t o f i n d t h i s material. Although 12 percent of t h e Amakihi n e s t s i n s i d e t h e exclosure contained wool, t h i s s p e c i e s w i l l not u s u a l l y f l y g r e a t d i s t a n c e s t o o b t a i n t h i s material. In 1970 on H u a l a l a i , where sheep were p r e s e n t , every n e s t (12) I found contained wool. Only one-half m i l e away, i n a p a s t u r e t h a t excluded sheep, not a s i n g l e n e s t had wool. On Mauna Kea i n 1974, a color-banded p a i r of Amakihi had no wool in t h e i r f i r s t n e s t , b u t t h e i r second n e s t had a considerable amount (they had r e n e s t e d 300 f e e t away above an o l d sheep skin). It is i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t w i t h i n t h e l a s t 150 y e a r s t h e n a t i v e b i r d s p e c i e s of H a w a i i have adapted t o t h e use of sheep wool as a n e s t i n g material. On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e newly introduced e x o t i c s p e c i e s have n o t y e t a d j u s t e d t o i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h i s material i n t o n e s t c o n s t r u c t i o n ( s e e Table 3). Although I OI I - 10 - u t i l i z e d i n areas of H a w a i i , i t i s apparent t h a t t o most b i r d s p e c i e s wool is n o t a sought- after n e s t i n g material. SUMMARY From 1969 through 1975 use of sheep wool i n n e s t c o n s t r u c t i o n w a s examined on H a w a i i . Both introduced and endemic b i r d s use wool, w i t h g r e a t e r usage by endemic L i r d s . Use of wool i s determined by how i n t r i c a t e a n e s t t h a t s p e c i e s b u i l d s , w i t h a d i f f e r e n c e i n usage between complex and simple n e s t s . Roughly b u i l t n e s t s contained no wool whereas complex ones had a l o t . Of t h e 10 b i r d s p e c i e s s t u d i e d , six were found t o use wool, Wool is apparently u t i l i z e d by b i r d s because it is r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e and because of i t s binding q u a l i t y . Only t h e body of t h e n e s t c o n t a i n s wool. The amount of wool used by a s p e c i e s v a r i e d w i t h each n e s t . A s t u d y comparing an area void of sheep and an a d j a c e n t one containing sheep was conducted t o determine if wool is a sought- after material, Only t h e Elepaio w a s found t o c o n s i s t e n t l y t r a v e l d i s t a n c e s t o procure wool, whereas t h e o t h e r s p e c i e s s t u d i e d used it only when a v a i l a b l e w i t h i n t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s . ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work w a s supported by t h e Frank M. Chapman Memorial Fund, t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Council f o r B i r d P r e s e r v a t i o n , NSF g r a n t GB 23230, and The World W i l d l i f e Fund. My a p p r e c i a t i o n t o Jon Giffon of t h e H a w a i i Division of Fish and Game f o r information on f e r a l sheep. J. Michael S c o t t , Alan K a m i l , and S h e i l a Conant gave comments on t h e manuscript. h i s support throughout t h i s p r o j e c t . I a m a l s o indebted t o Andrew Berger f o r - 11 - LITERATURE CITED Bailey, Florence M. 1928. Birds of New Mexico. Bent, Arthur. 1968. L i f e h i s t o r i e s of North American c a r d i n a l s , grosbeaks, buntings, towhees, f i n c h e s , sparrow, and a l l i e s . U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull. 237. Berger, Andrew. 