Mapping Research and Innovation in the Republic of Rwanda

G SPIN FOR SCIENCE POLICY GLOBAL OBSERVATORY OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND INNOVATION POLICY INSTRUMENTS United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Mapping Research and Innovation in the Republic of Rwanda GOSPIN Country Profiles in Science, Technology and Innovation Policy Volume 4 Mapping Research and Innovation in the Republic of Rwanda GOSPIN Country Profiles in Science, Technology and Innovation Policy Volume 4 In co-operation with the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Rwanda With the inancial support of the Government of Sweden Published in 2015 by the United Nations Educational, Scientiic and Cultural Organization 7, place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP, France © UNESCO 2015 ISBN 978-92-3-100126-0 Original title: Mapping Research and Innovation in the Republic of Rwanda Suggested citation: UNESCO (2015) Mapping Research and Innovation in the Republic of Rwanda. G. A. Lemarchand and A. Tash, eds. GOSPIN Country Proiles in Science, Technology and Innovation Policy, vol. 4. United Nations Educational, Scientiic and Cultural Organization: Paris. This study results from the contribution of Guillermo A. Lemarchand based on information provided by local authorities and the local consultants Verdiana Masanja and Charles Ndagije. The inal edition was prepared by Guillermo A. Lemarchand and April Tash. © UNESCO 2014 This publication is available in Open Access under the Attribution-NoDerivs 3.0 IGO (CC-BY-ND 3.0 IGO) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/3.0/igo/). By using the content of this publication, the users accept to be bound by the terms of use of the UNESCO Open Access Repository (www.unesco.org/open-access/terms-use-ccbynd-en). The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The ideas and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors; they are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization. Countries interested in maintaining an inventory of their national research and innovation system within GOSPIN are invited to contact: Maciej Nalecz Director, Division of Science Policy and Capacity-Building Natural Sciences Sector UNESCO 1, rue Miollis 75352 Paris Cedex 15, France E-mail: m.nalecz@unesco.org or sc.stp@unesco.org Website: www.unesco.org/news/en/natural-sciences/science-technology/sti-policy/ Layout: Mirian Quérol Printed by: UNESCO Printed in Paris, France Acronyms and Abbreviations ARIPO African Regional Intellectual Property Organization ASTI Agriculture Science and Technology Indicators ASTII African STI Indicators Initiative (NEPAD) AOSTI African STI Observatory (African Union) COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa GDP Gross domestic product GOSPIN Global Observatory of Science, Technology and Innovation Policy Instruments (UNESCO) EPO European Patent Ofice FDI Foreign direct investment EDPRS Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy FTE Full-time equivalent HDI Human Development Index (UNDP) ICT Information and communication technologies IDRC International Development Research Centre (Canada) IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute IPR Intellectual property rights ISCED International Standard Classiication of Education KIST Kigali Institute of Science and Technology MDG Millennium Development Goals NEPAD New Partnership for Africa’s Development (African Union) NUR National University of Rwanda OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PPP Purchasing power parity R&D Research and development REIF Rwanda Innovation Endowment Fund RWF Rwandan Franc S&T Science and technology SETI Science, engineering, technology and innovation SME Small and medium enterprises STI Science, technology and innovation STPI Science and Technology Policy Instruments STR Science, Technology and Research TVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training UNCT United Nations Country Team UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNDAP United Nations Development Assistance Plan UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientiic and Cultural Organization UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization UIS UNESCO Institute for Statistics (Montreal) USPTO United States Patents and Trademark Ofice WIPO World Intellectual Property Organization iii Glossary of Kinyarwanda terms Abunzi iv mediators Agaciro dignity Akagari cell (administrative unit) Gacaca truth and reconciliation traditional courts Girinka one cow per poor family programme Imihigo performance contracts Inteko z’Abaturage citizen forums Ubudehe community-based and participatory effort towards problem solving mUbuzima mobile phone application to link community health-workers to a national management information system Umudugudu village Umuganda community work Umurenge sector (administrative) Contents Foreword ix Introduction xi Acknowledgments xiii The methodological framework for this series xv Rwanda: mapping the landscape of a small-economy innovation system 1 R&D indicators for Rwanda 85 A scientometric analysis of Rwanda 97 Historical background to SETI policies in Rwanda 123 The SETI policy cycle of Rwanda 135 The analytical content of Rwanda’s SETI policy 139 Analysis of the SETI organizational chart and lows in Rwanda 145 Inventory of the SETI institutions in Rwanda 149 Inventory of Rwanda’s legal framework for SETI 199 Inventory of SETI operational policy instruments in Rwanda 221 SWOT analysis of Rwanda’s research and innovation system 231 References 241 Glossary 251 v List of Illustrations TABLES page Table 1 The evolution of State in Rwanda from pre-colonial era to present Table 2 Quality of life in Rwanda 12 Table 3 Poverty indicators, 1985–2011 13 Table 4 EDPRS II targets linked to Vision 2020 17 Table 5 Annual percentage change in real GDP for a selection of East Africa countries and projections, 1996−2019 20 Table 6 Global Hunger Index for a selection of countries from East Africa, 1990–2013 21 Table 7 FDI inlow and outlow for Rwanda, 1990–2014 24 Table 8 Top-10 foreign direct registered investors in Rwanda, 2006–2011 26 Table 9 Selected subjective and objective measurements for Rwanda 36 Table 10 Main characteristics of entrepreneurship policies in Kenya, Rwanda and Tanzania 39 Table 11 Ease of doing business top-ranking in Africa 2015 42 Table 12 Policy instruments for partial credit guarantees 43 Table 13 Major constraints, enterprise focus, and quick win–win options in Rwandan agricultural Innovation Platforms 51 Table 14 Indicators of primary education in Rwanda, 2008–2013 63 Table 15 Indicators of secondary education in Rwanda, 2008–2013 64 Table 16 Main achievements of TVET programmes 2013/14 66 Table 17 Enrolment in higher education institutions (public) in Rwanda, 2012–2013 70 Table 18 Enrolment in higher education institutions (private) in Rwanda, 2012–2013 71 Table 19 Graduates (bachelors and advance diplomas) in higher education in Rwanda, 1996−2013 72 Table 20 Postgraduates and Master’s degrees in Rwanda, 2005−2013 72 Table 21 Number of Rwandan tertiary students studying abroad, 1998–2012 77 Table 22 Number of Bachelor’s degrees by major ield of knowledge obtained by Rwandans abroad, 2001–2014 78 Number of Master’s degrees by major ield of knowledge obtained by Rwandans abroad, 2004–2014 79 Number of PhDs by major ield of knowledge obtained by Rwandans abroad, 2003–2014 79 Table 23 Table 24 vi 5 Table 25 Historical data on head counts number of scientists and engineers engaged in R&D by their ield of study, 1967 and 1981 87 Table 26 Historical data on FTE R&D personnel, several years between 1965 and 2009 88 Table 27 Characteristics of FTE researchers in Agriculture sciences, 2005–2011 89 Table 28 Characteristics of R&D expenditures in agriculture sciences, 2005–2011 91 Table 29 Memoranda of Understanding of the University of Rwanda to support R&D and STS activities 94 Distribution of mainstream scientiic publications, citations, H index and regional and global ranks for all African countries, 2013 99 Table 30 Table 31 Countries with which Rwandan scientists co-authored mainstream scientiic publications, 1973−2013 104 Distribution of mainstream scientiic publications in Rwanda, by national institution and laboratory, 1973−2013 105 Top ten foreign research institutions and centres co-authoring articles with Rwandan scientists, 1973−2013 109 Table 34 Distribution of mainstream scientiic articles by sub-ield, 1973−2013 110 Table 35 Various products and processes being developed in Rwanda institutions 117 Table 36 Trademarks registrations, 1998–2012 121 Table 37 Industrial design applications and registrations, 1998–2012 122 Table 38 Main indings of UNESCO’s survey on SETI policies in Rwanda in 1963 127 Table 39 Undergraduate and graduate programmes at the University of Rwanda 166 Table 40 Undergraduate programmes at Gishari Integrated Polytechnic 172 Table 41 Undergraduate programmes at Integrated Polytechnic Regional Centre – Kigali 172 Table 42 Undergraduate programmes at Integrated Polytechnic Regional Centre – South 173 Table 43 Undergraduate programmes at Integrated Polytechnic Regional Centre – West 174 Table 44 Undergraduate programmes at Integrated Polytechnic Regional Centre – East 174 Table 45 Undergraduate programmes at Integrated Polytechnic Regional Centre – North 175 Table 46 Undergraduate programmes at Kavumu College of Education 176 Table 47 Undergraduate programmes at the Adventist University of Central Africa 177 Table 48 Undergraduate programmes at the Catholic University of Rwanda 179 Table 49 Undergraduate a programme at the Indangaburezi College of Education 180 Table 50 Undergraduate programmes at the Independent Institute of Lay Adventists of Kigali 180 Table 51 Undergraduate programmes at the Institut Catholique de Kabgayi 181 Table 52 Undergraduate programmes at the Institut d’Enseignement supérieur de Ruhengeri 182 Table 53 Undergraduate programmes at the Institut Polythechnique de Byumba 183 Table 54 Undergraduate programmes at the Institut Superieur Pedagogique de Gitwe 184 Table 55 Undergraduate programmes at the Institute of Agriculture, Technology and Education of Kibundo 184 Table 56 Undergraduate programmes at Kibogora Polytechnic 185 Table 57 Undergraduate and graduate programmes at the Kigali Independent University 186 Table 58 Undergraduate programmes at the Mount Kenya University 187 Table 59 Undergraduate programmes at the Open University of Tanzania 189 Table 60 Undergraduate a programme at the Rwanda Tourism University College 190 Table 61 Undergraduate and graduate programme at the Sinhgad Technical Education Society of Rwanda 191 Table 32 Table 33 vii Table 62 Undergraduate programmes at the University of Kigali 192 Table 63 Geographical distribution and starting dates of the higher education institutions in Rwanda 192 Table 64 Selection of NGO in Rwanda related with scientiic and technological services 196 Table 65 Inventory of international agreements, MoUs*, protocols and minutes on SETI issues 214 Table 66 SWOT analysis of Rwanda’s research and innovation system 239 FIGURES Figure 1 Evolution in the population of Rwanda, 1960−2013 7 Figure 2 Evolution in the population’s growth rate of Rwanda, 1960−2013 8 Figure 3 Evolution in Rwanda’s Human Development Index, 1970−2013 10 Figure 4 Evolution in life expectancy at birth in Rwanda, 1960−2013 10 Figure 5 The role of science, technology and innovation within Vision 2020 14 Figure 6 Development priorities according to a recent opinion survey Figure 7 Evolution of GDP per capita, expressed in constant 2012 US$, in Rwanda and sub-Saharan Africa, 1960−2013 19 Figure 8 Evolution of net inlow of Foreign Direct Investment in Rwanda, expressed as a percentage of GDP, 1970−2013 25 Figure 9 Evolution of gross ixed capital formation in Rwanda, expressed as a percentage of GDP, 1965−2013 25 Evolution in government effectiveness worldwide, as measured against political stability/absence of violence, 2012 28 Evolution in government effectiveness in Rwanda, as measured against political stability/absence of violence, 1996–2013 29 Figure 12 Evolution of the two combined governance indicators (1996–2013) 32 Figure 13 Evolution of the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) in Rwanda, 2005−2014. 32 Figure 14 Major dificulties in promoting innovation and competitiveness in Rwanda, 2013 37 Figure 15 Rwanda’s scores (0–100) for each individual pillar of innovation, taking into account the estimation of the Global Innovation Index 38 Figure 16 Main characteristics of Rwandan irms 40 Figure 17 High-tech exports as a percentage of manufactured exports versus manufactured exports as a percentage of merchandise exports in Rwanda, 1998–2012 46 Figure 18 Overview of the National Integrated Innovation Framework 47 Figure 19 Evolution of the agriculture land and number of tractors per 100 sq. km, 1960–2013 52 Figure 20 Evolution of internet users per 100 inhabitants, 1995–2013 56 Figure 21 Evolution of mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 inhabitants, 1998–2013 57 Figure 22 Required number of skills in Rwanda, 2013–2018 59 Figure 23 Objectives and interventions at all levels of science and technology education and training 62 Total, female and male tertiary enrolment in Rwanda as a percentage of gross, 1970–2012 67 Total tertiary education enrolment (both sexes) per 100 000 inhabitants in Rwanda, 1967–2013 68 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 24 Figure 25 viii Figure 26 Figure 27 Figure 28 Figure 29 Figure 30 Total tertiary education enrolment (both sexes) per 100 000 inhabitants in several African countries (c. 2012) 68 Distribution of female teachers within the higher education system in Rwanda, 1970–2010 74 Long-term evolution of FTE researchers and FTE researchers per million inhabitants, 1965 – 2009 87 Historical series of R&D expenditures in Rwanda, several years between 1963 and 1995 90 Evolution in number of scientiic publications listed by the Web of Science for Rwanda, 1973−2013. The dotted line indicates the best-itting curve 101 Evolution in the number of scientiic publications per million inhabitants in Rwanda, 1973−2013. The dotted line indicates the best-itting curve 102 Quadratic correlation between GDP per capita in constant US$2012 and the number of scientiic publications listed by Web of Science per million population, 1973−2013 102 Evolution in international collaboration in scientiic publications as a share of total annual publications in Rwanda. The dotted line is the best-itting curve 103 Figure 34 Distribution of publications by ield of science, 1996−2013 107 Figure 35 Distribution of Rwandan graduates by ield of science, 1996–2013 108 Figure 36 Evolution in patent applications in Rwanda by residents (triangles) and non-residents (circles), 1967−2012. The dotted line is the best-itting curve 118 Evolution in patents granted in Rwanda by residents (triangles) and non-residents (circles), 1964−2012. The dotted line is the best-itting curve 118 Figure 38 Patent applications in Rwanda by top ield of technology, 1998–2012 119 Figure 39 Evolution in the number of trademark applications in Rwanda, 1965−2012 120 Figure 40 Organization chart showing Rwanda’s research and innovation system in 1973 125 Figure 41 SETI policy cycle in Rwanda (c. 2015) 137 Figure 42 Organizational chart showing Rwanda’s research and innovation system (c. 2015) 147 Figure 43 Distribution of SETI operational policy instruments in Rwanda, according to the GOSPIN categories of objective and goal 222 Figure 31 Figure 32 Figure 33 Figure 37 BOXES Box 1 Cross-cutting issues of Vision 2020 15 Box 2 Indigenous Values and Systems 30 Box 3 Policy Dialogues and Interuniversity Debates 34 Box 4 The Knowledge Transfer Partnership programme implementation 41 Box 5 Technology, Research and Innovation within the National Industrial Policy 44 Box 6 The Rwanda Innovation Endowment Fund (RIEF) 48 Box 7 High socio-economic impacts from Innovations and Technology Transfers promoted by the university of rwanda 53 Box 8 Reducing the Gender Gap in Research and Postgraduate Studies 74 Box 9 The Importance of Academies of Science 81 Box 10 Higher Education Centres of Excellence in Africa 82 Box 11 Deinition and calculation of in-house R&D expenditure at higher education institutions 92 ix Box 12 Indigenous Knowledge, Genetic Resources and IPR 113 Box 13 Traditional medicine in Rwanda: room for innovation and patent protection 116 Box 14 Historical Remarks: UNESCO’s irst survey on SETI Policies in Rwanda 126 Box 15 Reforms to strengthen agricultural R&D Capacity 134 Box 16 Further Anchoring Indigenous Knowledge Systems in Rwanda’s Research and Innovation Policies 142 Box 17 UNESCO’s Reviews of SETI Policies in Rwanda 143 Box 18 University of Rwanda: status of intramural scientiic research 170 Box 19 Implicit Operational Policy Instruments: Procurement Law acting as a Research disincentive 228 Foreword by Irina Bokova Science, engineering, technology and innovation hold key answers to the new, complex challenges facing governments. These cannot be stand-alone processes but rather should be integrated into societies through partnerships, through strong links between science, policy and society, through effective national policies and robust systems of governance and through science education. Innovation is not a decision but an ecosystem that is a foundation for knowledge societies and sustainable development. Governments need tools to map the landscape of science, technology and innovation (STI) in their countries, in order to strengthen national frameworks and take sharper decisions. This is the importance of UNESCO’s Global Observatory of Science, Technology and Innovation Policy Instruments (GOSPIN), which allows governments to review their country’s performance against established indicators while exploring best practices from other countries. GOSPIN provides key information on a range of levels, from STI policies, operational instruments and legal frameworks to STI national systems and data – all in order to improve policy-making, implementation and evaluation. GOSPIN is a core part of UNESCO’s strategy to support the development of science policy initiatives, working with governments and other partners. Reliable information is vital for integrating research and innovation as cross-cutting policies into national development strategies and for catalysing greater investment by governments in the sciences for sustainable development. I am conident that this new online series of country proiles by UNESCO will provide Member States and the global scientiic community with a useful tool as we seek to build more inclusive knowledge societies. Irina Bokova xi Introduction The growing complexity of science and innovation systems and the interface with society have been accompanied by a more complex policy environment. This results in a need for better co-ordination and coherence at national level. One of the most crucial factors is the increasingly global nature of the issues with which national policy-makers are confronted. In a whole series of areas, such as the environment, telecommunications, health, energy, education and intellectual property, it no longer makes much sense to construe problems in purely sectoral and national terms. In a world that is becoming daily more interdependent, policy-making is inevitably assuming an increasingly transversal and global dimension. In this context, science, technology and innovation (STI) policy systems have emerged as interconnections between knowledge, values, national and international socio-economic, environmental, technological and organizational components. UNESCO has a long tradition of supporting Member States in policy development. With the convergence of S&T ields, the need to harness science, engineering, technology and innovation (SETI) for human and economic development and the transnational nature of today’s challenges, STI policy processes have become a much more complex undertaking. It is our vision that STI policies are transversal, cross-cutting policies that support and build the structural pillars for sustainable development. Therefore, UNESCO is conscious that monitoring and evaluating the impact of explicit and implicit policies and instruments is part of our work in supporting the design and implementation of STI frameworks in our Member States. Mapping Research and Innovation in the Republic of Rwanda is the fourth in a series of a series of country proiles prepared by the Global Observatory of Science, Technology and Innovation Policy Instruments (GOSPIN), a new UNESCO initiative. The GOSPIN programme is helping Member States to reform and upgrade national science systems and governance, and to build capacity to monitor and evaluate performance through SETI and social indicators. In this way, the scope of standard SETI assessment can be widened, to take into account country-speciic contexts, as well as emerging knowledge of technological advances that contribute to sustainable development. Complementing efforts to promote evidence-based SETI policy-making, GOSPIN offers a good basis for the promotion of scientiic and technological foresight studies. Through the GOSPIN programme, UNESCO’s Division of Science Policy and Capacity Building is working as a standard-setter, assisting in the elaboration of guidelines for SETI policy formulation, review and reforms, including monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmes. In this context, scientiic advisory systems for governments and parliaments are necessary, as well as the availability of a wide range of scientiic assessments to inform policy- and decision-makers and to bridge the gap between science and policy. The Division of Science Policy and Capacity building has been collaborating with the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Rwanda with the support of the Embassy of Sweden in Kigali and the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA) to produce this country proile. xiii After African countries expressed a common need to enhance capacities in the design and evaluation of SETI policies, policy instruments and governing bodies, ive sub-regional workshops were organized by UNESCO between November 2012 and May 2015, in Harare (Zimbabwe), Dakar (Senegal), Maputo (Mozambique), Kigali (Rwanda) and Cairo (Egypt). We applied the methodological approach developed by GOSPIN to train higher national oficials in designing, implementing and monitoring different types of operational policy instrument. This training involved oficials from Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cape Verde, Cote D’Ivoire, Egypt, Gabon, Malawi, Mozambique, Niger, Rwanda, Senegal, Zambia and Zimbabwe. There are plans to extend this training to other sub-Saharan countries and Arab States. In November 2012, during the African Ministerial Conference on Science and Technology (AMCOST V), it was recommended that the African Observatory on STI (AOSTI), the African STI Indicators Initiative (ASTII) and UNESCO’s GOSPIN programme improve co-ordination among their different surveys. Following this recommendation, an agreement between UNESCO and AOSTI was established in February 2013. The terms of this agreement place AOSTI in charge of following up each GOSPIN survey for a group of West African countries. There are plans to extend this agreement to the entire continent. The participating countries are currently completing a national GOSPIN survey on SETI policies and policy instruments that will be part of both this new series of country proiles and the GOSPIN online platform. The present proile is based on the GOSPIN survey conducted as follow-up to the Kigali National training workshop by the oficers of the Ministry of Education, other line ministries, research centers, universities, and STI stakeholders of the Republic of Rwanda. The proile was further developed by local consultants working in tandem with an international counterpart. The latter travelled on a fact-inding mission and a second time to participate in the validation workshop for the proile in April 2015. xiv Acknowledgments Mapping Research and Innovation in the Republic of Rwanda is the outcome of a GOSPIN training workshop organized by the Division of Science Policy and Capacity Building with the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Rwanda in Kigali in November 2014 and the corresponding GOSPIN Validation Workshop held in April 2015. Our sincere thanks go to the Government of Sweden for their inancial support. We would also like to express our gratitude to the senior oficers of the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Rwanda who made this study possible: the Hon. Silas Lwakabamba (Minister), Hon. Marie-Christine Gasingirwa (Director General of Science, Technology and Research) and to the GOSPIN survey team within the ministry’s Directorate of Science, Technology and Research: Remy Twiringiyimana (Advisor to the Minister of Education), Oreste Niyonsaba (Director of Research, a.i.), Jean Damascene Nsengiyumva (STR Data Manager) and Mike Hughes (STI Advisor). Special thanks go to: UNESCO consultants Verdiana Masanja and Charles Ndagije, who prepared part of the inventories and texts related with the GOSPIN survey of Rwanda; Peggy Oti-boateng from the UNESCO Harare ofice; and the personnel of the Science Policy and Partnership Section at UNESCO: Sonia Bahri, Chief of Section, Juliana Chaves Chaparro, Sarah Colautti, Ahmed Fahmi, Sunday Fadina, and Kornelia Tzinova. Last but not least, my grateful thanks to the editors of the present volume, UNESCO consultant Guillermo A. Lemarchand and to April Tash, Programme Specialist from UNESCO’s Social Science Sector, who transformed the survey into an informative and readable study. Maciej Nalecz, Director Division of Science Policy and Capacity Building UNESCO xv The methodological framework for this series GOSPIN Country Proiles in Science, Technology and Innovation Policy is a series of reports published by UNESCO within its Global Observatory of Science, Technology and Innovation Policy Instruments (GOSPIN). The GOSPIN programme is run by UNESCO’s Division of Science Policy and CapacityBuilding. The aim of this new series is to generate reliable, relevant information about the different landscapes of science, engineering, technology and innovation (SETI) policies around the world. The published information is based on replies to the GOSPIN surveys, combined with government reports and statistical data from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics and other international sources. Each country proile represents a comprehensive study of all the SETI policies, which include: 1. a long-term description of the political, economic, social, cultural and educational contextual factors; 2. a standard content analysis of the explicit SETI policies, including those research and innovation policies implemented in other sectors, such as the agricultural, energy, health, industrial and mining sectors; 3. a study of R&D and innovation indicators; 4. a long-term scientometric analysis of scientiic publications, patents, trademarks and utility models; 5. a description of the SETI policy cycle; 6. a complete analysis of the SETI organizational chart at ive different levels (policy-making level; promotion level; research and innovation execution level; scientiic and technological services level and evaluation level); 7. an inventory of all the SETI government bodies and organizations related both to research and innovation and to science and technology services; 8. an inventory of the SETI legal framework, including acts, bills, regulations and international agreements on SETI issues; 9. a standard inventory with 18 different analytic dimensions of all the SETI operational policy instruments in place; 10. a SWOT analysis of the country’s research and innovation landscape. THE GOSPIN APPROACH The strategy of the GOSPIN programme is four-fold: ▶ Capacity-building: training high-ranking national oficials in the design, implementation and evaluation of a variety of SETI policy instruments at national and regional levels; ▶ Standard-setter: providing a standard practice for surveys on SETI policies and operational policy instruments through the Paris Manual1 ▶ Data collection: worldwide distribution of the GOSPIN surveys, prioritizing Africa, Arab States, Asia−Paciic and Latin American and the Caribbean. ▶ GOSPIN platform: creation of an online, open access platform for decision-makers, knowledgebrokers, specialists and general public, with a complete set of various information on SETI policies. The online platform will provide an innovative cluster of databases equipped with powerful graphic and analytical tools. The platform has been devized for political leaders, planners, directors and administrators of S&T in government, parliament, universities, research institutions, productive enterprises concerned with innovation, international organizations working for development; research personnel and specialists whose ield of study embraces S&T policies. 