270 p. Bishop, C. R. 1:91. 1972. 1852. Hawaiian B i r d l i f e. Statistics. Univ. P r e s s of H a w a i i , Honolulu. Royal Hawaiian A g r i c u l t u r a l Society, Trans. Conant, S h e i l a . The breeding biology of t h e Oahu Elepaio (Chasiempis sandwichensis sclateri). I n press. Guest, Sandra. 1974. A reproductive biology and n a t u r a l h i s t o r y of t h e Japanese White-eye (Zosterops japonica Japonica) i n urban Oahu. M.S. Thesis. Univ. of H a w a i i , Honolulu. Judd, C. S o 1936. H a w a i i ' s f o r e s t s winning t h e i r b a t t l e with w i l d animals. Honolulu S t a r - B u l l e t i n , March 21, 3rd Sec., pp. 1, 7. P e t t i n g i l l , 0. 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No. 12 Ecogeographical variations of chromosomal polymorphism in Hawaiian populations of Drosophila immigrans. Y. K. Paik and K. C. Sung. February 1973. 25 p. *No. 13 The influence of feral goats on the lowland vegetation in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. D. Mueller-Dombois and G. Spatz. October 1972. 46 p. *NO. 14 The influence of SO2 fuming on the vegetation surrounding the Kahe Power Plant on Oahu, Hawaii. D. Mueller-Dombois and G. Spatz. October 1972. 12 p. No. 15 Succession patterns after pig digging in grassland communities on Mama Loa, Hawaii. G. Spatz and D. Mueller-Dombois. November 1972. 44 p. No. 16 Ecological studies on Hawaiian lava tubes. F. G. Howarth. December 1972. 20 p. No. 17 Some findings on vegetative and sexual reproduction of koa. Gcnter 0 . Spatz. February 1973. 45 p. No. 18 Altitudinal ecotypes in Hawaiian Metrosideros. Carolyn Corn and William Hiesey. February 1973. 19 p. No. 19 Some aspects of island ecosystems analysis. Dieter Mueller-Dombois. February 1973. 26 p. No. 20 Flightless Dolichopodidae (Diptera) in Hawaii. D. Elmo Hardy and Mercedes D. Delfinado. February 1973. 8 p. * out of print *No. No. 21 Third Progress Report and Budget Proposal for FY 74 and FY 75. D. MuellerDombois and K. Bridges, eds. March 1973. 153 p. No. 22 Supplement 1. The climate of the IBP sites on Mauna Loa, Hawaii. Kent W. Bridges and G. Virginia Carey. April 1973. 141 p. No. 23 The bioecology of Psylla uncatoides in the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park and the Acacia koaia Sanctuary. John R. Leeper and J. W. Beardsley. April 1973. 13 p. No. 24 Phenology and growth of Hawaiian plants, a preliminary report. Charles H. Lamoureux. June 1973. 62 p. No. 25 Laboratory studies of Hawaiian Sciaridae (Diptera). Wallace A. Steffan. June 1973. 17 p. No. 26 Natural area system development for the Pacific region, a concept and symposium. Dieter Mueller-Dombois. June 1973. 55 p . No. 27 The growth and phenology of Metrosideros in Hawaii. John R. Porter. August 1973. 62 p. *No. 28 EZPLOT: A computer program which allows easy use of a line plotter. Kent W. Bridges. August 1973. 39 p . No. 29 A reproductive biology and natural history of the Japanese white-eye (Zosterops japonica japonica) in urban Oahu. Sandra J. Guest. September 1973. 95 p. No. 30 Techniques for electrophoresis of Hawaiian Drosophila. W. W. M. Steiner and W. E . Johnson. November 1973. 21 p. No. 31 A mathematical approach to defining spatially recurring species groups in a montane rain forest on Mauna Loa, Hawaii. Jean E. Maka. December 1973. 