1 xviii The Paris Manual is being drafted by an international committee of experts put together by UNESCO in 2011. Once completed, the manual will deine the ontological and epistemological bases of a common paradigm for evaluating STI policies and policy instruments worldwide. The platform will also be a useful tool for the democratization of decision-making and public accountability of SETI policies. The GOSPIN survey and the information generated are primarily intended for the use of specialists and governmental bodies responsible for national SETI policies. It is their function to analyse the results of the survey and draw appropriate conclusions when they are required to prepare decisions by political bodies in the ield of science, engineering, technology and innovation. The survey is also of interest to national bureaux of statistics and international organizations for promoting scientiic and technological cooperation among their member states. Collectively, these users are: ▶ the national developing planning agencies, more particularly the government bodies responsible for formulating and co-ordinating national SETI policies and other national bodies involved in the application of science and technology (S&T) to sustainable development; ▶ parliamentary groups especially concerned with STI policies; ▶ SETI information brokers, consulting groups and advisory bodies; ▶ teaching and research departments engaged in SETI policy studies; ▶ The governing bodies of R&D institutes and S&T services; ▶ The boards of management of productive enterprises heavily reliant on R&D or engaged in the transfer of technology and innovation; ▶ International governmental and non-governmental organizations concerned with SETI and their application to sustainable development; ▶ Other more peripheral users, such as university departments of political science, economics and social sciences and national and international documentation and information services; ▶ The mass media. At individual level, the main groupings are: ▶ Decision-makers: i.e. those responsible for national SETI policies and the management of R&D (ministries of R&D or S&T, directors of bodies responsible for formulating national S&T policies, directors of R&D institutes, heads of productive enterprises heavily reliant on R&D, etc.) ▶ Intermediate users: i.e. those who serve as the link between decision makers referred to above and researchers in S&T policy; their function is to prepare decisions by the former using theories and methods put forward by the latter, this category is made up of experts, consultants, advisers, liaison oficers, the staff of ministerial ofices and of parliamentary committees, etc., and they usually require rapid access to factual data. ▶ Researchers in SETI policies: i.e. those who develop the theories and methods on which S&T policy is based (researchers in the philosophy, history, sociology and economics of science, engineering and innovation, in the transfer of technology and in the management of R&D. ▶ The general public: by making SETI information more accessible, the GOSPIN approach introduces a new dimension to the democratization of SETI. THE METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK Science, engineering, technology and innovation (SETI) are becoming increasingly important for socioeconomic and sustainable development. During the past 60 years, both developed and developing countries have recognized this fact by increasing the number of SETI government bodies, establishing new SETI legal frameworks and implementing a diverse set of new SETI policy instruments. This has driven investment in scientiic research, technological development and innovation (STI), led to an increase in the number of scientists and engineers and fostered exponential growth in the number of new scientiic articles and patents worldwide (UNESCO, 2010a). xix The information economy is one of the key concepts invented to explain structural changes to the modern economy (Godin, 2008). The infrastructure to manage SETI information has been largely considered the core resource of national competitiveness in research and innovation (Neelameghan and Tocatlian, 1985). With the globalization of SETI information infrastructure has come a need to implement comprehensive strategies to connect, share and trade both domestic and foreign information at the national level (Lee and Kim, 2009). The formulation of adequate SETI policies is critical to tackling contemporary challenges that include mitigating the consequences of global climate change; exploring new energy sources; generating innovation to foster social inclusion; promoting the sustainable management and conservation of freshwater, terrestrial resources and biodiversity; disaster resilience; and fostering the eradication of extreme poverty and hunger. These policies also need to be designed to achieve the UN Millennium Development Goals. Over the past ive decades, operational deinitions have been elaborated within the framework of multilateral organizations to measure R&D and the broader concept of S&T. Statistical techniques have been developed to estimate private and public resources invested in these areas. For the former the OECD has laid down a methodological framework in the Frascati Manual, the sixth edition of which was published in 2002 (OECD, 2002). For the latter, the Member States of UNESCO have adopted the Recommendations concerning the International Standardisation of Statistics on Science and Technology (UNESCO, 1978; 1982; 1984a; 1984b). Methodologies for generating data about R&D investment and human resources have been constantly upgraded and extended. During the irst African Ministerial Conference on Science and Technology2 (AMCOST I), in 2003, countries committed themselves to developing and adopting a common sets of STI indicators. The New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD) established the African Science, Technology and Innovation Indicators Initiative (ASTII) with the objective of building Africa’s capacity to develop and use STI indicators. More speciically, NEPAD aims to: (a) develop and promote the adoption of internationally compatible STI indicators; (b) build human and institutional capacities for STI indicators and related surveys; (c) enable African countries to participate in international programmes on STI indicators; and (d) Inform African countries on the state of STI in Africa. The irst African Innovation Outlook was published in 2011, while the second volume is being published in 2013. The methodology employed – that suggested by ASTII oficials – follows the recommendations of the Frascati Manual for R&D indicators and the Oslo Manual (OECD, 2005) for innovation indicators. In 2009, the UNESCO Institute for Statistics organized an Expert Meeting on Measuring R&D in Developing Countries, in Windhoek (Namibia). During the meeting, the experts identiied the dificulties and challenges faced by the majority of developing countries, which were not explicitly addressed in the Frascati Manual (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2010; see Box A). The UNESCO Institute for Statistics is working towards a global standardization of STI statistics, including those items which are not taken into account in the Frascati Manual. The availability of input and output R&D indicators alone does not sufice to evaluate SETI policies. Much more important than the particular value of one speciic indicator at a given time is the long-term rate of change that long temporal series of indicators show (Lemarchand, 2010: 27–28). For that reason, long-term temporal series of indicators are necessary to analyse the impact of speciic public policies. Improving the reliability of this analysis requires new ways of standardizing information about public policies and the policy instruments designed to implement them. Owing to the complexity of these issues, the ‘science of science policy’ has emerged in recent years as a new discipline where new analytic paradigms can be tested. 2 xx The inal declaration of the AMCOST meeting in 2012 recommended coordination between the African Observatory on STI (AOSTI), ASTII and UNESCO’s GOSPIN. An agreement between UNESCO and AOSTI in February 2013 assigned AOSTI with responsability for following up GOSPIN surveys with a group of West African countries. BOX A – MEASURING R&D: CHALLENGES FACED BY DEVELOPING COUNTRIES The methodology for measuring R&D is detailed in the Frascati Manual (OECD, 2002), which has been in use for more than 50 years. A revised edition is due out in 2015. Despite the manual’s longevity, developing countries still face problems when trying to apply its standards to measuring the situation in their particular country. The UNESO Institute for Statistics conducts a biennial data collection of R&D statistics and produces a methodology tailored to the needs of developing countries; it also holds training workshops and builds capacity through other means in developing countries. In 2014, the UNESCO Institute for Statistics published a Guide to Conducting an R&D Survey: for Countries starting to Measure R&D. This guide presents the relevant R&D indicators, discusses the main issues facing each of the major sectors of performance, provides a simple project management template and proposes generic model questionnaires for the government, higher education, business and private non-proit sectors which countries can use and adapt to suit their needs. In 2010, the UNESCO Institute for Statistics produced a technical paper on Measuring R&D: Challenges faced by Developing Countries. The OECD Working Party of National Experts on Science and Technology Indicators subsequently suggested that the paper serve as the basis for an annex to the Frascati Manual: Proposed Standard Practice for Surveys of Research and Experimental Development (6th edition). This annex was adopted as an online adjunct to the Frascati Manual in March 2012 (OECD, 2012). Measuring R&D: Challenges faced by Developing Countries provides guidance on a number of challenges that are relevant to developing countries and which may not be elaborated on clearly enough in the Frascati Manual. The following situations are addressed in the document, among others: ▶ Despite the increasing presence of developing countries in global R&D, there is still a marked lack of demand for science, technology and innovation (STI) indicators from policymakers in developing countries. Even if the demand does exist, there are often signiicant problems with compiling the data due to a lack of coordination at the national level, a lack of cooperation by research institutions, universities and businesses, and a generally weak statistical system in the country. ▶ R&D used to be largely funded by the government but new sources of funds are emerging. Foundations, scientiic associations, NGOs and particularly foreign organizations already play an important role. In addition, the contribution of private business is becoming more important and gaining more recognition in a wider range of developing countries. Many of these new sources of funding go directly to individuals and groups rather than to institutions and therefore remain unaccounted for, including for statistical purposes. ▶ Although the Frascati Manual recommends the collection of primary data through direct surveys, the use of secondary data from national budgets and budgetary records of public R&D performing units has been a widely adopted practice to obtain a rough estimate of gross expenditure on R&D (GERD). However, there is often a discrepancy between voted and allocated budgets. Furthermore, national research systems have a limited absorption capacity, which may leave funds unused in central accounts instead of being transferred to institutions performing R&D. Moreover, care needs to be taken to ensure that such transfers are not ‘double counted’ as expenditure of both the funding body and the institution performing R&D. ▶ The deinitions used by inance ministries and other government institutions to establish S&T budgets may be ad hoc and fail to distinguish between broad S&T and narrower R&D activities. Furthermore, many institutions (universities in particular) do not compile a separate R&D budget, especially where research is a low institutional priority. ▶ R&D components in the national budget, especially capital expenditure, can be dificult to identify and may be aggregated under different headings. In addition, when R&D activities xxi stretch over more than one inancial year, it may not be easy to estimate the amount of resources used each year. For example, work done to develop land and buildings used for research in a given year should be clearly earmarked and not recorded in subsequent years. ▶ A concentration of innovation activities by sector or in a small set of institutes may lead to volatility and inconsistencies in statistics. There is generally lower emphasis on R&D in the business sector, in part due to reduced competitive pressure in local markets. ▶ In the higher education sector, the increasing number of private universities makes it useful to distinguish between public and private higher education and to further break up private higher education into government-dependent and independent private institutions. Further disaggregation into private-for-proit and private-not-for-proit higher education institutions should also be considered to track where most research is carried out. ▶ Surveys that cover all R&D performers should in principle all report for the same period. This is dificult to achieve since, in many countries, higher education institutions and businesses do not necessarily report on the same period – the business sector’s calendar tends to be the most problematic. Also, not all countries follow the same calendar. As a solution, the recommendation that R&D performers report on the inancial year closest to the survey period may have to sufice. ▶ Information systems in government and higher education are often not set up to enable the extraction of data on R&D personnel and expenditure. Thus, accurate information on inancial expenditure only becomes available a long time after completion of an activity. Unfortunately, ad hoc IT solutions to address these issues may also lead to errors and inconsistencies. ▶ The collection of data in full-time equivalents (FTE) for researchers provides useful information on the true volume of human resources devoted to R&D. This information is also essential for estimating R&D labour costs. Tallying the number of researchers in a given country presents further challenges. In some developing countries, salaried researchers may not have research budgets or unpaid researchers may undertake research. In other scenarios, academic staff may hold part-time contracts at more than one university. Even if academic staff have contracts that specify the amount of time to be spent on conducting research, it is dificult to enforce especially where there is a lack of resources. Estimating the time spent on research and hence the calculation of the FTE for research staff – particularly in the higher education sector – is fraught with dificulties. This directly impacts the calculation of R&D expenditure. A number of special types of activity warrant attention when measuring R&D, as they are on the border of what is considered R&D. Three examples follow from the technical paper: ▶ In the case of traditional knowledge, it is important to set boundaries. Activities which establish an interface between traditional knowledge and R&D are considered R&D. However, the storage and communication of traditional knowledge in traditional ways is excluded. ▶ Clinical trials are an area of growth in some developing countries. Identifying research personnel in the extended clinical trials value chain may be dificult, as their involvement is occasional and harbours a risk of double counting (i.e. as personnel in the trial and as academic staff). ▶ Reverse engineering is important in many developing countries. However, this generally falls outside the scope of R&D. Only if reverse engineering is carried out within the framework of an R&D project to develop a new (and different) product, should it be considered R&D. STI statistical systems are often weak in developing countries. To help strengthen these systems, the paper recommends that countries institutionalize R&D statistics, establish registers of R&D performers and document survey procedures and estimations. Countries interested in embarking on R&D measurement are encouraged to contact the UNESCO Institute for Statistics. xxii Better ways of measuring evidence-based policies SETI policy debates are not yet dominated by a thoughtful, evidence-based analysis of the likely merits of different investment options and policy decisions. The latter are strongly inluenced by past practice or data trends that may be out of date (Husbands Fealing et al., 2011). The evolution of new policies has been accompanied by more dificult challenges related to planning and evaluating these policies (see Box B); this indicates a need to improve the theoretical frameworks for policy formulation (Steinmueller, 2010). Unfortunately, a number of factors prevent countries from reaching most of the objectives established by their own development plans: the lack of reliable information on SETI national potentialities; dificulties in coordinating the various SETI stakeholders; an absence of mechanisms for promoting a strong interaction between the supply and demand sectors in SETI, and; the absence of any explicit industrialization policy promoting endogenous innovation. These dificulties mostly appear in small economies. For example, Flanagan et al. (2011) have explored the ways in which innovation policy studies treat actors, instruments, institutions and interactions, in order to arrive at a more useful conceptualization of the policy mix for innovation. They stress the need for a genuinely dynamic view of policy formulation and policy interaction. They conclude that ‘despite the importance attached to “strategic policy intelligence” in recent innovation policy analysis, little empirical attention has been devoted to actual processes of policy learning.’ In developing and exploiting technological opportunities, institutional competencies − namely, the governance of SETI decision-making bodies − are just as important as the SETI incentive instruments they promote (Pavitt, 1996). Path dependency emerges, as the cost of institutional changes to SETI is often higher than that of accommodating new instruments and policies in existing structures (Van der Meulen, 1998). For this reason, the design, analysis and monitoring of any national SETI policy will strongly depend on the adequate mapping of: the structure of the SETI governing bodies; the SETI national legal framework and; of the implicit and explicit operational SETI policy instruments which are implemented (Herrera, 1971; 1972; Sagasti and Aráoz, 1976). BOX B – THE POLICY-MAKING CYCLE A stylized presentation of the policy-making cycle typically involves ive stages: ▶ Agenda-setting: refers to the process by which problems related to SETI and the linkages between SETI and both society and the economy come to the government’s attention; ▶ Policy formulation: refers to the process by which SETI policy options are formulated by the government; ▶ Decision-making: refers to the process by which governments adopt a particular course of action or non-action; ▶ Policy Implementation: refers to the process by which governments put SETI policies into effect and; ▶ Policy evaluation: refers to the process by which the results of SETI policies are monitored by both the State and societal actors. The result may be a re-conceptualization of policy problems and solutions, in which the effectiveness, eficiency and continuing appropriateness of policies and policy instruments are assessed and the results fed back into another round of agenda-setting. Responsible and accountable SETI governance entails developing capabilities at each of these ive stages. xxiii WHY TALK ABOUT SETI POLICIES? The term ‘science policy’ was coined following publication in 1945 of Vannevar Bush’s seminal article Science – the Endless Frontier, which laid the foundations for the irst social contract for science. By 1950, UNESCO had initiated the irst systematic studies on science policies in a dozen developed countries. Originally, this term referred to public policies related to scientiic and technological research, experimental development, scientiic and technological services and innovation. Science policy as a discipline evolved over the coming decades. Today, it is possible to distinguish speciic operational policy instruments according to the different needs established by science policies, engineering policies, technology policies and innovation policies. As these four distinct types of public policy require different skills, major universities around the world have recently introduced speciic postgraduate programmes targeting each of the four types of policy: Science policy: relates to those policies needed to: promote scientiic research, determine and select scientiic objectives and goals consistent with national plans or strategies, exercise judgment in ixing norms to govern the ways and means by which science is developed, transferred and applied; gather, organize and deploy resources required to pursue the selective objectives and; monitor and evaluate the results obtained from applying the policy. The following are therefore among the most important questions dealt with by policy-makers in the ield of science policy: (a) establishing and strengthening government structures and mechanisms for planning, budgeting, co-ordinating, managing and promoting scientiic research; (b) gathering, processing and analysing basic data concerning the national scientiic potential, including data on ongoing research, monitoring national scientiic development and ensuring the smooth growth of the institutional infrastructure for scientiic research; (c) maintaining a proper balance between the various types of research (fundamental, applied, experimental development), supporting the development of a creative national scientiic community and setting standards for the status of scientiic researchers in conformity with their responsibilities and rights; (d) optimizing human, inancial, institutional and informational resources to achieve the objectives established by the national SETI policy; (e) assessing and promoting productivity, relevance, quality effectiveness of national research and scientiic and technological services in various sectors of performance (higher education, government institutions, business enterprise, private non-proit) and removing organizational and managerial dificulties encountered in the execution of scientiic research; (f) initiating appropriate legislative action in relation to the impact on the individual, society as a whole or the natural environment of the application of discoveries and inventions; evaluating the economic proitability and social utility (or harmful effects) of the said discoveries and inventions. Although the aforementioned list is not exhaustive, it indicates the key areas for which government policy-makers are primarily responsible. Each individual issue requires the design of a particular operational policy instrument. Engineering policy: the role of engineers in public policy can be seen as a two-fold endeavour: (1) to help create public policy related to the utilization of technology to solve public problems as well as monitor and ensure compliance with such policies; and (2) to use engineering knowledge to assist in the construction of policy directives to help solve social problems. In many cases, the development and implementation of such regulations and laws requires both a technical understanding of the functioning of these artefacts and an understanding of how this technology interacts with social and natural systems and would beneit from the involvement of a technical expert. The issues addressed by engineering policies are vast and global in nature and include water conservation, energy, transportation, communication, food production, habitat protection, disaster risk reduction, technology assessment and the deterioration of infrastructure systems. These issues need to be addressed while respecting the rights and meeting the needs and desires of a growing world population [for a detailed list of issues and challenges addressed by engineering policies, see UNESCO (2010c). xxiv Technology policy: the fundamental premise of technological policies is that it is possible for governments to implement public policies to improve social welfare by inluencing the rate and direction of technological change. The conventional entry point for economic analysis is to identify the conditions needed for such inluence to be superior to the outcome of ordinary market competition. These conditions, in turn, direct further examination of the feasibility and methods for such intervention, including the question of whether government intervention is necessary to improve social welfare. Succinctly stated, government intervention would be necessary if proit-seeking actors underperformed or performed poorly in producing or exchanging technological knowledge from the perspective of social welfare. Innovation policy: innovation policy can be characterized in various ways, such as by distinguishing between ‘supply-side’ and ‘demand-side’ policy, or between ‘mission-oriented’ and ‘diffusion oriented’ policy. Policy instruments include inancial instruments (e.g. R&D tax credits, export incentives, soft loans, etc.) and regulatory instruments such as laws and binding regulations (e.g. the use of safety equipment for children in cars). Innovation policy encompasses many types of innovation. Innovation may be characterized, inter alia, by: the type of innovation – technological (product and process) or non-technological (organizational and marketing); the mode of innovation – novel innovator (strategic and intermittent), technology modiier and technology adopters and; the socio-economic impact – incremental, disruptive or radical. The effectiveness of innovation policies requires a suficiently stable framework, institutions and policies. Stability and predictability are particularly important for risky activities with a long time horizon such as R&D and innovation. Excessive instability may inhibit innovation by increasing uncertainty for innovators. It may lessen the effectiveness of policy instruments by weakening the incentives they provide. In addition, it reduces opportunities for learning and developing evidencebased policy practices. Whereas there are manifold sources of unwarranted discontinuities, political instability and iscal problems − often related to policy cycles − are a common cause. In an increasingly complex innovation landscape, developing effective governance requires better co-ordination at, and among, the local, regional, national and international levels. SETI projects normally occur within a larger temporal framework administered by an organization or a government policy-making body. The early stages of a new SETI policy usually appear as successive expansions of the group of agents and stakeholders whose endorsement is needed to launch the initiative, whereas the latter stages focus on programme management, with feedback as to its success or failure at the policy level (Marburger III, 2011). Consequently, in order to provide an accurate landscape of the SETI policies and policy instruments in a speciic national context, it is imperative to understand the long-term evolution of the SETI organizational chart, SETI infrastructure and legal framework (i.e. explicit policies), as well as the type of funding mechanisms implemented. The latter dimensions must be contrasted with detailed analyses of the long-term behaviour of political, educational, economic, productive and social macrovariables (i.e. implicit policies). It is impossible to describe the current status of SETI without accurate data. Moreover, these data should be presented in such a way as to allow decision-makers and experts to estimate whether the status of SETI meets societal needs or expectations. Policy-makers beneit from additional policy tools to assist them in deciding about budget allocations or in the design of new SETI policy instruments, especially if these are real-time tools or new innovative prospective methodologies. Recent empirical studies show the relevance and long-term impact of appropriate SETI information services on SETI policies designed to improve national competitiveness (Lee and Kim, 2009). It is also important to note the availability of a large group of public and private databases. These can be most useful tools for evaluating the performance of the SETI policies and providing adequate technology intelligence studies. There are robust, accessible systems designed to make rapid analyses and apply mathematical models to identify critical points or levers triggered by policy changes that can directly affect the performance of innovation activities. For example, Zucker and Darby (2011) present a comprehensive survey of all available databases that may be used to analyse the impact of SETI policies (see Box C). xxv BOX C – USING MATHEMATICAL THEORY TO PROMOTE STRATEGIC NATIONAL INNOVATION Recent developments in the mathematical theory of networks can be applied to formulating new SETI policies, in order to promote strategic innovation within national economies. Hidalgo et al. (2007) found that ‘economies grow by upgrading the products they produce and export. The technology, capital, institutions and skills needed to make newer products are more easily adapted from some products than from others. The study of this network of relatedness between products, or ‘product space,’ shows that more-sophisticated products are located in a densely connected core, whereas less sophisticated products occupy a less connected periphery. Empirically, countries move through the product space by developing goods close to those they currently produce. Most countries can reach the core only by traversing empirically infrequent distances, which may help to explain why poor countries have trouble developing more competitive exports and fail to converge to the income levels of rich countries.’ This type of analysis can be applied directly to formulating customized SETI policy instruments to foster the development of speciic technologies, where the country has detected a potential new technological niche. The availability of access to new electronic international databases (Zucker and Darby, 2011), combined with the appropriate analytic software, might transform this type of analysis into a standard procedure for selecting national SETI priorities. Access to appropriate, reliable data is also a prerequisite for responsible and accountable governance, which demands informed decision-making at the planning stage of SETI policy and foresight as to the possible short and long-term impact of policy decisions. Therefore, policy-makers not only need a clear picture of the national, regional and global situation. They also need to be able to estimate the impact of current SETI policies and plan on future policies. The analysis of any national or regional SETI policy strongly depends on the adequate mapping of the structure of SETI governing bodies, SETI national legal frameworks and the implicit and explicit operational SETI policy instruments. Gaps or blind spots in information can cause a speciic ield to be neglected, which can result in missed opportunities for socio-economic development. POLICY INSTRUMENTS: LEVERS FOR IMPLEMENTING DECISIONS A policy may remain a mere rhetorical statement if no means are provided for its implementation or to realize its potential effect. To do this, a number of things may be needed, which we will incorporate under the term of policy instrument. A policy instrument constitutes the set of ways and means used when putting a given policy into practice. It can be considered as the vehicle through which those in charge of formulating and implementing policies actualize their capability to inluence decisions taken by others. The study of public policy instruments in national settings has contributed signiicantly to the understanding of policy, political systems and relations between State and citizen. Research on policy implementation usually focuses principally on the effects of a speciic instrument, within a wider relection on whether the correct instrument has been chosen for the purpose. As far as new governance models is concerned, the search for suitable instruments is above all governed by pragmatism (Kassim and Le Gales, 2010). xxvi SETI POLICY INSTRUMENTS SETI POLICY Statements by high-level government oficials or representatives of the private sector, generally associated with top-level government bodies SETI LEGAL FRAMEWORK Laws, decrees, regulations, bylaws, contracts and international agreements ORGANIZATIONAL CHART FOR SETI Individual institutions and organizations; procedures and methodologies they employ OPERATIONAL POLICY INSTRUMENTS Actual working mechanisms that make the instrument function on a day-to-day basis EFFECTS Figure A: Instruments for ensuring a policy obtains the desired effect. Adapted from Sagasti and Aráoz (1976) xxvii SETI operational policy instruments are the levers by which the organizational structure ultimately implements the decisions on a day-to-day basis and attempts to produce the desired effect on the variables the policy has set out to inluence. Throughout the analysis of an instrument’s effectiveness, it is important to bear in mind the ‘actors’ or key decision-makers who are directly involved in the design and use of a policy instrument. An instrument does not act on its own accord. Rather, it responds to the will of the policy-makers and decision-makers using it. A related concept can be found in the problem of Ordnungspolitik stressed by the German Freiburg School in the 1930s. Here, the focus was how to devise a framework or set of rules (Ordnungsrahmen) for an economy that would deine the operating space for individual and private activities. The challenge for SETI policy instruments can be interpreted as a problem of transformation, namely the question of choosing the best policy instrument in order to reach the set target. A policy instrument attempts to make individuals and institutions take decisions following the rationality dictated by the collective objectives established by those in power. It is the connecting link between the purpose expressed in a policy and the effect that is sought in practice. An SETI policy instrument includes, as a signiicant component, the manipulation of SETI variables. One of the irst and more relevant studies on SETI policy instruments was conducted in the 1970s by the International Development Research Centre. The principal objective of the study was to devise ways and means of understanding how a country’s investment in S&T could be most effectively related to its objectives for industrial development. Sagasti and Aráoz (1976) developed an interesting methodological framework for making a survey and analysing the policy instruments of ten countries in Latin America, the Middle East, Southern Europe and Asia. UNESCO’s Global Observatory of Science, Technology and Innovation Policy Instruments3 (GOSPIN) has adapted and expanded the theoretical framework of Sagasti and Aráoz (1976), in order to implement a systematic survey in Africa, Arab States, Asia and the Paciic and in Latin America and the Caribbean. The information in the present country proile has been organized according to this methodological approach. Figure A presents the basic analytical units around which the present report is organized. All national SETI policies, be they implicit or explicit (Herrera, 1971; 1972), attempt to harness a country’s creative potential to its socio-economic, environmental and cultural objectives. An explicit SETI policy is a statement by a high-level government oficial or institution, such as a ministry or the planning secretariat, that deals with activities related to STI. The policy expresses a purpose (effects according to SETI variables) and may set objectives, deine desired outcomes and establish quantitative goals. Policies also contain criteria for choosing from among several alternatives to guide decision-makers as to how SETI works. SETI policies might also be formulated by representatives of the private sector. A number of factors impinge on the eficiency of SETI governance, namely, the extent to which policy processes have the greatest effect with a given use of resources. It must be acknowledged that overall eficiency is not easily deined and measured in a multi-objective, multi-actor world. 3 xxviii See www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/science-technology/sti-policy/global-observatory-on-policy-instruments THE KEY ROLE OF THE SETI ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE IN POLICY IMPLEMENTATION The SETI organizational structure or chart usually shows the distribution of responsibility for implementing a given policy. Under the term ‘organizational structure,’ it is possible to distinguish at least ive different levels: (1) policy planning level (policy design); (2) promotional level (i.e. funding and co-ordination of R&D, innovation and scientiic and technological services); (3) implementation level (execution of R&D and innovation); (4) scientiic and technological services and; (5) assessment or evaluation level. 1. Policy planning level: includes policy planning, budgeting, decision-making, interministerial coordination. The responsibility for the formulation of SETI policies generally rests with a special government department, ministry or statutory body, in some cases assisted by national councils of research and innovation. SETI policy formulation normally includes the preparation of the national development plan or strategy relating to SETI; it also includes the annual preparation of the functional state budget for SETI activities (mainly research, innovation and scientiic and technological services). The decision-making function usually falls to the government, or to a committee of ministers more speciically concerned with SETI; it mainly involves the approval of the national SETI plan (or strategy), as well as the assignment of funding mechanisms. The interministerial co-ordination takes place during the formulation of policies and preparation of plans and budgets then at the various stages of the implementation of these policy documents, once approved by the government. 2. Promotional level: the promotion, inancing and co-ordination of research, innovation and scientiic and technological services in the various sectors of the economy and in society. The functions performed at this level begin with the policy decisions taken by the government and continue with the various government departments or ministries through traditional budgetary procedures along administrative budget lines or through programme budget procedures, as applied to the so-called management by objectives. Several funding mechanisms and SETI operational policy instruments of various kinds have been implemented over the years (i.e. research funds, innovation funds, sectorial funds, tax-incentives; competitive grants, scholarships, etc.). Most countries apply a combination of operational policy instruments to handle the inancing of research, innovation and scientiic and technological services according to well-deined programmes. The latter can be achieved either by responding to requests for the funding of speciic projects submitted by external institutions, laboratories, research units, individual research scientists and high-tech enterprises, or by providing incentives for innovation, or by selectively entrusting the external bodies mentioned above with the execution of speciic projects called for by certain development objectives according to the national SETI plan or strategy (normative method). At this particular level, several countries have special institutions (i.e. national research councils) which promote the advancement of scientiic research and technological development with a view to improving the quantity and quality of new scientiic knowledge to expand the country’s potentialities, particularly through support for post-graduate education and research at universities and polytechnics. 3. Implementation level: this operational level concerns the actual performance of scientiic research, technological development and innovation. 4. Scientific and technological services (STS) level: this represents a mixed group, including the institutions in charge of: (a) SETI information and documentation, (b) museums of science and technology, botanical and zoological parks and other SETI collections (anthropological, archaeological, geological, etc.), (c) general purpose data collections: all the activities comprising the routine systematic collection of data in all ields of SETI, such as topographical, geological and hydrological surveys, routine astronomical, meteorological and seismological observations, surveying of soils and plants, ish and wildlife resources, atmosphere and water testing, monitoring of radioactivity, UV and CO2 levels, prospecting and related activities designed to locate and identify oil and mineral resources, gathering of information on human, social, economic and cultural phenomena, usually for the purpose of compiling routine statistics; testing, standardization, metrology and quality control, activities related to patents and licenses, as well as the production of scientiic publications. xxix 5. Assessment or evaluation level: this consists in government sectors and institutions monitoring the implementation of policy goals and measuring the societal impact of those policies. Their function also encompasses the conduct of an ongoing survey of a country’s SETI potential at the level of research, innovation and scientiic and technological service units, including ongoing research results and their practical application. The GOSPIN methodological approach introduced a normalized way of encoding the different types of organization and their functions. By representing each national SETI organizational chart and by using the same set of coding tools (Lemarchand, 2010: 310), it will be possible in future to associate these charts and tools with speciic topological metrics to identify patterns in performance. The latter will be very useful for deining a new set of SETI policy indicators able to reveal the level of complexity and functionality of each STI organizational chart. Table A shows examples of how different countries structure SETI policy design. Since its purpose is to guide decisions about the future that must be taken now, a SETI watch cannot seek to identify future developments in S&T independently of past and current developments, or independently of the material and human resources devoted to research and innovation. The prerequisites for any future is: knowledge of the present, knowledge of the current trends observed in a real world composed of different nations and institutions, and knowledge of the strength and weaknesses of the national SETI system in which the decisions informed by the GOSPIN survey’s methodological approach have to be taken. Table A: Models of governing bodies heading SETI policy design Argentina Scientiic and Technological Cabinet (GACTEC) Ministry of Science, Technology and Productive Innovation Australia Prime Minister’s Science Engineering and Innovation Council Commonwealth State and Territory Advisory Council on Innovation Coordination Committee on Innovation Chile Inter-ministerial Committee for Innovation National Corporation for the Promotion of Production (Ministry of Economy) National Commission for Scientiic and Technological Research (Ministry of Education) Croatia Ministry of Science, Education and Sports National Council for Science National Council for Higher Education Czech Republic Ministry of Industry and Trade Council for Research, Development and Innovation Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports Finland Research and Innovation Council Ministry of Employment and the Economy Ministry of Education and Culture Ireland Inter-Departmental Committee on STI Department of Jobs, Enterprise and Innovation Malaysia Ministry of International Trade and Industry Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Economic Planning Unit Republic of Korea National Science and Technology Council Ministry of Science and Technology Singapore Economic Development Board Research, Innovation and Enterprise Council National Research Foundation South Africa Department of Science and Technology Department of Trade and Industry Department of Higher Education and Training Source: UNESCO xxx The diversity of institutions at the promotion level (funding) in a given country seems to be one of the most fundamental indicators of good practices. The GOSPIN global database will provide empirical evidence to conirm or refute this and other hypotheses. The so-called legal framework can also be considered as a set of legal instruments. This embodies the policy, or parts thereof, in the form of a law, decree or regulation. Formal agreements, contracts and international STI cooperation treaties may also be included in this category. A legal instrument goes one step beyond a policy by stipulating obligations, rights, rewards and penalties. The GOSPIN systemic approach has developed a friendly platform offering direct access to the entire SETI legal framework, description and the full text of laws, acts, decrees and agreements adopted by each country. Table B shows different examples of the most important types of legal instrument. Table B: Examples of SETI legal instruments A law for the creation of national research labs, universities, national research councils, ministry of S&T, R&D Funds, etc., or a legal framework to regulate the organization of the national innovation system. A law to regulate the imports/exports of high-tech products. A law to regulate tax incentives to promote innovation within the private sector. A law to regulate foreign direct investments promoting the establishment of new high-tech enterprises. A law to regulate the protection of the national biodiversity and to establish norms on how foreign companies exploit the active substances available within each national territory (new rules for the protection of indigenous knowledge). Laws to foster R&D activities within the private sector and the creation of technological funds associated with the most strategic sectors of the economy (energy, mining, agriculture, industry, communication, ishing, tourism, etc.). National regulations and decrees to establish new national policies, creation of new funding mechanisms, import/ export tariffs, etc. Bilateral, regional and international agreements on SETI activities. Contracts on technology transfer. Source: UNESCO GOSPIN also includes a complete description of SETI operational policy instruments; these are the levers, or actual means, through which the organizational structure ultimately implements the decisions on a day to day basis and attempts to inluence the behaviour of the various stakeholders targeted by the policy. Throughout the analysis of an instrument, it is important to keep in mind the actors or key decision-makers who are directly involved in the design and use of a policy instrument. An instrument does not act on its own accord. Rather, it responds to the will of the policy-makers and decision-makers using it. Table C shows different types of operational policy instrument, whereas Figure B shows various instruments that can be employed to effect at the different stages leading to market penetration of an innovation. Table D presents the taxonomic classiication of SETI operational policy instruments employed by GOSPIN according to its methodological approach, by objective and goal; the type of mechanism/ mode of support and target groups/beneiciaries. By analysing the aggregated information for groups of countries employing these classiication schemes, it is possible to detect development patterns. xxxi Table C: Examples of operational SETI policy instruments Programmes and objectives Policy instrument Strategic objectives Beneiciaries Mechanisms for allocating funding Scientiic research and technological development Competitive grants Promote the endogenous production of new scientiic knowledge in the exact and natural sciences. Promote regional networking. Research groups at national universities and national research centres associated with similar research groups from other countries in the region, within formal partnership agreements Competitive grants selected on a peer review basis; national research groups must be associated with similar groups from countries in the region which provide matching funding Promotion of science education Public subsidies for projects establishing science laboratories at public secondary schools Improve scientiic knowledge; methodological approach and critical thinking for secondary school pupils Public secondary schools in less developed parts of the country Public subsidies to mount new science cabinets and laboratories and new posts for science professors Promotion of gender equality in research and innovation Scholarships Promote the participation of women in high-tech research and innovation Young women enrolled in a PhD programme in basic and engineering sciences Scholarships of up to four years and