112 p. *No. 32 The interception of fog and cloud water on windward Mauna Loa, Hawaii. James 0. Juvik and Douglas J. Perreira. December 1973. 11 p. No. 33 Interactions between Hawaiian honeycreepers and Metrosideros collina on the island of Hawaii. F. Lynn Carpenter and Richard E. MacMillen. December 1973. 23 p. No. 34 Floristic and structural develqment of native dry forest stands at Mokuleia, N.W. Oahu. Nengah Wirawan. January 1974. 49 p. No. 35 Genecological studies of Hawaiian ferns: reproductive biology of pioneer and non-pioneer species on the island of Hawaii. Robert M. Lloyd. February 1974. 29 p. No. 36 Fourth Progress Report and Budget Proposal for FY 1975. D. Mueller-Dombois and K. Bridges, eds. March 1974. 44 p. No. 37 A survey of internal parasites of birds on the western slopes of Diamond Head, Oahu, Hawaii 1972-1973. H. Eddie Smith and Sandra J. Guest. April 1974. 18 p . No. 38 Climate data for the IBP sites on Mauna Loa, Hawaii. Kent W. Bridges and G. Virginia Carey. May 1974. 97 Po No. 39 Effects of microclimatic changes on oogenesis of Drosophila mimica. Michael P. Kambysellis. May 1974. 58 p. No. 40 The cavernicolous fauna of Hawaiian lava tubes, Part VI. Mesoveliidae or water treaders (Heteroptera) Wayne C. Gagn6 and Francis G. Howarth. May 1974. 22 p. * out of print . No. 41 Shade a d a p t a t i o n of t h e Hawaiian t r e e - f e r n (Cibotium glaucum (Sm.) H. & A , ) . D. J. C. F r i e n d . June 1974. 39 p. No. 42 The roles of f u n g i i n Hawaiian I s l a n d ecosystems.1. Fungal communities a s s o c i a t e d w i t h l e a f s u r f a c e s of t h r e e endemic v a s c u l a r p l a n t s i n K i l a u e a F o r e s t Reserve and H a w a i i Volcanoes N a t i o n a l Park, H a w a i i . Gladys E. Baker, P a u l H. Dunn and W i l l i a m A. Sakai. J u l y 1974. 46 p. No. 43 The c a v e r n i c o l o u s fauna of Hawaiian lava t u b e s , P a r t V I I . Emesinae o r Wayne C. Gag& and F r a n c i s thread- legged bugs ( H e t e r o p t e r a : Redvuiidae) G. Howarth. J u l y 1974. 18 p. No. 44 Stand s t r u c t u r e of a montane r a i n f o r e s t on Mauna Loa, H a w a i i . G. Cooray. August 1974. 98 p. No. 45 Genetic v a r i a b i l i t y i n t h e K i l a u e a F o r e s t p o p u l a t i o n of Drosophila s i l v e s t r i s . E. M. Craddock and W. E. Johnson. September 1974. 39 p. . Ranjit ' No. 46 L i n n e t b r e e d i n g b i o l o g y on H a w a i i . 1 9 p. No. 47 The n e s t i n g b i o l o g y of t h e House Finch, Carpodacua mexicanus f r o n t a l i s (Say), i n Honolulu, H a w a i i . Lawrence T. Hirai. November 1974. 105 p. C h a r l e s van R i p e r 111. October 1974. No. 48 A v e g e t a t i o n a l d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e IBP s m a l l mammal t r a p l i n e t r a n s e c t s Mauna Loa T r a n s e c t . James D. J a c o b i . November 1974. 19 p. No. 49 V e g e t a t i o n t y p e s : a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of a v a i l a b l e methods and t h e i r s u i t a b i l i t y f o r v a r i o u s purposes, Dieter Mueller-Dombois and Heinz E l l e n b e r g . November 1974. 47 p. No. 50 Genetic s t r u c t u r e and v a r i a b i l i t y i n two s p e c i e s of endemic Hawaiian Drosophila. William W . M. S t e i n e r and Hampton L. Carson. December 1974. 