small grants for participation in international conferences Protection of indigenous knowledge Intellectual property rights, public law−national legislation and public subsidies Protection of traditional knowledge to confer exclusive ownership and rights on local communities when the object of protection is a product or domesticated animal, cultivated plant or any micro-organism, or a design or an object of a functional or aesthetic nature, including any element of handicrafts, the act prohibits third parties from making, using, stocking, offering for sale, selling, commercializing, importing, exporting or identifying the active substances for commercialization, without consent A local traditional practitioner, a local community or its representative may apply to register traditional knowledge Public subsidies and tax exemptions to defend the Intellectual property rights of holders of indigenous and traditional knowledge Attraction and reinvestment of foreign direct investment Public inancing Strategies vary from country to country, examples being: (a) an Industrial policy based on attracting export-oriented industries; (b) promotion of structural change; (c) capacity-building to improve competitiveness, focusing on sectors or market niches; (d) internationalization of enterprises, and promotion of innovation; (e) prioritizing the generation of higher-tech goods and services (f) attracting selective FDI oriented towards ICTs, biotechnology, nanotechnology and inancial services; (g) improving the business climate by reining legislation and simplifying formalities to facilitate corporate operations. National Infrastructure (buildings, technology corridors, technological cities) and training of labour and professionals for the industry in question Soft-loans, tax incentives, grants Tax incentives Attracting R&D irms Other services xxxii Structural change within a large country offers more opportunities for the domestic market, small and mediumsized countries generally focus on schemes conducive to the development of exports For speciic periods: tax discounts, exemptions, preferential rates, rebates on machinery and equipment SMEs with export capacity Endogenous entrepreneurs Hightech emerging sectors: biotechnology, nanotechnology, new materials, ICTs. The same tax incentives plus special competitive funding Strengthening exports of industries and services considered to have strong potential in the country Creation of a “onestop shop” with representatives from different ministries/ agencies to deal with problems concerning programmes, public regulations and postinvestment services Programmes and objectives Policy instrument Strategic objectives Beneiciaries Mechanisms for allocating funding Technological development Non-repayable contributions Increased competitiveness through innovation in products, services and processes Micro-, small and medium-sized enterprises and broader enterprises certiied as having attained international standards By public competition; up to 50% of project cost Loans for technological development projects Finance for middle-income technology production projects Micro-, small and medium-sized enterprises with R&D departments or teams, collaborating groups and technical linkage units underwritten by the enterprise Compulsorily repayable loans; up to 80% of the total cost, allocated on an open window basis, with a maximum of $... for three years Assistance in executing R&D Physical or juridical persons who own enterprises producing goods and services Subsidies through iscal credit certiicates obtained via public competition; up to 50% of the total cost of the project Loans for modernization Projects Technological adaptation and improvements to products and processes with a low level of technical and economic risk Enterprises with R&D department or groups; collaboration groups, and technical linkage units underwritten by the enterprise Special compulsorily repayable loans allocated on an open window basis. Up to 80% of the total cost of the project, with a maximum of $...in three years Loans to enterprises To inance projects for the development Enterprises, without of new production processes, products any restriction on size and modiications thereto or sector; no inance provided for projects with a rate of return of less than 12% Compulsorily repayable loans allocated on an open window basis. Up to 80% of the total cost of the project, with a maximum of $... Subsidies for projects to develop business plans Finance for business development projects based on R&D Micro-, small and medium-sized enterprises whose projects are executed by technical linkage units Subsidies allocated on an open window basis. Up to 50% of the total project cost, with a maximum of $..., for up to one year Loans to institutions To promote the establishment and strengthening of structures for the provision of technological services to R&D enterprises and institutions Public or private institutions providing services to the private productive sector; projects may be presented on an individual or associated basis Obligatorily repayable subsidies allocated on an open window basis, up to a maximum of $... Subsidies for training and retraining projects Subsidies to support activities for Micro-, small and training and retraining human resources medium-sized in new technologies enterprises whose projects are executed by technical linkage units Subsidies allocated on an open window basis. Up to a maximum of 50% of the total cost of the project, or $... for up to six months Subsidies for project Formulation Support for the formulation of R&D projects, technology transfer or technical assistance Micro-, small and medium-sized enterprises whose projects are executed by technical linkage units Subsidies allocated on an open window basis. Up to a maximum of 50% of the total cost of the project, or $... for up to six months Technological advisory assistance programmes and those strengthening the performance of technical small and medium-sized enterprises Technological advisory assistance programme Support for the formulation of R&D projects, technology transfer or technical assistance Micro-, small and medium-sized enterprises producing goods and services which incorporate technological added value Subsidies allocated on an open window basis to individuals or groups, with a maximum of 50% of the total cost of the project, or $... and a maximum of $... per participating enterprise Popularization and social appropriation of science Competitive grants Support for the organization of national exhibitions and science fairs Science museums, educational institutions at primary, secondary and tertiary levels Subsidies allocated on a competitive basis Technological Fiscal credit modernization programme (improvement of products and processes, training) Promotion of the technological services market (research institutes and business research centres) Training and technical assistance Source: UNESCO, UN ECLAC, FONTAR (Argentina) xxxiii xxxiv Fiscal incentives; commercial-ready grants; preferential loans; extension services FDI subsidies for consultancy advice & management training Country brand initiatives; internationalization of SMEs; global networks; export loans Venture capital; iscal incentives; public procurement; S&T parks; entrepreneurship Research grants & scholarships; subsidies for training R&D Public procurement; demo-grant programmes; incubators Demonstration Pre-commercial Commercial Export Facilitation Globalization Market penetration of the innovation (product or services) Figure B: Policy instruments for different stages of the innovation process and market penetration. Source: UNESCO Different operational policy instruments for different stages of the innovation process Table D: Taxonomic classiication of SETI operational policy instruments employed by GOSPIN Objectives and goals Type of mechanism/ Mode of support Target groups/Beneiciaries Strengthen the production of new endogenous scientiic knowledge Grants (grant funds) Technical and support staff at SETI Strengthen the infrastructure of research laboratories in the public and private sectors Donations (individuals/ companies) Students Human resources for research, innovation and strategic planning; capacity building, education and training of specialized human capital for (1) the production of new scientiic knowledge, (2) development of new technologies, (3) promotion of innovation within the productive and services systems and (4) management of the knowledge society Loans Individual professionals / PhD holders Strengthen gender equality for research and innovation Creation of, and support for, technological poles and centres of excellence Teachers/ Researchers Strengthen the social appropriation of scientiic knowledge and new technologies Tax incentives Universities Development of strategic technological areas and new niche products and services with high added value; promotion and development of innovation in the production of goods and services; promotion of start-ups in areas of high technology Technical assistance Research centres Strengthen science education programmes at all levels (from primary school to postgraduate) Scholarships Technical training centres Promotion of the development of green technologies and social-inclusion technologies Credit incentives and venture capital Schools/ Colleges/ Institutes Promotion of indigenous knowledge systems Trust funds Corporations/ Foundations Research and innovation eco-system: strengthening co-ordination, networking and integration processes which promote synergies among the different actors of the national scientiic, technological and productive innovation system (i.e. government, university and productive sectors) Information services Professional Institutes Strengthen the quality of technology foresight studies to: assess the potential of high-value markets; develop business plans for high-tech companies; construct and analyse long-term scenarios and; provide consulting services and strategic intelligence Others SETI local groups (e.g. a group of independent researchers) Strengthen regional and international cooperation, networking and promotion of SETI activities Private companies Science and technology public or private non-proit organizations Ad hoc associations Individuals Small and medium-sized enterprises Public institutions Co-operatives Other Source: UNESCO xxxv Rwanda: mapping the landscape of a small-economy innovation system OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Rwanda ABBREVIATION: RW CAPITAL CITY: Kigali CHIEF OF STATE: President, H.E. Paul Kagame (since 22 April 2000) HEAD OF GOVERNMENT: Prime Minister, Right Honourable Anastase Murekezi (since 24 July 2014) NATURE OF GOVERNMENT: republic; presidential, multiparty system POPULATION: 10 515 973 (2012 census) and 11 406 000 (est. July 2015) SURFACE AREA: 26 338 km2 LANGUAGES: By constitution, there are three oficial languages, Kinyarwanda, French and English, with English being the medium of instruction. Other languages include Kiswahili, commonly used in commercial centres RELIGIONS: The greatest majority are Christians, including Roman Catholics, Protestants (including Adventists); others are Muslims, animists and some people practice unspeciied religions UNIT OF CURRENCY: Rwandan francs (RWF) DATE OF INDEPENDENCE: 1 July 1962 (from Belgium-administered UN trusteeship) DATE OF CONSTITUTION: several previous; latest adopted by referendum 26 May 2003, effective 4 June 2003; amended several times, last in 2010 HISTORY OF A PEOPLE The territory of Rwanda today was inhabited as far back as 35 000 years ago. Anthropological research suggests that the irst known inhabitants of the area were the Twa, a pygmy group that followed hunting and gathering subsistence patterns. Later, between the VII and X centuries AD, the Bantu-speaking Hutu people, who followed a settled, agricultural way of life, arrived, probably from the region of the Congo River basin (Gall and Hobby, 2007). During the XIV and XV centuries, the Tutsi, a pastoral people of Nilotic origin, arrived from the north, probably from the present-day countries of Somalia and Ethiopia, creating several small and independent chieftaincies. By the end of XV century, the chieftaincies merged to create a state, under the leadership of Ruganzu I Bwimba. The history of Tutsi expansion falls into four separate phases. The initial step involved the formation of a small nuclear kingdom in the region of Buganza and Bwanacyambwe, under the reign of Ruganzu Bwimba in the XV century. A second phase, beginning in the XVI century, incorporated neighbouring areas into what is today the central region of Rwanda (Nduga-Marangara). With the accession of Ruganzu Ndoli to power, in the XVII century, a series of invasions were launched against formerly independent communities, which resulted in the creation of a unitary state. Finally, in the irst half of the XIX century a group of independent states – the most powerful of which was the kingdom of Gisaka in the east – were forcefully incorporated into the national boundaries of Rwanda (Lemarchand, 1966). In precolonial times, the territory of Rwanda was controlled by a highly centralized kingdom presided over by kings who hailed from one ruling clan. The king ruled through three categories of chiefs: cattle chiefs, land chiefs, and military chiefs. The chiefs were predominantly, but not exclusively, Tutsi, especially the cattle and military chiefs. While the relationship between the king and the rest of the population was unequal, the relationship among the ordinary Hutu, Tutsi, and Twa was one of mutual beneit mainly through the exchange of labour. A clientalist system called ubuhake permeated the entire society 2 (Kurien, 2007). This arrangement allowed leading Tutsi close to the king to thoroughly iniltrate the sociopolitical establishment, turning power to their exclusive advantage. Little by little, they took over control of the State institutions and at the same time built up a uniication movement. The ownership of land was gradually transferred to the king, who became the supreme head and, in theory, absolute master of the country (Gall and Hobby, 2007). European inluence in East Africa began with the arrival of Catholic missionaries of the company of the White Fathers in 1879. In an attempt to mitigate the violence of the competition for the imperial sharing of Africa, in 1885, the Berlin Conference laid down the principles by which “spheres of inluence” could be set up by colonizing powers. The conference placed the Kingdom of Rwanda together with Urundi (now Burundi) under German rule as part of Deutsch Ostafrica or German East Africa. However, not until nine years after the conference did the irst European oficials reach Rwanda. German rule was indirectly exercised through the king, who in turn used the German presence to strengthen his own authority and extend it throughout the territory. In those days, the German administration consisted of only ive oficials and about 166 soldiers (Kurien, 2007). During the subsequent partition of Africa in 1910, much of Rwanda was annexed to neighbouring countries. This entailed the loss of a third of the Rwandan internal market and a large part of its natural resources (Rep. of Rwanda, 2000). Belgium, which had occupied the territory in 1916 during World War I, was afterward, in 1923, granted a League of Nations mandate that was known as Ruanda-Urundi (present-day Rwanda and Burundi). The Belgian Administration followed the German pattern by relying on the mwami and the Tutsi aristocracy. In 1925, Ruanda-Urundi, was joined in an Administrative Union with the Belgian Congo. The Belgian colonial system was marked by a close alliance between the Administration and the missions that were responsible particularly for the educational system, in large part. In those days, very few Hutu were admitted to Astrida, the school that educated future administrators and government oficials. In 1929, Hutu chiefs, often in charge of land allocation and management at the local level were removed from ofice and replaced by Tutsi chiefs. Because the latter already occupied chieftainships in cattle and military affairs, the balance of power fell completely in favour of Tutsi. The Hutu peasantry regarded the Tutsi – as a group – as their de facto rulers (Verwimp, 2013). In 1946, Rwanda-Burundi was made a Trust Territory under the United Nations. Under pressure from the UN Trusteeship Council, the irst representative political institutions were introduced in the country in 1952 (Kurien, 2007). The 1954 abolition of the Ubuhake by the Umwami Mutara III caused a divide between the local Administration made up of Tutsi, and the colonial administrators, who, sensitive to the context of African decolonization, supported the 1957 Hutu Manifesto. In November 1959, a Hutu revolution began, continuing sporadically for the next few years. Many Tutsi either were killed or led to neighbouring territories during the nationwide anti-Tutsi campaign named the “wind of destruction.” The Belgian authorities, along with the Roman Catholic missionaries, provided crucial support to the Hutu during this troubled period. A provisional government, republican in tendency and composed predominantly of members of the Parmehutu Party, was set up in Rwanda in October 1960. Because the United Nations did not recognize the 1959 elections, on 25 September 1961, legislative elections and a referendum on retaining the institution and person of the mwami were held in Rwanda. The elections gave the Parmehutu, led by Grégoire Kayibanda, an overwhelming majority. In the referendum, about 95% of the electorate took part, voting 4 to 1 to abolish the monarchy. Despite diplomatic pressure on both Rwanda and Burundi to come to independence united, the UN reluctantly accepted their separation. On 27 June 1962, the UN General Assembly passed a resolution providing for the independent states of Rwanda and Burundi, and on 1st July, Rwanda became an independent country. Ideological tension (interpreted as racial by some scholars) continued after independence, with serious tribal warfare breaking out in 1963 when an incursion from Burundi of exiled Rwandan Tutsis resulted in the death of at least 15 000 Tutsis in hands of Hutu gangs. Parmehutu consolidated its position during 3 the decade, and in 1973 the existing constitution, which barred Kayibanda from seeking another term as president, was overthrown by a military coup led by army chief of staff Juvénal Habyarimana. There then ensued a period of military rule, until 1978, when a new constitution was promulgated and Habyarimana became president (Commonwealth Secretariat, 2014). Single party elections were held in 1981, 1983 and 1988, when Habyarimana won a fourth term as president. Despite that some actions to promote national unity were implemented during this period, the discrimination against Tutsi continued. In October 1990, a new Hutu-Tutsi confrontation was triggered. Between 3 000 and 8 000 long-exiled Tutsi, calling themselves the Rwandese Patriotic Front (RPF), crossed the border from Uganda in an effort to topple Habyarimana’s government. On June 8, 1991, the president signed a new constitution that provided for multiparty politics. After a long period of negotiations between the government of Rwanda and the RPF that took place in Arusha, Tanzania, the Arusha Peace Agreement was signed on August 4th, 1993. The agreement called for UN peacekeeping forces to be stationed in Rwanda. In April 1994, President Habyarimana and Burundian President Cyprien Ntaryamira were killed when their plane was shot down near Kigali; responsibility for the attack was never established. In the three months following the assassinations, more than one million Rwandans, mainly Tutsi, were killed in what UN Secretary General Boutros Boutros-Ghali eventually called genocide against the Tutsi by the Hutu-dominated Rwandan Army (Gall and Hobby, 2007). The RPF put an end to the 1994 Genocide and thereafter formed the Government of National Unity (GNU) and the Transitional National Assembly in coalition with other political parties to deine a new future for Rwanda through democratic institutions (Rep. of Rwanda, 2000). In 1995, the Transitional National Assembly adopted a constitution that included elements of the constitution of 1991, as well as provisions of the 1993 Arusha peace accord and the November 1994 multiparty protocol of understanding. The document created the post of Prime Minister, limited the president to two ive-year terms in ofice, and provided for multiparty politics, freedom of the press, and separate executive, judicial, and legislative branches. In 2003, voters overwhelmingly approved a new constitution that gave primacy to human rights, eliminated references to ethnicity, and included speciic provisions to prevent genocide. Additionally, the document provided for a bicameral legislature, codiied a system of checks and balances, and, in an effort to separate power, required that the prime minister and president be members of different political parties. It also offers speciic provisions for parliamentary and presidential elections. Rwanda received the Millennium Challenge Account Compact in 2008 to support government’s efforts to strengthen democracy. In 2011, the Rwanda Governance Board was established as the irst institution of its type in Africa, to promote decentralisation of power, as well as, principles and practices of good governance in public institutions to promote accountability, transparency and integrity. Rwanda was admitted to the United Nations on 18 September 1962, and is a member of UNECA and most of the non-regional specialized agencies, including the FAO, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, WHO and the World Bank. It is also a member of the WTO, the African Development Bank, the ACP Group, the East African Community (EAC), the Common Market of East and Southern Africa (COMESA), G–77, the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), and the African Union. In 1976, Rwanda joined Burundi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (now the DRC) in the Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries, formed to develop the economic potential of the basin of Lakes Kivu and Tanganyika; its headquarters are in Rubavu District (former Gisenyi). In 1977, Rwanda joined Burundi and Tanzania in forming an Economic Community for the Management and Development of the Kagera River Basin. Uganda became a part of the Community in 1980. Its headquarters are in Kigali. Rwanda also joined the Commonwealth in late 2009. In January 2013, Rwanda assumed a non-permanent seat on the UN Security Council for the 2013–14 term. In environmental cooperation, Rwanda is part of the Convention on Biological Diversity, CITES, the Kyoto Protocol, the Montréal Protocol, the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, and the UN Convention to Combat Desertiication. 4 Table 1 presents a synthesis of the major characteristics of the Rwandan State’s long-term evolution, which was originally developed for the foresight document Vision 2020 (Rep. of Rwanda, 2000). Table 1: The evolution of State in Rwanda from pre-colonial era to present The role of the State Pre-colonial era Colonial era From independence up to 1994 Post-genocide period Internal peace and security Generally well ensured by the King’s authority. Less regional wars, following the demarcation of colonial boundaries and the installation of the colonial administration. Programmes caused by the ethnic and regionalist divisions Fight against the 1996–2000 insurgency. Permanent climate of insecurity. High level of internal security. Cracks in the social fabric of the nation: Development of divisive ethnic ideologies. Explicit political will and efforts for reconciliation. Total disintegration of the social fabric following the 1990 – 1994 Genocide. National Commission for Unity and Reconciliation. Periods of conlict expansion and relations with some neighbouring kingdoms. Nation unity • No internal problems and everybody contributed to defend the nation. However, there used to be voluntary exile by individuals or groups who had deied the royal authority. Exclusive schools for the chiefs’ children in Nyanza in 1918 and Astrida in 1929 operated by white Fathers. Paciication of the Great Lakes Region in process. Destitution of Hutu modest Tutsi and Twa by Belgians in 1929. Anti-segregation legal framework including abolishment of ethnicity cards. • The Rucunshu succession war in 1896 that resulted in the weakening of the royal regime. Efforts to separate the three powers. Gacaca reconciliatory justice. Justice Human rights • Poorly respected. • Poorly respected. • Not respected. Progress towards the rule of law. Decentralization • Hierarchical and centralised policies. • Colonia power concentrated the political powers in his hands. • Highly centralized economic and political powers. Progressive decentralization of the political and economic powers, promotion of the private sector. • Beginning of the concentration of the national economy into the hands of the State. Governance and democracy • Low level of social equity. • All the leaders were nominated. • Possibility of expression and questioning the authority. Establishment of a Common Development Fund for decentralisation. • Loss of a third of the national territory following the 1910 partition. • Poor governance by the state party. • Low level of social equity. • State party dictatorship. • No democracy but state control and coercion. • Poor level of social equity. Progressive improvement of popular participation. Strategy to ight poverty. Ombudsman institutionalised. Multiparty System institutionalised. Law liberalising the press. Consultation of National Constitution. 5 The role of the State Pre-colonial era Colonial era From independence up to 1994 Post-genocide period Regional and international integration • Limited exchange with neighbouring Kingdoms. • Opening of the country’s borders. • Further opening to international cooperation. Free entry and exit of citizens. • No exchange with foreign countries (external world) • Contacts with the world via the colonial state Belgium. • Commodity products. • Periodic problems with neighbouring countries due to personal relations between the ruling classes. Efforts to pacify the Great Lakes Region and for the policy of good neighbourliness. Efforts towards multilingualism. Policy of regional integration and of openness. Management of State (public) affairs Diaspora • Monarchy • Eficient but coercive • Progressive improvement. • High-level corruption. • Limited • Exacerbation of waves of emigrants running away from the colonial yoke and ruthless rule. • Close monitoring of indigenous administration. Reforms and organs aimed at improving transparency. Fighting corruption. • Negative role of the State in the forced emigration. Double citizenship. • Destabilization of the Diaspora in host countries. Easy entry and exit. Efforts towards good relations and contact. Participatory approach and generalised consultation. Source: Vision 2020 DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE The United Nations Development Assistance Framework (UNDAF) identiied the high population density as one of the major challenges for sustainable development (United Nations Rwanda, 2012). At about 468 people per km2, Rwanda has the highest population density in continental Africa. These values are over the human carrying capacity1 of Rwanda. Population growth (2.6% c. 2013) and total fertility (4.6 children per woman c. 2014) remain high, constraining poverty reduction efforts. Figure 1 shows the long-term evolution in the population of Rwanda (1960–2013). The percentage share of different age groups stabilizes after 1990. Figure 2 shows the population’s growth rate over the same period. A high oscillation is observed during the Genocide period, but the growth rate remained very high over last ifty years. The average annual population growth rate in Rwanda over the past 54 years has been 2.6%. This is similar to the value attained in 2013, which was the 23th-highest in the world. There are approximately 34.6 births/1 000 inhabitants (2014 est.) while the death rate is 9.18 deaths/1 000 inhabitants (2014 est.). The country’s fertility rate is extremely high. Women in Rwanda who have little or no education have an average of 2.6 more children than those who have at least a secondary education. United Nations’ projections indicate that if the population continues to grow at its current rate of 2.6% a year, it could exceed 40 million by 2100, giving the nation a density ive times that of Japan’s today (Ruxin and Habinshuti, 2011). 1 6 Carrying capacity refers to the number of individuals who can be supported in a given land area over long term without degrading the physical, ecological, cultural and social environment, i.e. without reducing the ability of the environment to sustain the desired quality of life over time. For an extensive discussion on the human carrying capacity, see Cohen (1995). This long-term trend compromises development gains. The population of a country inluences all aspects of socio-economic development. Efforts to slow down population growth, reduce poverty, achieve economic progress and improve environmental protection are mutually interlinked. Slower population growth and sustainable fertility levels could have a very positive impact on long-term sustainable development and quality of life. Rapid population growth, particularly in rural areas, has exacerbated migration to urban areas. The share of the urban population increased from 2.7 % during the independence (c. 1962) to 4.7 % in 1980, 5.4% in 1990, 14.9% in 2000 and 26.9% in 2013. The estimated annual urbanization rate for 2013 was 6.4%. Rapid urbanization is accompanied by a range of problems: poor access to a clean water and sanitation, the spread of disease, unemployment and growing crime rates, and environmental degradation. High youth unemployment, another challenge facing the country, is also strongly linked to the rapid population growth. The economy suffers from an inexperienced workforce, skills mismatches, and its job creation rate lags behind the demand of youths eligible to enter the labour force each year. 12 60 11 55 10 50 9 45 8 40 7 35 6 30 5 25 4 20 3 15 Population, total Population aged 0-14 [% of total] 2 Population aged 65 and above [% of total] 1 0 1960 10 Population aged 15-64 [% of total] 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 Population age ranges as percentage of the total Total population in millions Family planning and population policy needs to safeguard the progress made by Rwanda thus far in reaching the United Nations’ Millennium Development Goals (MDG), to ensure that future success in reaching the MDGs does indeed lead to a net reduction in poverty ratios and increase social well-being. Young men and women, in particular, must be informed about their rights and responsibilities, given access to social services, training opportunities, health services (including a family planning element), social security, and social beneits. 5 0 2015 Figure 1: Evolution in the population of Rwanda, 1960−2013. Source: UNESCO, based on data provided by UN Statistics Division Rapid population growth results in an increasing pressure on ecosystems, due to increasing demand for natural resources and living space with all the consequences (erosion, degradation, soil depletion, etc.). It also calls for increasing investment in education, health, energy and shelter despite the constraints of a non-diversiied economy. For all these reasons, population growth presents one of the most serious challenges to Rwanda’s meeting its target to become a middle income country by 2020. 7 Population growth [annual percentage] 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 -2 -4 -6 -8 -10 Figure 2: Evolution in the population’s growth rate of Rwanda, 1960−2013. Source: UNESCO, based on data provided by UN Statistics Division Rwandan culture, government and religious institutions have historically discouraged family planning (Ruxin and Habinshuti, 2011). As it was mentioned before, in 2000, the government developed a report proposing a long-term vision and strategy for the nation, identifying development goals and setting out steps for reaching those goals (Government of Rwanda, 2000). Known as Vision 2020, this long-term strategy recognized that the demographic trend of rapid population growth is a major cause of the depletion of natural resources, and thus a cause of poverty and hunger. According to Vision 2020, rapid population growth is the result of a number of factors: (1) the high fertility rate of women, itself linked to (2) a probirth culture (3) low child death rates and (4) the relatively low general mortality rate, due to a climate and topography unfavourable to diseases. Vision 2020 proposed to reduce within 20 years the fertility rate from 6.5 to 4.5 children, and the population growth rate to 2.2% (Government of Rwanda, 2000: 14). Bundervoet (2014) showed that fertility in Rwanda has declined between 2005 and 2010. While fertility dropped across all cohorts (except for the youngest cohort), the decline has in relative terms been most pronounced for younger cohorts. Between 2005 and 2010, cumulative fertility declined by 20% for the 20 to 29 age group, compared to 9% for the 35 to 49 age group. Bundervoet (2014) also found that increased levels of female education explain the largest part of the fertility decline, accounting for slightly over one ifth of the drop. Improved household living standards appear as a secondary driver of the fertility decline. The progressive roll out of the 12 years of basic education program is expected to substantially increase the educational attainment of young cohorts. Together with the progressive move off the farm, this suggests that further declines in fertility can be expected in the decade to come. 8 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN RWANDA The concept of human development focuses on the result rather than the means of achieving development. This holistic approach puts people at the centre of the development process. Since 1989, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has been measuring the Human Development Index (HDI). It describes in a summary way the achievements of a country in relation to three dimensions of human development: a long and healthy life, access to knowledge, and a decent standard of living. The HDI’s country coverage is of course limited by data availability. The data for the three dimensions are normalised with the corresponding lowest and highest values obtained from a sample of 187 countries, then combined into a single index. Each country will have a HDI value situated between 0 and 1. The global rank of countries is obtained by representing each individual HDI value in descending order. Countries are classiied as being of very high, high, medium or low human development, according to their ranking. In 2013, Algeria (rank 95), Libya (rank 55), Mauritius (rank 63), Seychelles (rank 71) and Tunisia (rank 90) were attributed high human development, while eleven other African countries reached medium human development. The remaining 37 African countries fall in the low human development category, South Sudan being precluded from the study (UNDP, 2014). Rwanda’s HDI value for 2013 is 0.506 – in the low human development category – positioning the country in 151th place out of 187 countries and territories. Between 1975 and 2013, Rwanda’s HDI value increased from 0.242 to 0.506, an increase of 109% or an average annual increase of about 2.87%. Figure 3 shows the long-term evolution2 of Rwanda’s HDI, following the latest methodology for measuring HDI (UNDP, 2014). The trends shown in Figure 3 can be best explained by disaggregating dimensions into their components. For example, one of the components of a long and healthy life is life expectancy at birth. In Rwanda, this has continuously increased between 1960 and 1984, peaking at 49.9 years. Beginning in 1985, life expectancy at birth trailed off, dipping to 26.8 years in 1993, then climbed steadily again to reach 64.1 years (2013). The mean (average) income level, which helps constitute the measure for decent standard of living, has remained almost constant for the past ive decades in Rwanda. For example, annual GDP per capita (in 2012 constant US$) remained steady from 1960 to 1993 at around US$300 (see Figure 5). In 1994 it suffered a drop to US$160; since then, the value has been increasing to reach US$442 (2013). The gap with the rest of sub–Saharan countries remained almost constant for more than ive decades; in 2013, this gap was US$680. Another unit for measuring the average income level is a constant-dollar unit, expressing the per capita mean (average) income as purchasing power parity (PPP) in 2012 US$. Mean income levels measured in this way also dipped after the Genocide and increased since then. The highest peak last measured was in 2013: PPP US$1380. The mean (average) number of years of schooling for adults has also increased substantially over the past 30 years: from 1.1 years in 1980 to 3.3 years in 2013 (see Table 2). For youngsters aged four, the expected years that each of them, on average, will enrolled in formal schooling increased from 4.9 years in 1980, to 13.2 years in 2013. 2 Based on the latest HDI methodology (UNDP, 2014), the values were calculated on consistent indicators, methodology and timeseries data. Figure 3 shows changes in values over time, relecting the actual progress of the country. Small changes in values should be interpreted with caution, as they may not be statistically signiicant due to sampling variation. Changes at the level if the third decimal place in any composite indices are considered insigniicant. 9 0.550 0.500 0.506 0.502 0.453 0.450 0.463 0.432 0.399 0.400 0.393 0.404 0.391 0.350 0.329 0.312 0.300 0.291 0.250 0.238 0.242 0.200 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 0.230 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Figure 3: Evolution in Rwanda’s Human Development Index, 1970−2013. Source: UNESCO estimation, adjusted according to the latest HDI methodological approach and data provided by UNDP (2014) 65 Life expectancy at birth (LEB) - Total [years] LEB Female [years] 60 LEB Male [years] 55 Female 50 Total Male 45 40 35 30 25 20 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Figure 4: Evolution in life expectancy at birth in Rwanda, 1960−2013. Source: UNESCO, based on raw data provided by UN Statistics Division 10 Recent Human Development Reports have launched an Inequality Adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI) and Gender Inequality Index (GII) alongside the HDI. When Rwanda’s HDI value is discounted for inequality, the HDI falls to 0.338, a loss of 33.2%. The average loss due to inequality for sub-Saharan Africa is 33.6%. The human inequality coeficient for Rwanda is equal to 33.1%. The GII relects gender-based disadvantages in reproductive health, empowerment and the labour market. Countries with better gender equality tend to have low maternal mortality, low adolescent fertility and a high proportion of males and females with at least secondary education. The HDI for Africa as a whole drops to 0.284 when gender inequality is taken into account, a loss of 28.5%. High inequality is undermining the positive impact of Africa’s economic growth. Gender inequality on the continent is linked to the persistence of discriminatory laws, norms and practices, which restrict the access of women and girls to opportunities, resources and power. Rwanda has a GII value of 0.573, ranking it 79th out of 149 countries in the 2013 index. n Rwanda, 51.9% of parliamentary seats are held by women3 and 7.9% of adult women have reached at least the secondary level of education, compared to 8% of their male counterparts. For every 100 000 live births, 340 women die from pregnancy-related causes; the adolescent fertility rate is 33.6 births per 1000 live births. Some 86.5% of women participate in the labour market, compared to 85.5% of men. In 2011, just over a billion people remained in extreme poverty, around 14.5% of the world’s population (World Bank, 2014). Extreme poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa represented 47% of the Sub-Saharan African population. The 2010 Human Development Report (UNDP, 2010) introduced a new index, which identiies multiple deprivations in the same households in education, health and living standards, known as the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI). The education and health dimensions are each based on two indicators, while the standard of living dimension is based on six indicators. These indicators are weighted to create a deprivation score, and the deprivation scores are computed for each household in the survey. A deprivation of 33.3% is used to distinguish between the poor and non-poor. In Rwanda, the MPI value is 0.352. 70.8% of the population are multi-dimensionally poor while an additional 17.9% are near to being multi-dimensionally poor. The intensity of deprivation in Rwanda, which is the average of deprivation scores experienced by people in multidimensional poverty, is 49.7%. However, Rwanda made notable gains in reducing poverty and income inequality during the irst Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS I, 2008–2013). Since the year 2000, the National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda (Republic of Rwanda, 2012b) conducted three comparable household surveys (EICV: Enquête Intégrale sur les Conditions de Vie des ménages). They focused on poverty measured in terms of household consumption. Household consumption was measured in comparable terms in each survey, then adjusted later for differences between households in the prices they faced and in their size and composition. A household’s standard of living was then deined by real consumption per adult-equivalent, including imputations for consumption in kind, all expressed in January 2001 prices. This number was compared against poverty lines irst set for the EICV1 poverty analysis in 2001, in order to assess poverty: if RWF 64 000 (in January 2001 prices) was consumed per adult – equivalent per year , a household was considered poor; and within that group, if only RWF 45 000 was consumed, a household was extremely poor. 3 More recent data compiled by the Inter-Parliamentary Union, on the basis of information provided by National Parliaments by 1st February 2015, shows that in Rwanda 63.8% of the parliamentarian seats in the Lower House and 38.5% in the Upper House are occupied by women. In this way, Rwanda has a higher women parliamentarian representation than over 190 countries. 11 Table 2: Quality of life in Rwanda Indicator Value (2014) Human Development Index (HDI) HDI [value] HDI [world ranking out of 187 countries] 0.506 151 Health Public expenditure on health [percent of GDP] Under-ive mortality [per 1 000 live births] Life expectancy at birth [years] HIV prevalence [percent ages 15–49 both sexes] 10.8 55 64.7 2.9 Education Public expenditure on education [percent of GDP] Pupil teacher ratio 4.8 59 Primary school dropout rates [percent of primary school cohort] 64.4 Expected years of schooling [of children] [years] 13.2 Adult literacy rate, both sexes [percent aged 15 and above] 65.9 Mean years of schooling [of adults] [years] 3.3 Population with at least some secondary education [percent aged 25 and above] 7.7 Inequality Coeficient of human inequality 33.1 Gini coeficient 50.8 Loss due to inequality in education [percent] 29.4 Loss due to inequality in life expectancy [percent] 30.2 Loss due to inequality in income [percent] 39.6 Gender Population with at least secondary education [ratio of females to males] Adolescent fertility rate [births per 1000 women aged 15−19] n/a 33.6 Labour force participation rate [ratio of females to males of ages 15 and older] 1.02 Gender-related development Index [female to male ratio of HDI] 0.95 Women in parliament [percent held by women] 51.9 Maternal mortality ratio [deaths of women per 100 000 live births] 340 Sustainability Carbon dioxide emissions per capita [tonnes] 0.5 Natural resource depletion [percent of GNI] 2.9 Population living on degraded land [percent] 10.1 Impact of natural disasters [deaths per year per million people] Fresh water withdrawals [percent of total renewable water resources] Forest area [percent of total land area] 1.6 1.6 18.0 Demography Urban population [percent of total] 19.7 Median age [years] 18.4 Dependency ratio of young age [ages 0–14] 74.2 Dependency ratio of old age [65 and older] 4.5 Source: UNDP (2014) Human Development Report The results show an increase in this average consumption per adult-equivalent over the whole period since 2000; consumption grew at an annualised rate of 1.9% between the irst two surveys but at 4.4% between the second and third surveys (Republic of Rwanda, 2012b). In other words, poverty fell from 58.9% 12 in 2000/01 to 56.7% in 2005/06, and fell again to 44.9% in 2010/11. One million people graduated from poverty. For the whole period, it also appears that inequality in terms of this unit of consumption fell very slightly. Income inequality among the households surveyed, as measured by the Gini coeficient, moved from 0.53 to 0.50 between the second and third surveys, signalling that inequality decreased in the second ive-year period after it had increased (by a smaller magnitude) in the irst. Table 3 presents the most relevant results of the three surveys (2000/01; 2005/06 and 2010/11) and an earlier survey performed in 1985. The data presented in Table 3 was normalized to international standards (World Bank, 2014). Table 3: Poverty indicators, 1985–2011 Indicator 1985 2000 2006 2011 Gini coeficient 0.29 0.51 0.53 0.50 Income share held by highest 10% 24.6 43.4 45.2 43.2 Income share held by highest 20% 38.9 57.2 58.6 56.8 Income share held by fourth 20% 21.6 17.9 17.4 17.8 Income share held by third 20% 16.7 11.9 11.5 11.9 Income share held by second 20% 13.1 8.2 7.9 8.3 Income share held by lowest 20% 9.7 4.8 4.6 5.2 Income share held by lowest 10% 4.4 1.9 1.8 2.1 Number of poor [millions] at $1.25 [PPP] a day 3.9 6.7 7.0 7.0 Number of poor [millions] at $2 [PPP] a day 5.4 7.7 8.4 9.2 Number of poor [millions] at $2.5 [PPP] a day 5.7 8.0 8.9 9.8 Number of poor [millions] at $4 [PPP] a day 6.0 8.3 9.4 10.6 Number of poor [millions] at $5 [PPP] a day 6.1 8.3 9.5 10.8 Poverty gap [percent of population] at $1.25 [PPP] a day 19.7 41.8 34.7 26.5 Poverty gap [percent of population] at $2 [PPP] a day 41.8 58.6 52.1 44.5 Poverty gap [percent of population] at $2.5 [PPP] a day 51.7 65.6 59.6 52.7 Poverty gap [percent of population] at $4 [PPP] a day 68.5 77.4 72.9 67.7 Poverty gap [percent of population] at $5 [PPP] a day 74.6 81.7 77.9 73.4 Poverty headcount ratio [percent of population] at $1.25 [PPP] a day 63.3 79.4 72.0 63.0 Poverty headcount ratio [percent of population] at $2 [PPP] a day 88.3 91.6 87.4 82.3 Poverty headcount ratio [percent of population] at $2.5 [PPP] a day 93.6 94.8 91.9 88.2 Poverty headcount ratio [percent of population] at $4 [PPP] a day 98.3 98.4 97.2 95.5 Poverty headcount ratio [percent of population] at $5 [PPP] a day 99.2 99.2 98.5 97.3 Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty lines [percent of population] – 58.9 56.7 44.9 Rural poverty headcount ratio at national poverty lines [percent of rural population] – – 61.9 48.7 Survey mean consumption or income per capita, bottom 40% [2005 PPP $ per day] – – 0.5 0.6 Survey mean consumption or income per capita, total population [2005 PPP $ per day] – – 1.5 1.7 Urban poverty headcount ratio at national poverty lines [percent of urban population] – – 28.5 22.1 Source: World Bank 13 LONG-TERM VISION AND DEVELOPMENT PLANS FOR RWANDA In order to transform the country into a middle income economy by 2020, Rwanda prepared a long-term strategy, known as Vision 2020 (Rep. of Rwanda, 2000). The document was a result of a national consultative process that took place in Village Urugwiro in 1998–99. Within this process, there was broad consensus on the necessity for Rwandans to clearly deine the future of the country. The aspirations of Vision 2020 have been organized around six pillars, which have been interwoven with three cross-cutting areas. The pillars are: (1) good governance and capable state, (2) human resource development and a knowledge based economy, (3) a private sector-led economy, (4) infrastructure development, (5) productive and market-oriented agriculture and (6) regional and international economic integration. The cross-cutting areas of Vision 2020 are: (a) gender equality, (b) protection of environment and sustainable natural resource management, and (c) science and technology including ICT. Figure 5 shows a conceptual scheme of the role of science, technology and innovation within Vision 2020. Vision 2020 Pillars THE RECONSTRUCTION OF THE NATION AN EFFICIENT STATE, CAPABLE OF UNITING AND MOBILIZING ITS POPULATION HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF BASIC INFRASTRUCTURES DEVELOPMENT OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND THE PRIVATE SECTOR MODERNISATION OF AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY Science and Technology in Support of Vision 2020 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & RESEARCH – NATIONAL INTEGRATED INNOVATION & ENABLING FRAMEWORK MINISTRY & INSTITUTION POLICIES, PLANS AND S&T STRATEGIES MAIN IMPLEMENTING INSTITUTIONS CAPABILITY BUILDING 14 Figure 5: The role of science, technology and innovation within Vision 2020. Source: Rep. of Rwanda (2000, 2014d) BOX 1– CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES OF VISION 2020 Gender Equality Women make up 53% of the population and participate in subsistence agriculture more than men participate. They usually feed and provide care for the children and ensure their fundamental education. However, until recently, girls were the minority in secondary schools, women had little access to the opportunities available to men and they were poorly represented in decision-making positions. In order to achieve gender equality and equity, Rwanda will continuously update and adapt its laws on gender. It will support education for all, eradicate all forms of discrimination, ight against poverty and practice a positive discrimination policy in favour of women. Gender will be integrated as a crosscutting issue in all development policies and strategies. Natural Resources and the environment The major problem in the ield of environmental protection in Rwanda is the imbalance between the population and the natural resources (land, water, lora and fauna and nonrenewable resources, which have been degrading for decades). This degradation is observed through massive deforestation, the depletion of bio-diversity, erosion and landslides, pollution of waterways and the degradation of fragile ecosystems, such as swamps and wetlands. The average population growth of 3% per annum during the 1980’s to 1990’s period was faster than that of agricultural production, estimated at 2.2%. This has led to the occupation of more and more marginal areas and to the rapid and continuous soil degradation of the fragile ecosystems of the country. These environmental problems are exacerbated by the poor location of industries and the direct evacuation of their waste, without any treatment, into waterways and lakes. In order to ensure sustainable development, Rwanda will implement adequate land and water management techniques, coupled with a sound biodiversity policy. Science, Technology and ICT Rwandans are rightly proud of their cultural roots and the government will ensure that it takes advantage of this heritage in all facets of the development process. However, for this development process to be a success, Rwanda must embrace the future and exploit innovations in science and technology to complement its cultural strengths. In Rwanda, the rate of adoption and integration of science and technology in socio-economic life is very low and the shortage of technically qualiied professionals is visible at all levels. From now until 2020, Rwanda projects to have adequate, highly skilled scientists and technicians to satisfy the needs of the national economy. There is a need to generate, disseminate and acquire scientiic skills as well as technological innovations, in addition to integrating them