66 p. No. 51 Composition and phenology of t h e d r y f o r e s t of Mauna Kea, Hawaii, a s related t o t h e a n n u a l c y c l e of t h e Amakihi (Loxops v i r e n s ) and P a l i l a ( P s i t t i r o s t r a b a i l l e u i ) . C h a r l e s van R i p e r 111. January 1975. 3 7 p. No, 52 No. Environment-enzyme polymorphism r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n two Hawaiian Drosophila s p e c i e s , W. W. M. S t e i n e r . January 1975. 28 p. 53 A review of t h e Hawaiian C o c c i n e l l i d a e . John R. Leeper. F e b r u a r y 1975, 54 p. No. 54 I n t e g r a t e d i s l a n d ecosystem ecology i n Hawaii - I n t r o d u c t o r y Survey. P a r t I of proposed s y n t h e s i s volume f o r US/IBP s e r i e s . D i e t e r Mueller-Dombois. February 1975. 46 p . No. 55 S o i l a l g a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o Onychiurus f o l s o m i , a minute a r t h r o p o d . McGurk. March 1975. 66 p . No. 56 C y t o g e n e t i c s of t h e Hawaiian Telmatogeton ( D i p t e r a ) . March 1975. 23 p. No. 57 Linda-Lee L e s t e r J . Newman. E l e c t r o p h o r e t i c v a r i a b i l i t y i n i s l a n d p o p u l a t i o n s of Drosophila simulans and Drosophila immigrans. W i l l i a m W. M. S t e i n e r , K i Chang Sung and Y. K. Paik. March 1975. 20 p . No. 58 Acari on murine r o d e n t s a l o n g an a l t i t u d i n a l t r a n s e c t on Mauna Loa, H a w a i i . Frank J , Radovsky, JoAnn M. Tenorio, P. Quentin Tomich, and James D. J a c o b i . A p r i l '1975. 11 p. No. 59 C l i m a t e d a t a f o r t h e IBP s i t e s on Mauna Loa, H a w a i i . G. V i r g i n i a Carey. A p r i l 1975. 90 p . Kent W. Bridges and No. 60 Oxygen consumption, evaporative water loss and body temperature in the Sooty Tern, Sterna fuscata. Richard E. MacMillen, G. Causey Whittow, Ernest A. Christopher and Roy J. Ebisu. April 1975. 15 p. No. 61 Threshold model of feeding territoriality: a test with an Hawaiian honeycreeper. F. L . Carpenter and R. E. MacMillen. April 1975. 11 p. No. 62 Parasites of the Hawaii Amakihi (Loxops virens virens). Charles van Riper 111. April 1975. 25 p. No. 63 Pollination energetics and foraging strategies in a Metrosideros-honeycreeper association. F. Lynn Carpenter and Richard E. MacMillen. May 1975. .8 p. No. 64 Seasonal abundances of the mamane moth, its nuclear polyhedrosis virus, and its parasites. Michael Conant. May 1975. 34 p. No. 65 Temporal pattern of gene arrangement frequency in altitudinal populations of Drosophila immigrans on Mauna Loa, Hawaii. Y, K. Paik and K. C. Sung. May 1975, 14 p. No. 66 Integrated island ecosystem ecology in Hawaii. Spatial distribution of island biota, Introduction. Part 11, Chapter 6 of proposed synthesis volume for US/IBP series. Dieter Mueller-Dombois and Kent W. Bridges. June 1975. 52 p. No. 67 User oriented statistical analysis programs: a brief guide. Kent W. Bridges. July 1975. 37 p. No. 68 Systematic patterns of foraging for nectar by Amakihi (Loxops virens). Alan C. Kamil. July 1975. 17 p. No. 69 The Island Ecosystems Data Bank. Kent W. Bridges and G. Virginia Carey. August 1975. 15 p. No. 70 Climate data for the IBP sites on Mauna Loa, Hawaii. Kent W. Bridges and G. Virginia Carey. August 1975. 55 p. No. 71 Evolution of the endemic Hawaiian cerambycid-beetles. J. L. Gressitt. August 1 9 7 5 . 46 p. No. 72 Index to Technical Reports 1-66. Winifred Y. Yamashiro. August 1975. 50 p. No. 73 The use of sheep wool in nest construction by Hawaiian birds. Riper 111. September 1975. 11 p. Charles van