into the social and economic development drive, detailed above. In order for Rwanda to achieve this objective, it will have to develop the teaching of science and technology at secondary and university levels. It will facilitate the creation of high and intermediate technology enterprises and develop access to ICT down to the administrative sector level, in accordance with the national ICT plan. Source: Republic of Rwanda (2000) 15 Following the Vision 2020 report, the government introduced the Poverty Reduction Strategy Plan (PRSP 1) which was implemented from 2002 to 2005 and its objective was to manage the transitional period of rehabilitation and reconstruction. It was proposed at a critical time since the country was still struggling with the aftermath of the war and Genocide. At the end of the PRSP 1, it was evident that overall, progress was made. However, the charity sector performed better in comparison to productive sectors, including agriculture, infrastructure construction, and business and industry. The progress made did not result in signiicant poverty reduction due to demographic growth combined with limited availability of land. The charity sector also failed to address the poor adequately (Rep. of Rwanda, 2012c). In 2008, Rwanda embarked on the implementation of a second-generation poverty reduction strategy termed the Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS). The EDPRS I covered the period 2008–2012 and set the country’s development objectives for combatting poverty (Rep. of Rwanda, 2007). The EDPRS I was fully supported by country-level stakeholders, as well as development partners, and it assigned high priority to accelerating private sector-led growth. In order to respond to the constraints identiied at the end of PRSP 1, the newly-developed EDPRS I included three lagship programmes. The irst lagship, Sustainable Growth for Jobs and Exports, aimed at boosting growth by enhancing competitiveness, private sector investment and innovation, agricultural productivity, exports, and ICT competencies. The second flagship, Vision 2020 Umurenge Programme (VUP), addressed extreme poverty and vulnerability, particularly in rural areas. The third lagship, Governance, addressed ive areas: maintaining peace and security; improving relations with all countries; promoting national unity and reconciliation; promoting justice, human rights and the rule of law; and ensuring decentralization of power, public inancial management, service delivery, and the reduction of corruption. The EDPRS I recognized that Rwanda would have dificulty achieving objectives for poverty reduction and wealth creation unless it could mobilize and coordinate efforts – to build science, technology and innovation capacity. The EDPRS I included speciic SETI goals and objectives to be achieved by Rwanda in the period 2008–2013 (see items 2.57, 3.18, 3.19, 4.15, 4.19, 4.25, 4.33, 4.34, 4.40, 4.41, 4.43, 4.53, 4.54, 4.55, 4.56, 4.57, 4.58, 4.59, 4.60, 4.78 and 6.3). Within the document, science, technology and innovation played a fundamental role for the development strategy. Under the EDPRS I, public expenditure was organised to maintain the momentum in the social sectors while targeting productive sectors to achieve the MDGs and Rwanda Vision 2020. In particular, expenditure was targeted to (i) address skills shortages; (ii) eliminate the infrastructure backlog (including energy, water, transport, and ICT) so as to reduce the operational costs of doing business in Rwanda; (iii) create the conditions under which science and technology pave the way towards knowledge-based services becoming a source of economic growth, employment and poverty reduction (Rep. of Rwanda, 2007). No mention of science, technology or innovation was made in the oficial evaluation report of EDPRS I (see Rep. of Rwanda, 2012c). By May 2012, the Government of Rwanda revised the Vision 2020 goals and developed a second Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS II), to cover the period 2013–2017. EDPRS II has four thematic areas built upon ive principles, all derived from the lessons and experience of the irst EDPRS I and the overarching objectives set for EDPRS II. The ive principles are: 16 ▶ Innovation: emphasising new ways of thinking, working and delivering because the status quo will not be adequate to achieve Rwanda’s ambitious targets. ▶ Emerging priorities: identifying thematic strategies, which encompass new priorities, including new ways of doing business, to drive the achievement of Vision 2020 targets. ▶ Inclusiveness and engagement: creating ownership of development at all levels and providing learning and feedback mechanisms to improve solutions. ▶ District-led development: creating strong, mutually supporting linkages between district and sectoral strategies, and supporting administrative standardisation and eficiency. ▶ Sustainability: ensuring that programmes and targets achieved from EDPRS II are sustained over the long term in their economic, social and environmental dimensions. Unfortunately, the EDPRS II does not consider that scientiic research and technological development should play a role to stimulate economic growth and improvement of the quality of life. Neither EDPRS II, nor the United Nations Development Assistance Plan (UNDAP) 2013–2018 (United Nations, 2013), proposes a strategy/activity to promote R&D. The EDPRS II does consider that innovation may be important for developing green technologies, ICTs and the private sector, and recognizes that education, skills and technology are key drivers of productivity (Rep. of Rwanda, 2013: p. 45 and p.57). Table 4 shows the EDPRS II targets in relation to those of the revised Vision 2020. Table 4: EDPRS II targets linked to Vision 2020 Objectives Current status EDPRS II targets by 2017 Vision 2020 targets Rapid economic growth to middle income status • GDP per capita of US$644 in 2012 • GDP per capita of US$1000 • GDP per capita of US$1240 • Average GDP growth of 8.2% over 2008–2012 • Average GDP growth of 10.2% • Average GDP growth of 11.5% • Poverty reduced from 57% to 44.9% over 2006–2011 • Poverty reduced under 30% • Poverty reduced under 20% • Extreme poverty under 10% • Extreme poverty moving towards eradication Increased poverty reduction • Extreme poverty reduced from 36% to 24% over 2006–2011 More off-farm jobs • 1.4 million off-farm jobs in 2011 • 200 000 new off-farm jobs per year • 200 000 new off-farm jobs per year Reduced external dependency • Exports growth of 22.8% over 2008–2012 • Exports growth of 28% per year • Exports growth of 28% per year • Export coverage of imports 42.3% in 2012 • Exports coverage of 75% of imports in 2017 • Exports coverage of 80% of imports in 2020 • Private investment at 10% of GDP • Private sector investment to reach 15.4% of GDP • Private sector investment to reach 20% of GDP Private sector as engine of growth Source: Republic of Rwanda (2013a) 17 Rwanda is one of three countries in Africa that are making especially impressive progress for several MDGs, along with The Gambia and Malawi (UNESCO, 2014b). The UNDAP (United Nations, 2013) had identiied that the most important development challenges include the following: (a) reinforcing inclusive participation and strengthening the political processes through addressing the issue of political space, (b) strengthening the capacities of civil society, (c) accelerating media sector and judicial reforms that will strengthen access to quality justice, (d) ensuring reduction in backlog cases, and improving the quality of prosecution, (e) reducing constraints associated with a high population density, land degradation and scarcity; (f) reducing high youth unemployment; (g) mitigating high reliance on rain-fed and low input agriculture; (h) addressing reliance on biomass energy and reducing the high cost of electricity; (i) strengthening the private sector; and (j) mitigating high dependence on foreign aid and vulnerability to external shocks, including changes in donor policies. In a recent opinion survey, the World Bank (2014b) was able to determine the development priorities of various stakeholders4 (Figure 6). The top three are health (40%), education (37%) and poverty reduction (28%). These results show an interesting shift when compared to results of the previous survey, performed in 2006. In that earlier survey, respondents indicated that economic growth (53%) was the most important development priority for Rwanda, followed by poverty reduction (25%) and government effectiveness/ governance (19%). Law and justice Urban development Financial markets Trade and exports Basic infrastructure Foreign direct investment Transport Water and sanitation Global/regional integration Public sector governance/reform Social protection Climate change Food security Agricultural development Rural development Energy Anti-corruption Gender Domestic private sector development Job creation/employment Economic Growth Poverty reduction Education Health 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% Figure 6: Development priorities according to a recent opinion survey. Source: World Bank (2014b) The more recent survey also showed that many respondents – when asked to consider what was important to reduce poverty – view education (37%), rural development (26%) and economic growth (24%) as keys to reducing poverty. 4 18 In February-March 2013, 826 stakeholders identiied by the World Bank in Rwanda were invited to provide their opinions on the Bank’s assistance to the country by participating in a country survey. Participants in the survey were drawn from among the ofice of the President; the ofice of the Prime Minister; the ofice of a Minister; the ofice of a Parliamentarian; employees of a ministry, ministerial department, or implementation agency; consultants/ contractors working on World Bank-supported projects/programs; project management units (PMUs) overseeing implementation of a project; local government oficials or staff; bilateral and multilateral agencies; private sector organizations; private foundations; the inancial sector/private banks; NGOs working in the areas of advocacy and implementation; community-based organizations; the media; independent government institutions; trade unions; faith-based groups; academia/research institutes/think tanks; and the judiciary branch. 714 stakeholders participated (a 86% response rate). Source: World Bank (2014b). LONG TERM ECONOMIC GROWTH Sustainable economic growth is considered, for purposes of this report, a key to reducing poverty and improving the living standards of Rwandans especially given present conditions of rapid population growth. Figure 7 shows that GDP per capita remained practically constant in Rwanda for more than ive decades (1960–2013). The gap with the average for sub-Saharan Africa has also remained relatively constant during the last ive decades. However, since 1995, GDP per capita has been increasing at constant rate. In the same period (1995–2013), the GDP per capita expressed in constant PPP increased 260%. Table 5 shows the annual percentage change in real GDP for a selection of countries from East Africa and the weighted average for sub-Saharan Africa, as well as projections for 2014, 2015 and 2019. In the past decade, Rwanda’s economy has grown by 7.5% each year on average. This performance is surpassed only by Ethiopia (10.4%), and Zambia (7.8%). Economic growth for the EDPRS I period 2008–2012 exceeded ambitious expectations. Real GDP growth averaged 8.2% annually, which translated into GDP per capita growth of 5.1% per year. Projections made by the International Monetary Fund show a GDP growth-rate of 6.7% for 2015 and 7.5% for 2019. These growth rates are smaller than the EDPRS II goal to increase the GDP at 10.2% per year (see Table 4) for the period 2013–2017. 1 400 1 300 sub-Saharan Africa: GDP per capita [constant 2012 US$] Rwanda: GDP per capita [constant 2012 US$] Rwanda: GDP per capita [constant 2012 PPP international $] 1 200 1 100 1 000 900 800 Gap 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Figure 7: Evolution of GDP per capita, expressed in constant 2012 US$, in Rwanda and sub-Saharan Africa, 1960−2013. The dotted line shows the GDP per capita in constant international PPP. Source: UNESCO, based on data provided by the UN Statistics Division (Population), World Bank (GDP in US$) and US Census Ofice (GDP delator) 19 Table 5: Annual percentage change in real GDP for a selection of East Africa countries and projections, 1996−2019 Selection of countries from East Africa Projections Average 1996 –2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2019 Burundi 0.9 5.4 3.4 4.9 3.8 5.1 4.2 4.0 4.5 4.7 4.8 5.4 Comoros 2.1 1.2 0.8 0.4 1.8 2.2 2.5 3.0 3.5 3.9 3.9 5.4 Djibouti 1.2 4.8 5.1 5.8 5.0 3.5 4.5 4.8 5.0 5.5 5.5 6.5 Ethiopia 5.4 11.5 11.8 11.2 10.0 10.6 11.4 8.8 9.7 8.2 8.5 7.5 Kenya 2.8 5.6 8.0 –0.4 2.6 8.6 7.6 4.6 4.6 5.3 6.2 6.6 Madagascar 3.1 5.4 6.5 7.2 –3.5 0.1 1.5 2.5 2.4 3.0 4.0 4.5 Malawi 3.2 2.1 9.5 8.3 9.0 6.5 4.3 1.9 5.2 5.7 6.0 5.0 Mauritius 4.1 4.5 5.9 5.5 3.0 4.1 3.9 3.2 3.2 3.3 3.9 4.0 Mozambique 9.1 8.7 7.3 6.8 6.3 7.1 7.3 7.2 7.1 8.3 8.2 7.7 Rwanda 8.7 9.2 7.6 11.2 6.2 6.3 7.5 8.8 4.7 6.0 6.7 7.5 Seychelles 2.8 9.4 10.4 –2.1 –1.1 5.9 7.9 2.8 3.5 3.7 3.8 3.4 Tanzania 5.5 6.7 7.1 7.4 6.0 7.0 6.4 6.9 7.0 7.2 7.0 6.9 Uganda 7.0 7.0 8.1 10.4 4.1 6.2 6.2 2.8 5.8 5.9 6.3 7.0 Zambia 4.5 7.9 8.4 7.8 9.2 10.3 6.4 6.8 6.7 6.5 7.2 6.5 -- -3.6 -3.3 -16.4 8.2 11.4 11.9 10.6 3.3 3.1 3.2 4.4 5.4 7.0 7.9 6.3 4.1 6.9 5.1 4.4 5.1 5.1 5.8 5.5 Zimbabwe Sub-Saharan Africa Source: IMF (2014) Strong and balanced economic performance has derived from sustained growth across all sectors of the economy. Services have been the main driver of growth. The sector grew at an average of 10% per year and produced around 52% of national output during the EDPRS I period 2008–2012. The main expansion areas were telecommunications with increased mobile phone and internet use, wholesale and retail trade and transport. Expansion of services accounted for just over half of total GDP growth (53%) during the EDPRS I period (Rep. of Rwanda, 2013a). Extreme poverty, though signiicantly reduced during the EDPRS I period, remained high and persistent, particularly in rural areas. Though poverty fell more in rural areas than urban areas it still stood at 48.7%, compared to 22.1% in urban areas (Rep of Rwanda, 2013a). Although all provinces experienced reductions in poverty during EDPRS I, there was signiicant variation in the level of poverty reduction between different districts and provinces. In Rwanda’s poorest district, Nyamagabe, 73% of people still live below the poverty line. Rwanda’s poverty proile indicates that women are more affected by poverty than their male counterparts are, with 47% of female-headed households being poor compared to 44.9% of all households. A key challenge for EDPRS II is, therefore, to ensure sustained growth and poverty reduction nationwide and among all groups. Focus is also required on the persistence of poverty, which remains high throughout rural areas. The depth of poverty indicators, i.e. the proportion by which poor households fall below the poverty line, show that despite improvements, many households in rural areas are far below the poverty line while others continue to be vulnerable to shocks particularly in the agriculture sector (Rep. of Rwanda, 2013a). 20 According to the Global Hunger Index5 (GHI), Africa has long been a ‘hungry continent’, based on the countries’ scoring of moderate to extremely alarming hunger since 1990. Table 6 presents the GHI values for a group of countries from East Africa. Most have improved their scores between 1990 and 2014. The exception is Swaziland, where vulnerability increased. Africa’s overall hunger in 2013 was lower than in 1990. Over 1990–2014, Africa had the lowest average value for food production. Consequently, the continent has remained a net food importer and countries depending on imports of major food staples have been vulnerable to global food price volatility. Price volatility, especially for staple foods, has resulted in serious food insecurity for African farmers and consumers alike because such foods are the most widely planted by smallholder farmers and account for a large share of spending among poor consumers. Table 6: Global Hunger Index for a selection of countries from East Africa, 1990–2013 East Africa Country 1990 Burundi 32.0 Ethiopia n/a Hunger level 1990 Extremely alarming n/a Hunger level 1995 2000 2005 2014 36.1 38.7 39.0 35.6 42.6 37.4 30.8 24.4 2014 Extremely alarming Alarming Kenya 21.5 Alarming 21.0 20.2 19.5 16.5 Serious Madagascar 25.5 Alarming 24.6 25.9 24.4 21.9 Alarming Malawi 30.6 Extremely alarming Moderate 27.6 21.6 18.7 13.6 Serious 7.6 6.5 5.9 5.0 Moderate 32.0 28.5 25.1 20.5 Alarming 35.1 30.6 24.1 15.6 Serious 26.9 26.1 20.5 17.3 Serious Mauritius 8.5 Mozambique 36.0 Rwanda 30.6 Tanzania 23.4 Extremely alarming Extremely alarming Alarming Uganda 21.5 Alarming 22.7 20.2 18.4 17.0 Serious Zambia 24.9 Alarming 24.5 26.3 25.3 23.2 Alarming Zimbabwe 20.0 Alarming 22.0 21.7 20.5 16.5 Serious Source: Global Hunger Index (several years) Rwanda constantly improved its score over the period 1990–2014, from 30.6 (extremely alarming) in 1990 to 15.6 (serious) in 2014. This was a consequence of the technical support provided by the UN and its specialized agencies, along with the other key development partners, which enabled Rwanda to become the irst country to formulate and adopt the Comprehensive African Agriculture Development Plan (CAADP). Rwanda also developed an Agricultural Sector Investment Plan (ASIP), which resulted in Rwanda being awarded aGlobal Agricultural and Food Security Program (GAFSP) grant of US$ 50 million. The dramatic increase of production levels over recent years is the result of the coherent plan embedded in the ASIP and the sustained investment made by the Government in the Agricultural sector. 5 A country’s GHI is calculated by averaging the percentage of the population that is undernourished, the percentage of children younger than ive years old who are underweight and the percentage of children dying before the age of ive. This calculation results in a 100-point scale on which zero is the best score (no hunger) and 100 the worst. The scores are considered low if 0>GHI>4.9, moderate if 5>GHI>9.9, serious if 10>GHI>19.9, alarming if 20>GHI>29.9 and extremely alarming if GHI>30 (Grebmer et al., 2013). See: www.ifpri.org/book-8018/ourwork/researcharea/global-hunger-index 21 ATTRACTING FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT Foreign direct investment6 (FDI) is also usually considered a major source of growth. FDI is an important source of inance for transition economies, as it helps to cover the current account deicit and iscal deicit (in case of privatization-related FDI) and supplements inadequate domestic resources to inance both ownership change and capital formation. Secondly, compared with other inancing options, FDI may facilitate international transfer of technology, know-how and skills, including more advanced technologies and managerial skills, and may help local enterprises expand into foreign markets. It may not only increase the activity of FDI-beneiciary irms but also have a knock-on effect on other irms and sectors through technological spillover and through increased competition, thus raising productivity for the whole industry. Although FDI is commonly considered an important vehicle of international knowledge transfer, the effectiveness of this process depends crucially on the absorption capacity of the host economy, which is determined by a complex set of political, structural and institutional variables (competition policies, IPR, quality of education, availability of scientists and engineers, R&D infrastructure, etc.). Countries can increase the inlow of FDI by creating a business climate that makes foreign investors feel that their capital is safe, for example by improving rule of law, stabilizing the regulatory framework, establishing and protecting private property rights, and reducing corruption. Among the incentives that governments can offer, one could cite low tax rates or other tax incentives, access to loans and co-funding, zoning in proximity to where workers live, and improved infrastructure that allows products and services to reach markets. According to the latest World Investment Report (UNCTAD, 2015), developing countries accounted for a record 55% of global FDI inlows in 2014, exceeding lows to developed economies by US$182 billion. Inlows to Africa remained stable at US$ 54 billion. Central Africa and East Africa saw their FDI lows increase by 33% and 11%, to US$ 12 billion and US$ 7 billion, respectively. Foreign economies obtain useful new technologies through various channels, such as FDI, international trade and the international diffusion of knowledge and innovation. Technology transfer may be a major reason for the growth in total factor productivity (TFP) in many economies. Wang and Wong (2012) demonstrated that, over the period 1986–2007, foreign R&D, the products of which were transferred through inward FDI and imports, improved the technical eficiency of countries by an estimated 9.97% on average. In other words, a country with an average technical eficiency score of 0.85would have dropped to about 0.72 had it not beneited from foreign R&D through FDI and imports. This research indicates that FDI is an effective conduit for technology transfer through technology spillovers to domestically – owned irms in the host country. Managia and Bwalya (2010) analysed the signiicance of productivity externalities of FDI to local irms, in terms of both intra-industry and inter-industry spillovers, using irm-level data from Kenya, Tanzania and Zimbabwe. The results show evidence of intra- and interindustry productivity spillovers from FDI for Kenya and Zimbabwe. This shows that signiicant knowledge spillovers occur through backward linkages from foreign irms in upstream sectors to local irms in downstream sectors. This is consistent with a vertical technology spillover hypothesis: foreign irms have an incentive to facilitate knowledge transfer to local irms to enable them to produce intermediate inputs more eficiently, thereby making them available to foreign irms upstream at a lower cost. 6 22 The International Monetary Fund deines (foreign) direct investment in its Balance of Payments Manual as the category of international investment that relects the objective of obtaining a lasting interest by a resident entity in one economy (direct investor) in an enterprise resident in another economy (direct investment enterprise). A direct investor is deined by its ownership of 10% or more of the ordinary shares or voting power in a direct investment enterprise. Many African governments have implemented investment-friendly policy frameworks to attract more FDI. Nonetheless, most FDI in Africa goes to extractive industries in a relatively limited group of countries. Thus, the broader development impact of FDI-backed projects is often limited. Attracting investment to diversiied, high value-added sectors remains a challenge for Africa. Constraints on all investment such as weak infrastructure and fragmented markets also adversely affect FDI. FDI levels vary widely by region, sector and country. The potential of FDI for improving technical eficiency In their study, Wang and Wong (2012) deine technical eficiency as a country’s ability to obtain maximum output from a given vector of inputs, so technical eficiency improvement refers to the movements toward greater productivity. Based on showing that inlow of foreign R&D via FDI improves technical eficiency in a regular manner across countries, they were able to estimate technical eficiency scores for individual countries (as a multiple of inlow of foreign R&D transferred via FDI). Whereas least developed countries typically do not have adequate domestic resources to promote the accumulation of R&D stock, this work points to the conclusion that adopting preferential policies to promote trade and capital inlows, so as to access results of foreign R&D, can be extremely important to improve technical eficiency and, consequently, industrial competitiveness. However, technical eficiency, innovation and competitiveness also depend on other variables, such as infrastructure and political stability. Arnold (2004) identiied still other factors, such as: managerial deicits; a lack of technological understanding, learning ability or absorptive capacity to make use of externally generated technology; failure to (re)conigure public institutions, such as universities or research institutes, to work effectively within an innovation system; deiciencies in regulatory frameworks (e.g. health and safety rules); as well as other indirect factors, related to the sophistication of demand or cultural and social values, which can have a negative effect on innovation and economic performance. Improvements in infrastructure and political stability, combined with adequate human capital policies, can help to improve a country’s technical eficiency and its attractiveness for FDI. FDI trends in Rwanda since 1990 Market failures imply a potential for policies to increase welfare by encouraging technology transfer (Sagasti and Aráoz, 1976; Berg and Fuchs, 2013). To be effective, policy must alter the incentives of agents that possess innovative technologies in order to ensure that they transfer these technologies. In practice, this means encouraging the means for technology transfer: for example, licensing and inlows of FDI. In Rwanda, laws and regulations do not place restrictions on FDI entry and establishment, and do not impose on foreign direct investors any discrimination with regard to incentives and infrastructure enjoyed by local investors. All foreign direct investments are allowed without screening or restriction of their amount or sector, and the government intends that foreign investors are be granted National Treatment (Rep. of Rwanda, 2009a). 23 Table 7 shows the long-term evolution of Rwanda’s FDI inlow and outlow, as well as the ratio of its net FDI inlow to gross ixed capital formation7 (GFCF) between 1990 and 2013. Figure 8 presents the longterm evolution of FDI lows as a percentage of the GDP. Table 7 and Figure 8, show a contraction of net FDI inlow between 1980 and 1994 (Genocide) followed by an expansion from 1995 to the present time. The maximum value of net FDI inlow as a percentage of the GDP was obtained in 2009 (2.3% GDP or 119 million US$). In 2012 the country received 160 million US$ which represented 2.2% GDP. This indicates that the FDI volume is small relative to GDP; consequently, FDI’s impact on economic growth and technical eficiency has been very limited. Since 1999, GFCF has shown sustained growth; reaching 24.4% of the GDP in 2013 (see Figure 9). Table 7: FDI inlow and outlow for Rwanda, 1990–2014 Year 1990 FDI inlow [million current US$] 8 FDI outlow [million current US$] n/a FDI inlow/ GFCF* 2.0 1991 5 n/a 1.7 1992 2 n/a 0.7 1993 6 n/a 1.8 1994 0 n/a 0 1995 2 n/a 1.3 1996 2 n/a 1.1 1997 3 1 1.0 1998 7 6 2.4 1999 2 3 0.5 2000 8 3 2.5 2001 4 1 1.2 2002 3 1 0.8 2003 5 0 1.5 2004 11 0 2.4 2005 14 3 3.2 2006 16 14 3.3 2007 82 13 10.8 2008 103 0 12.7 2009 119 0 10.5 2010 251 0 12.2 2011 119 0 9.7 2012 255 0 10.5 2013 258 14 6.1 2014 268 n/a n/a * Gross ixed capital formation Source: UNCTAD World Investment Report (s) [several years] 7 24 GFCF consists of investment in land improvements (fences, ditches, drains and so on); plant, machinery and equipment purchases; and the construction of roads, railways and the like, including commercial and industrial buildings, ofices, schools, hospitals and private residences. 2.5 FDI [% of GDP] 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Figure 8: Evolution of net inlow of Foreign Direct Investment in Rwanda, expressed as a percentage of GDP, 1970−2013. The dotted line indicates the best-itting curve. Source: UNESCO, based on raw data provided by the World Bank 27 Gross fixed capital formation [% of GDP] 25 23 21 19 17 15 13 11 9 7 5 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Figure 9: Evolution of gross ixed capital formation in Rwanda, expressed as a percentage of GDP, 1965−2013. The dotted line indicates the best-itting curve. Source: UNESCO, based on raw data provided by the World Bank 25 PROSPECTS FOR FDI IN THE MEDIUM TERM Rwanda, a country facing a range of other development challenges, has shown that improvements in the regulatory environment—including the adoption of global good practices—are well within the reach of low-income economies (IBRD and World Bank, 2014). Different stakeholders also corroborated these facts. The subjective perception of the international community concerning Rwanda’s ability to attract FDI still ranks the country 25th out of 144 countries, according to a series of opinion polls by the World Economic Forum (2014). See also page 36. Table 8 presents the list of the major foreign direct registered investors during the period 2006–2011. Table 8: Top-10 foreign direct registered investors in Rwanda, 2006–2011 Company Kivu Watt Ltd Country USA & Netherlands Sector Energy Investment [US$ million] 285.6 Kenya Commercial Bank Kenya Finance 214.4 Dubai World UAE Hotel and Real State 211.3 Convention Centre Libya Hotel and Tourism 137.8 Tigo Luxembourg Telecommunications 113.6 102.2 Airtel India Telecommunications DSI Energy Ltd Denmark Electricity and Gas 73.0 New Century/Marriott Hotel China (75%) Rwanda (25%) Hotel 65.6 New Forrest Rwanda Ltd United Kingdom Forestry 51.2 Opulent Ltd Tanzania Hotel 29.4 Source: Adapted from Abbott, Malunda and Festo (2013: 36) The new Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS II) proposes to radically increase FDI in priority sectors of the economy, especially by large irms. This strategy identiies key interventions that will transform Rwanda’s investment process, by: (i) strengthening the institutional set-up to lead the investment process; (ii) transforming and funding investment promotion with a revamped strategic focus; and (iii) inalising and implementing the New Investment Code (Rep. of Rwanda, 2013a). EDPRS II considers that the small size of Rwanda’s formal private sector is a major limiting factor to future prospects for economic growth. According to the new strategy, the private sector needs to undergo signiicant structural transformation to be able to become the main driver of economic growth and create the large number of jobs the Rwandan economy requires. The three proposed interventions to transform the private sector will be (i) strengthening the investment process, by pro-actively targeting large foreign investors in priority sectors of the economy; (ii) accelerating structural changes in the inancial sector, aiming to increase long-term savings and thus credit available to the private sector; and, (iii) signiicantly strengthening the business environment through tax and regulatory reform to spur medium and large enterprise growth, and attract large investors (Rep. of Rwanda, 2013a). EDPRS II is also prioritising the inalisation and implementation of the Rwanda’s new Mining Law currently under development. This new law should overhaul the concessions strategy in the mining sector and merge prospecting and exploration licenses. This new legal framework will be strengthened by better information and transparency about the sector and its potential. The government of Rwanda commits to increasing investments in exploration, including petroleum exploration, based on a clear exploration strategy. This improvement in the business environment will be accompanied by measures to comply with international best standards (including environmental standards). 26 THE CORRELATION BETWEEN GOOD GOVERNANCE AND SCIENTIFIC PRODUCTIVITY In an increasingly complex innovation landscape, developing effective governance requires better coordination at, and among, the local, regional, national and international levels. With the broadening of innovative processes, players and locations, the systems of governance that provide for their proper functioning become even more important. As no single actor has the knowledge and resources to tackle the innovation challenge unilaterally, all countries – in one way or another – face the task of better coordinating the various actors involved in formulating and implementing policy. The post-conlict reconstruction of Rwanda and its social capital, anchored on good governance and an effective and capable state, is considered a minimal condition to stimulate harmonious development. It is understood that institutions, politics and economics are central to any system of governance. Where controversy has sometimes arisen, it has concerned what constitutes good and bad governance and linking governance to democracy. Rwanda’s Vision 2020 identiies democratic governance characterized by transparency and accountability as a core challenge for Rwanda. Vision 2020 considered that the State will ensure democratic structures and processes respectful of and committed to the rule of law and the protection of human rights. The document promotes people’s participation at the grassroots level through the decentralisation process, whereby local communities will be empowered in the decision making process, enabling them to address the issues which most affect them. Since 1996, the World Bank has published a set of standardized governance indicators each year for every country in the world. The World Bank’s team deines governance as the traditions and institutions by which authority in a country is exercised. This includes the process by which governments are selected, monitored and replaced; the government’s capacity to formulate and implement sound policies and; the level of respect on the part of both citizens and the state for the institutions that govern economic and social interactions (Kaufman et al., 1999). Within UNESCO’s GOSPIN programme, some correlation among these governance indicators and SETI productivity was found (Lemarchand, 2013). For example, in Figure 10, countries are represented in a Cartesian graph (four quadrants), according to their positive or negative values for government effectiveness and political stability/absence of violence. The size of the bubble relects the number of scientiic publications – listed by the Web of Science – per million population. Few nations fall in the irst quadrant. Those countries with the largest GDP per capita and number of scientiic publications per million population are located in this irst quadrant8 (Lemarchand, 2013). The only African countries included in the irst quadrant are Botswana, Cape Verde, Ghana, Mauritius, Namibia, Seychelles and South Africa (at the limit for positive values for political stability/absence of violence). No African country features in the second quadrant (negative values for political stability/absence of violence but positive values for government effectiveness). The third quadrant (negative values for both indicators) concentrates the great majority of African countries. Lastly, 10 African countries fall in the fourth quadrant (positive values for political stability/absence of violence but negative values for government effectiveness). Figure 10 also informs about differences of scientiic productivity using as its measure: the number of scientiic publications resident scientists annually published in journals recognized by international indexes, per million inhabitants of the country’s population. The smallest bubble size represents the least productive countries, larger bubbles represent more productive countries. The irst quadrant features very high productivity. 8 The exception to the rule is Israel, which falls in the second quadrant. 27 2.5 2.0 Government effectiveness (2012) 1.5 Israel 1.0 Bahrain 0.5 0.0 Turkey Colombia -1.0 -1.5 & Tobago Italy Botswana Greece Seychelles South Africa Panama Thailand Mexico BulgariaMontenegroNamibia Philippines Samoa Saudi Arabia Tunisia Peru Sri Lanka Guam Rwanda Brazil El Salvador Vietnam Tonga Vanuatu Albania Argentina Russian Fed Kazakhstan Mozambique Palau Zambia Algeria Ethiopia EcuadorSwaziland Dominican Mongolia French Micronesia Iraq Pakistan Honduras Republic BangladeshGuatemala Tuvalu Gabon Egypt Mauritania Nicaragua Mali Paraguay Belarus Nigeria Nepal Angola Venezuela Iraq Syrian Arab Cote d'Ivoire Rep. Congo Yemen Rep Zimbabwe Guinea Guinea-Bissau Turkmenistan Togo Afghanistan Burundi Sudan Eritrea Central Libya Chad African Rep Comoros Haiti Dem Rep Congo Equatorial Guinea Marshall Islands Lebanon -0.5 Georgia Finland Singapore Denmark Sweden Hong Kong Switzerland Canada Germany Australia Luxemburg Ireland UK USA Iceland Austria Japan France Chile Malta UAE Spain Korea Macao Qatar Portugal Malaysia Czech Rep Lithuania Slovak Republic Latvia Netherlands Croatia Poland Hungary Trinidad India -2.0 -2.5 -3.0 -2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 Political stability/Absence of violence (2012) Figure 10: Evolution in government effectiveness worldwide, as measured against political stability/ absence of violence, 2012. The size of the bubbles relects the number of scientiic publications per million population in 2012. Rwanda appears in the third quadrant (in red). The majority of countries with high scientiic productivity appear in the irst quadrant (positive values for political stability/absence of violence and government effectiveness). Source: UNESCO, based on raw data provided by World Bank, UN Statistics Division and Web of Science Figure 11 shows on a magniied scale the evolution in the same two governance indicators (and scientiic productivity) for Rwanda, over time, for the period between 1996 and 2012. Both political stability/absence of violence and government effectiveness had negative values for the entire period. Together these indicators may be said to describe governance. During this period, governance evolved across the third quadrant; the shorter distance of the later bubbles to the origin (crossing point) of the graph’s central co-ordinates indicating that governance have been improving with time. Since 1996, the governance indicators have begun improving, in spite of the fact that the country still has negative values for these two indicators. Figure 11 shows the evolution of these two combined governance indicators over time. The irst pillar of Vision 2020 is good governance and a capable state. Social and economic transformation relies equally on state and market transformation. The state, its quality of governance and its accountability, are indispensable to creating the culture and values of service needed for wealth-creation and improved quality of living. The main objective of the EDPRS II Accountable Governance thematic area is to advance and prioritise promoting and strengthening accountable governance in Rwanda. 28 The Government of Rwanda (2012) has recognized that good governance minimizes distortionary incentives and ensures equitable allocation and distribution of public resources. It enhances public security and safety, and guarantees property and personal rights, which in turn creates an environment conducive to private sector investment. In the case of Rwanda, the police, the national ofice for legal proceedings, ombudsman, ofice for tender markets, and auditor general’s ofice were designed as key government institutions with high enforcement/sanctions capacity involved in enforcing accountability and transparency mechanisms at all levels of Rwanda’s administrative structure (Mudacumura, 2014). The Rwanda Governance Board (RGB) was created as a public agency with legal personality, administrative and inancial autonomy, established by law No 41/2011 of 30/09/2011. This institution promotes the principles of good governance and decentralization; monitors the practices of good governance in political, public and private institutions; coordinates and supports media sector development; registers, empowers and monitors civil society organizations; enhances civic participation; conducts research and studies related to governance; documents home grown solutions and provides policy advocacy to Government for achieving good service delivery, sustainable development and prosperity. Government Effectiveness In order to make progress and bring closure, the government of Rwanda granted oficial recognition to the traditional judicial systems of Gacaca and Abunzi and used both to successfully try thousands of genocide suspects in a manner adjudged to be fair by international standards. The success of the resuscitated judicial system led the government to restore and grant oficial recognition to other indigenous systems of governance and public administration, such as Abunzi, Imihigo, Ubudehe and Umuganda (see Box 2). 0.2 2011 2013 0.0 -2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 2012 0.0 0.5 2009 2008 2006 -0.2 2007 -0.4 2004 2000 -0.6 2003 -0.8 2002 1998 2005 -1.0 1996 -1.2 -1.4 Political Stability/Absence of Violence Figure 11: Evolution in government effectiveness in Rwanda, as measured against political stability/ absence of violence, 1996–2013. The size of the bubbles relects the number of scientiic publications per million of population for the same years. Source: UNESCO, based on raw data provided by the World Bank, UN Statistics Division and Web of Science 29 BOX 2 – INDIGENOUS VALUES AND SYSTEMS As part of efforts to reconstruct Rwanda and nurture a shared national identity, the Government of Rwanda drew on aspects of Rwandan culture and traditional practices to enrich and adapt its development programs to the country’s needs and context. The result is a set of Home Grown Solutions – culturally owned practices translated into sustainable development programs, such as Abunzi, Imihigo, Ubudehe and Umuganda. Abunzi The word Abunzi can be translated as ‘those who reconcile’ or ‘those who bring together’ (from verb kunga). In the traditional Rwanda, Abunzi were men known within their communities for personal integrity and were asked to intervene in the event of conlict. Each conlicting party would choose a person considered trustworthy, known as a problem-solver, and who was unlikely to alienate either party. The purpose of this system was to settle disputes and also to reconcile the conlicting parties and restore harmony within the affected community. Abunzi can be seen as a hybrid form of justice combining traditional with modern methods of conlict resolution. The reintroduction of the Abunzi system in 2004 was motivated in part by the desire to reduce the backlog of court cases, as well as to decentralize justice and make it more affordable and accessible for citizens seeking to resolve conlict without the cost of going to court. Today Abunzi is fully integrated into Rwanda’s justice system. This conflict resolution mechanism rooted in Rwandan culture was perceived as more accessible, less threatening and therefore more intimate and human. Those who referred their cases to Abunzi were more comfortable seeking mediation from within their community, which afforded them a better understanding of the issues and process at hand. As the Abunzi system gained more recognition as a successful method to resolve conlict and deliver justice, the importance of providing more structure and formality to their work increased. Consequently, the Abunzi started receiving training for mediating domestic conlicts, as well as logistical support from both governmental and non-governmental organisations, to improve the quality of their mediation services. In 2012, 30 768 Abunzi were operating across Rwanda. Imihigo Imihigo is the plural Kinyarwanda word of Umuhigo, which means to vow to deliver. Imihigo also includes the concept of Guhiganwa, which means to compete among one another. Imihigo describes the pre-colonial cultural practice in Rwanda where an individual sets targets or goals to be achieved within a speciic period. The person must complete these objectives by following guiding principles and be determined to overcome any possible challenges that arise. In 2006, Imihigo (known also as performance contracts) were introduced to address this need. Since its introduction, Imihigo have been credited with improving accountability and quickening the pace of citizen-centred development activities and programs. The practice of Imihigo has now been extended to ministries, embassies and public service staff. Over the years, the practice has evolved into a tool for effective planning, implementation, performance evaluation and accountability for all public institutions and staff. Imihigo were prepared according to the government priorities as stated in EDPRS II, Vision 2020 and other international agenda, like MDGs. However, the exact extent of the impacts of the Imihigo policy and the overall dynamic of the process remains to be further researched and discussed on in order to assess the responsiveness and effectiveness of this tool. Ubudehe Ubudehe refers to the long-standing Rwandan practice and culture of collective action and mutual support to solve problems within a community, according to a recent academic research paper. It is not known exactly when Ubudehe was irst practiced, but it is thought to date back more than a century. The focus of traditional Ubudehe was mostly on cultivation. Colonisation and the introduction of a cash-based economy weakened the practice of Ubudehe as some members of the community were able to pay others to do work. While this trend occurred across the country, in some places Ubudehe was still practiced up until the 1980s. 30 The Ubudehe Program was launched in 2001 as part of partnership between the Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning and the Ministry of Local Government. During ield visits of Ubudehe facilitators to people, they are empowered to discuss the characteristics of poverty and their role in poverty reduction. When Ubudehe was launched into Rwandan life, it was as way to better involve communities in their development by setting up participatory problem solving mechanisms. The program was seen as a way to strengthen democratic processes and good governance through greater community involvement in decision-making. Ubudehe creates opportunities for people at all levels of society, especially the village level, to interact with one another, share ideas, create institutions and make decisions for their collective development. Ubudehe is one of Rwanda’s best-known Home Grown Solution because of its participatory development approach to poverty reduction. In 2008, the program won the United Nations Public Service Award for excellence in service delivery. Today Ubudehe is one of the country’s core development programs. Ubudehe Process serves as a pro poor credit channel based on the prior successes of Ubudehe approach in participatory planning and management, as well as on success stories at individual and community levels in the area of poverty reduction and community ownership. Since Financial Institutions ind it risky and costly to transact with the poor, Ubudehe Process offers an opportunity to mitigate the risk and lower costs by involving the communities. Through community collective action, the risks and costs are minimized by people owning their local problem, and more people share the beneits. Umuganda The word Umuganda can be translated as ‘coming together in common purpose to achieve an outcome’. In traditional Rwandan culture, members of the community would call upon their family, friends and neighbours to help them complete a dificult task. In Rwanda, there is a mandatory community service day from 8:00am to 11:00am, on the last Saturday of each month called Umuganda meaning community service. The day is called umunsi w’umuganda, meaning “contribution made by the community” which is designed to be a day of contribution and building the country by citizens themselves. By law all able bodied persons above the age of 18 and below 65 are expected to participate in volunteer community work. The start of this practice goes back to colonial times and is still practiced today. Participation in Umuganda is usually supervised by a manager, or Umudugudu, a chairperson who oversees the effectiveness and eficiency of community participation. On this day, business activity halts, public transportation is limited, and people are seen everywhere working. People participate in cleaning streets, cutting grass and trimming bushes along roads, or repairing public facilities or building houses for vulnerable persons. People with particular skills offer their services for free on this day. For example, doctors may offer free medical examinations. The beneits of Umuganda are not merely economic. The day is intended to build community involvement and strengthen cohesion between persons of different background and levels. One such a beneit is that people can access authorities to articulate their needs and voice opinions on various issues. The labour cost from Umuganda contributes to national development programs. By reaping the rewards of the volunteer labour and by having more capital to invest in the country, Umuganda has contributed to the growth and development of the Rwanda. Close to 80% of Rwandans take part in monthly community work. Successful projects include the building of schools, medical centres and hydroelectric plants as well as rehabilitating wetlands and creating highly productive agricultural plots. The value of Umuganda to the country’s development since 2007 has been estimated at more than US$60 million. Source: Rwanda Governance Board 31 δt: Relative distance to the origin 1995 0.0 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 -0.5 -1.0 -1.5 -2.0 -2.5 Figure 12: Evolution of the two combined governance indicators (1996–2013) represented in Figure 11. Here, the relative distance to the centre of the origin of co-ordinates is plotted over time. Since all the circles in Figure 11 fall in the third quadrant, these shorter distances mean a better level of governance. The dotted line is the best-itting curve. It shows that Rwanda’s combined governance indicators have been improving since the Genocide. The relative distance dt at time t (year or measurement) is estimated as dt = Gt2+Pt2 where Gt is the value for government effectiveness at year t and Pt is the value of political stability/absence of violence at year t. Source: UNESCO 0 CPI score 90 World Rank 20 80 49 49 55 66 70 60 50 83 60 80 89 102 50 121 40 111 50 53 53 100 49 40 120 World Rank Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) score 100 40 30 31 25 20 28 30 140 33 160 10 0 2004 180 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 200 2015 Figure 13: Evolution of the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) in Rwanda (triangles associated with the left-axis) and world rank (circles associated with the right-axis), 2005−2014. The dotted lines represent the best-itting curves. Source: UNESCO, based on raw data generated by Transparency International 32 Corruption is another important variable – associated with the quality of governance – which has increasingly been incorporated in most of the regional and international reports published by international organizations, including the African Economic Outlook (ADB et al., 2014). Since 1998, Transparency International has published the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI). The CPI ranks countries and territories on the basis of how corrupt their public sector is perceived to be, on a scale from 0 (highly corrupt) to 100 (very clean). A country’s rank indicates its position relative to the other countries and territories listed in the index. The total number of countries included in the survey varies each year, ranging from 85 (1998) to 183 (2011). The CPI is calculated using data from 10 independent institutions. All 13 sources measure the overall extent of corruption (frequency and/or size of bribes) in the public and political spheres and all sources provide a ranking of countries.9 Figure 13 shows the CPI scores of Rwanda and its corresponding world ranking between 2005 and 2013. The shape of these curves follows a similar pattern to that for the governance indicators (Figure 12). In 2005, Rwanda ranked 83th (out of 159 countries), in 2011, it ranked 49th (out of 183 countries) and in 2014 55th (out of 175 countries). Mudacumura (2014) argues that the tremendous pace in eliminating corruption in Rwanda has paved way for championing good governance, and helped set up a trend of formulating policies that reach the inal implementation stages with success. Political stability and good governance sustained over decades are prerequisites for developing sound public policies. Stability and predictability are particularly important for research and innovation, since both endeavours involve risk-taking with long time horizons. They thus require a stable framework, institutions and policies. Political instability may inhibit innovation by increasing uncertainty for innovators and venture capitalists; it may lessen the effectiveness of SETI policy instruments by weakening the incentives they provide. Moreover, research and innovation are cross-cutting activities that involve the ministries of science and technology, higher education, health, agriculture, energy, mining, environment, water and planning, etc. To be effective, research and innovation measures require co-ordination and coherence among government departments, programmes and policies; empirical studies over the past two decades show that governments ind this dificult, since their traditionally departmentalised structures are generally ill suited to deal with cross-cutting policy issues such as research and innovation. The way in which SETI policies are managed in Rwanda by different ministries, universities and research centres, which interact little is an example of this. Adopting a coherent approach entails not only co-ordinating a multitude of policy moves dictated by the core set of research and innovation policies, such as those for higher education and entrepreneurship, but also evaluating their possible interaction with policies pursuing other primary objectives, such as the iscal policy, competition laws and regulations which provide the framework for innovation (OECD, 2010). 9 To determine the mean value for a country, the data are standardized using the technique of matching percentiles. This method uses the country ranking reported by each individual source. It is useful for combining sources that have a different distribution. Whereas there is some information loss with this technique, it allows all reported scores to remain within the bounds of the CPI, i.e. between 0 and 100. A beta-transformation is then performed on scores. This increases the standard deviation among all countries included in the CPI and avoids a smaller standard deviation from year to year, one of the drawbacks of the matching percentiles technique. All of the standardized values for a country are then averaged, to determine a country’s score. The CPI score and the ranking position are accompanied by the number of sources, high-low range, standard deviation and conidence range for each country. The conidence range is determined by a bootstrap (non-parametric) methodology, which allows inferences to be drawn from the underlying precision of the results. A 90 percent conidence range is then established, whereby there is a 5 percent probability that the value is either below or above this conidence range. Source: Transparency International (2013) 33 BOX 3 – POLICY DIALOGUES AND INTERUNIVERSITY DEBATES Debate competitions in institutions of higher learning were organized as part of the celebration of 2013 governance month event organized in Rwanda. There were 22 universities and 8 secondary schools involved in these competitions across the country. Policy debate was chosen to be used in all institutions of learning, as the topics used were essentially policy related. Some examples of the motions used in debates were: “Rwanda should adopt agriculture rather than industry for economic development”; and “Foreign aid has done more harm than good to developing countries.” The assessment by adjudication was based on criteria agreed upon by all involved, both the adjudicators as well as the debating teams. These criteria were: command of language, answering questions, audience interaction, and time consciousness. Each one was scored from one to ten (10) on a score sheet. At the end of the debate, every speaker was assessed as an individual and then the scores for all debaters would be added up to determine a score for the whole team. Judges were selected from among institutions such as Rwanda Tourism University College, Institute of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, Kigali Independent University, and one was from Transparency International. Debaters were chosen based on their experience in debates and their social standing as respected lecturers from recognized establishments. All the provinces were represented during the debate competitions. Institutions were selected from each province and the modus operandi was to come up with the best team in the province, which would proceed to the next level of quarter inals. In the semi-inal debate competitions, the institutions represented were Kigali Institute of Science and Technology, Umutara Polytechnic, National University of Rwanda and College of Education (KIE). Source: Rwanda Governance Board (2013) 34 CONSTRUCTING AN INNOVATION PROFILE: INDUSTRIAL POLICIES AND DEMAND FOR SETI The national innovation systems paradigm usually characterizes the relationship among institutions that support and foster knowledge creation, and irms that exploit this knowledge. This stream of work suggests that to maximize innovation, institutions within a country need to complement each other and work in tandem. Also, it suggests that technology policy, aiming to create eficient institutional mechanisms for integrating the functions of knowledge production and knowledge commercialization, is likely to enhance a country’s ability to sustain an innovative technology system over time (Stern et al., 2002). Innovation policy is usually deined as a set of policy instruments and appropriate institutions that assist in the local adoption of technology, and the introduction of new products and services to the market. This may include adapting imported technologies to local conditions. Appropriate technology and innovation policies can be derived only from an understanding of how technical change takes place in local enterprises. Whereas companies everywhere have to make an effort to master or adapt existing technologies, a high level of basic knowledge and capabilities exists in most irms in mature industrial countries, or can be easily acquired from other irms, labour markets, support institutions or consultants. This makes it relatively easy and routine to master existing technologies. In developing countries, by contrast, not only is the internal knowledge base for mastering technologies relatively weak; the support network provided by other enterprises, institutions and human capital also tends to be underdeveloped (Lall and Teubal, 1998). Promoting innovation at irm level involves both public and private sectors (e.g. entrepreneurs, researchers, public servants, inanciers, etc.) and may include civil society organizations. Successfully launching and running initiatives involving innovation requires aligning interests of numerous stakeholders. This implies a dificult co-ordination process. The state is often best placed for the role of initiating, guiding or facilitating co-ordination, owing to its stronger convening and co-ordinating power, and it has an important tool available only to it. Incentives can be designed in public policies so as to inluence behaviours and relations of actors involved in the innovation process. By, for example, aligning incentives with stakeholders, establishing risk-sharing mechanisms for multi-stakeholder ventures, and promoting knowledge sharing and dissemination, the state signiicantly promotes the co-ordination process. In developing countries, inadequate public sector involvement to co-ordinate stakeholders may stymy innovation. The productive sector and its markets represent demand for SETI. The characteristics and behaviour of this SETI demand over time determine whether or not it is possible, in the economy of a country, to absorb the results of research obtained by universities and research centres (SETI supply), so as to generate new goods and services. To handle new knowledge and incorporate it in production, a irm has to make a number of technological decisions. Some are clearly concerned with the choice of alternatives regarding the source of new knowledge, the source of equipment and the use of such inputs. Others have to do with the buildingup of the irm’s capacity (technical and design groups, administrative organisation, information) to make such choices, to adapt foreign technology and to incorporate new knowledge effectively into production. The adaptation of foreign technology is particularly important, since it contributes to the optimal use of foreign technology and can link foreign technology to domestic S&T. Supply and demand analysis should guide the public sector’s involvement. A lack of adequate understanding of the characteristics and potentialities of the SETI supply and demand in a given country will trigger failure for any research and innovation policies, policy instruments and incentives put in place. In recent years, a growing number of surveys have studied the behaviour of entrepreneurship and innovation in different countries. Some of these provide valuable information on Rwanda (World Economic Forum, 2014; INSEAD et al., 2013). See Table 9 for a series of subjective and objective indicators showing the perception of research and innovation in Rwanda. 35 Table 9: Selected subjective and objective measurements for Rwanda Subjective index: World Economic Forum Executive Opinion Survey 2014 (Max. value = 7) Indicator Value 1−7 Rank out of 148 Objective Measurements Indicator Value Rank out of 148 31.8 134 7.2 124 Quality of the education system 4.0 50 Secondary enrolment, gross percentage (2012) Quality of Math and Science Education 4.1 70 Tertiary education enrolment, gross percentage (2012) Quality of management schools 3.8 99 School life expectancy, in years (2012) 10.2 113 Internet access in schools 4.3 70 Individuals using internet, percent (2013) 8.7 125 Availability of research and training services 3.7 96 Broadband internet subscriptions per 100 population (2013) 0.0 137 Extent of staff training 4.0 66 Int’l internet bandwidth, kb/s per user (2013) 9.8 103 Availability of latest technology 5.3 43 Mobile broadband subscriptions/100 population (2013) 5.8 106 Firm level technology absorption 5.0 49 Mobile telephone subscriptions/100 population (2013) 56.8 134 FDI and technology transfer 5.1 25 Fixed telephone lines/100 pop (2012) 0.4 135 Capacity for innovation 3.5 86 Number of applications iled under the Patent Cooperation Treaty per million population (2011) 0.0 124 Quality of scientiic research institutions 3.7 72 Scientiic articles listed at SCOPUS (2013) 210 125 Company spending on R&D 2.9 94 Citable scientiic articles-H index (2013) 43 145 University-industry collaboration in R&D 3.7 64 Life expectancy at birth, in years (2013) 65.5 115 Government procurement of advanced tech products 4.8 5 Women in labour force, ratio to men (2010) 1.02 3 Availability of scientists and engineers 4.0 74 Imports as a percentage of GDP (2013) 39.9 88 Note: The subjective indicators (from a low of 1 to a high of 7) are based on a series of executive opinion surveys prepared by the World Economic Forum, whereas the objective indicators (related to research and innovation) were originally produced by other agencies and have been compiled by the World Economic Forum. Both columns show Rwanda’s ranking out of 148 nations for each individual indicator. INSEAD et al. (2014) have also produced similar surveys and data. Source: World Economic Forum (2013) Global Competitiveness Report (2013–2014) 36 Characteristics of the manufacturing sector The emergence of viable industry that can act as the principal growth engine of the economy is a priority for Rwanda’s development. The manufacturing sector has been one of the key drivers of GDP growth in Rwanda, leading to an impressive set of igures – representing around 14% of the GDP over the past decade. Real industrial output grew 19% in 2011, 6% in 2012 and 11% in 2013. With increases in output, there has been a steady rise in capacity utilisation. Industrial sector growth over the period of the EDPRS I was 9.8% annually. Construction has been a powerful growth-driver, at 15.0% annually, driven by remittances from the diaspora. In recent years, several executive polls have been conducted by different international organizations to measure the dynamism of innovation and the competitiveness of different countries (i.e. World Economic Forum, 2014; INSEAD et al., 2014). Figure 14 shows the results of an executive poll designed to determine the major dificulties faced by the productive sector in promoting innovation and improving competitiveness. The poll reveals that foreign currency regulations, lack of access to inancing, an inadequately educated workforce, insuficient capacity to innovate, and inadequate supply of infrastructure are deemed to be the major hurdles. INSEAD et al. (2014) made a systematic analysis of the major components of innovation in 143 countries. Their study analyses seven pillars: business sophistication; creative output; human capital and research; infrastructure; institutions; knowledge and technology output and; market sophistication. Figure 15 shows the cartographic results obtained by Rwanda for each individual pillar. In 2013, Rwanda came 102nd out of 143 countries, with an integrated value of 29.3 out of 100 maximum points. Institutions and market sophistication are the pillars which have the highest scores. Government instability/coups 0.0% Crime and theft 0.6% Poor public health 0.9% Restrictive labour regulations 1.1% Foreign currency regulations 1.3% Policy instability 1.6% Corruption 2.5% Inefficient government bureaucracy 3.5% Inflation 5.3% Tax regulations 7.2% Poor work ethic in national labour force 7.5% Tax rates 10.1% Inadequately supply of infrastructure 11.3% Insufficient capacity to innovate 11.5% Inadequately educated workforce 14.3% Access to financing 21.3% 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% Figure 14: Major dificulties in promoting innovation and competitiveness in Rwanda, 2013. Source: World Economic Forum (2014) 37 Institutions 100 80 Human capital and research 60.6 Creative outputs 60 40 21.3 20 15.5 0 20.4 23.0 Knowledge & technology outputs Infrastructure 37.5 59.4 Business sophistication Market sophistication Figure 15: Rwanda’s scores (0–100) for each individual pillar of innovation, taking into account the estimation of the Global Innovation Index. Source: INSEAD et al. (2014) Over 90% of Rwanda’s workforce is employed in the private sector. Small and medium enterprises (SME) account for 98% of the estimated 123 000 businesses operating in the country and provide 84% of private sector employment. However, only 14 000 irms are registered with the Rwanda Revenue Authority, 40% of which are registered for value-added taxes and merely 11% for income taxes. Key impediments to private sector development include the high cost of energy and transport, as well as poor business planning and management skills, particularly in SMEs. A private sector development strategy was adopted in 2013 to facilitate investment, job creation and growth in the private sector (ADB et al., 2014). One of the priorities of EDPRS II is to stimulate entrepreneurship, access to inance and business development by increasing off-farm employment, productivity and job creation driven by the private sector. The government proposes the consolidation, rationalisation, and expansion of different business support programmes into an Integrated National Employment Programme to boost entrepreneurship and job creation. The coupling between public policy and entrepreneurship is tight in developed countries and loose in developing countries according to Schott and Jensen (2008). It should be cautioned that most of the conditions that allow the coupling to be tight in developed countries are not present in the developing countries. Entrepreneurship policy also differs from industrial policy because its effectiveness depends, to some extent, on the introduction of a trade-off between market concentration and productivity performance (Audretsch, 2004). Recently, Sheriff and Muffatto (2014) published a detailed study about the entrepreneurship policies, which have been applied in Kenya, Rwanda and Tanzania during the past decade. The following Table 10 provides the main characteristics of these policies in each different country. At present, most of the policies and programs for the promotion of entrepreneurship are short term. Therefore, Sheriff and Muffatto (2014) concluded that it is dificult to measure their real effectiveness. 38 Table 10: Main characteristics of entrepreneurship policies in Kenya, Rwanda and Tanzania Policy Kenya Rwanda Tanzania Access to inance Focused on the banking sector to overcome the dificulties in obtaining capital Consolidate all existing funds available to SME under a chosen body to facilitate SME access to inance Financial reforms aimed at further liberalization of the inancial sector and the creation of inancial intermediaries to cater for SME Legal and regulatory framework Reduce corruption and its disruptive effects and improve the judicial system Simplify the iscal and regulatory framework for SME growth Simpliication and rationalization of procedures and regulations to minimize transaction cost Infrastructure framework Focus on improving the quality and eficiency of operation of existing infrastructure facilities The rehabilitation and development of infrastructure is a crucial aspect in lowering the costs of doing business in Rwanda The Government will continue to improve the physical infrastructures and provision of utilities Institutional framework The Government will continue to improve the physical infrastructures and provision of utilities Develop an appropriate institutional framework The Government will facilitate strengthening of institutions Marketing for SME development and associations supporting the SME sector Access to local, regional and international markets and market information The Government is committed to facilitating support programs aimed at improving SME’ access to market Trade To subsidize exporting activity and improve import substitution Entrepreneurship education and training To facilitate nationwide entrepreneurship education and training Technology and innovation To overcome the problems that hamper local research and development Promote innovation and technical capacity of SME for competitiveness Facilitate acquisition and adaptation of technologies as well as enhance networking between R&D institutions and SME Entrepreneurship development To develop the capacity of trainers to work with the MSE sector to enhance the transition of micro and small scale enterprises into mediumsized enterprises Promote a culture of entrepreneurship among The government will promote entrepreneurship development through facilitating improved access of SME to inancial and non-inancial services Socio-political environment for investments Business training The government will enhance the capacity of institutions providing business training to SME Rwandans To enhance good governance, law and order and security The government will enhance the capacity of institutions providing business training to SME 39 Policy Kenya Rwanda Information Tanzania The government will facilitate and support programs aimed at increased access of information pertinent to the development of SME Enterprise transition To develop the capacity of trainers to work with the MSE sector to enhance the transition of micro and small scale enterprises into medium size enterprises Facilitate SME access Lack of management and technical skills, lack of access to market information and markets, high cost of doing business, limited business development services to business development services Macroeconomic A successful industrialization strategy driven by the private sector will require a stable macroeconomic environment Source: Sheriff and Muffatto (2014) 90 2006 2011 Percentage of Firms [%] 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Firms Firms Firms formally competing expected to give gifts in registered against when unregistered meetings operations with tax firms started officials Firms offering formal training Firms that do Firms using Firms with Firms with female top female not report all banks to participation manager finance sales for tax purposes investment in ownership Figure 16: Main characteristics of Rwandan irms. Source: World Bank database (January, 2015) 40 Figure 16 shows characteristics of Rwandan irms in two periods (2006 and 2011), according to two surveys of a sampling of registered irms. Increases in capital investment in recent years are due to rapid increases in public construction expenditure, and private sector capital investment suffers low growth. Empowering and investing in youth and women is an integral part of EDPRS I priorities. Steps have been taken to promote savings and credit facilities among the youth and women through cooperatives and other initiatives, and the Government places a heavy emphasis on entrepreneurship training with several initiatives targeting women and youth. In addition, hundreds of entrenched civil servants have received entrepreneurship training or have been given access to education inance facilities for training. Industry in Rwanda faces considerable challenges, including: (a) high transport costs (cost of transporting a container from Mombasa to Kigali amounts to 53% of its value); (b) high cost of inancing; (c) high energy costs highest electricity (costs in the region at 24US cents/KWh, compared to 11US cents/KWh in Kenya); (d) low levels of technology transfer; (e) limited endogenous R&D capacity; and (f) low purchasing power (United Nations, 2013). Against such challenges, the country has made the big strides in becoming very business-friendly by introducing reforms in seven out of the 10 categories. For example, as part of a series of reforms of the start-up process, in 2008 the government established the Ofice of the Registrar General to maintain an eficient business register and promote a competitive business environment. The ofice has the responsibility for the implementation of applicable commercial laws, such as the Companies Act, and the registration and deregistration of businesses. In 2009, it had set up a one-stop shop, streamlining company name checking, payment of incorporation fees, and tax and company registration procedures. During that year alone, 3 028 new limited liability companies were formed —almost equivalent to the total for the previous ive years, when 3 374 new limited liability companies had been registered. By year 2012 the number reached 6 655 new companies. BOX 4 – THE KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER PARTNERSHIP PROGRAMME IMPLEMENTATION The implementation of the Ministry of Education’s Knowledge Transfer Partnership (KTP) programme was oficially launched in 2013. The intention was to follow-up on the July 2009 study entitled “Mapping Science and Technology for Industrial Development in Rwanda: Linking Research and Development between Industries and Higher Learning Institutions”, which was sponsored by the African Development Bank and led by the former Ministry in the Ofice of the President in charge of science and technology. The study identiied several potential partnerships between higher education institutions, research and development centres, and leading companies from key sectors of the economy (agro-processing, manufacturing, construction, textiles, cosmetics, ICT and energy). Each partnership involves a business seeking to implement a strategic project, an academic or research partner providing essential knowledge, and a highly skilled recent graduate who will manage the project. Four partnerships have already been established and are now running. Source: Republic of Rwanda (2014c) 41 Table 11 shows the top ranking of countries in Africa where the national policies facilitate doing business. In recent years, Rwanda has been leading this list. The data is consistent with the opinion polls done by different organizations (INSEAD et al., 2014; World Economic Forum, 2014; World Bank, 2014b). Ease of doing business Starting a business Dealing with construction permits Getting electronically Registering property Getting credit Protecting investors paying taxes Trading across borders Enforcing contracts Resolving insolvency Mauritius 28 74.81 92.47 67.17 83.74 66.00 65.00 65.00 91.92 87.74 66.22 62.81 South Africa 43 71.08 89.43 81.65 55.74 66.02 60.00 67.50 88.73 71.05 66.14 64.51 Rwanda 46 70.47 81.66 81.55 79.48 89.20 90.00 46.67 85.79 44.67 63.94 41.77 Tunisia 60 67.35 83.60 73.19 84.59 72.03 35.00 55.00 74.11 80.36 60.96 54.71 Ghana 70 65.24 83.63 69.14 78.29 79.23 65.00 58.33 71.53 67.10 57.59 22.45 Morocco 71 65.06 90.33 77.89 74.39 61.26 40.00 45.83 77.69 84.64 60.14 38.47 Botswana 74 64.87 71.68 71.43 75.56 78.13 55.00 49.17 77.47 52.02 64.02 57.17 Seychelles 85 63.16 77.48 78.37 64.22 71.00 10.00 58.33 81.50 81.65 56.92 52.17 Namibia 88 62.81 68.67 83.22 78.97 41.85 55.00 53.33 73.57 63.17 64.82 45.53 110 59.77 73.47 77.78 61.81 58.78 55.00 47.50 75.76 65.43 36.37 45.80 Country Swaziland Ease of doing business world rank 2015 Table 11: Ease of doing business top-ranking in Africa 2015 Source: Doing Business 2015: Going Beyond Efficiency, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and World Bank (2014) Today Rwanda’s Ofice of the Registrar General, in the Rwanda Development Board, is focused on making its registration system completely paperless by promoting electronic registration services. Other priorities include ensuring accurate and timely delivery of information on its services, and raising awareness of the importance of formalizing businesses. Consistent with good practices in ensuring transparency, the Ofice of the Registrar General makes oficial fee schedules for business services easily available to the generalpublic at its premises as well as on its website. Rwanda has made important strides in improving its business environment over the past decade. Its business regulation reforms have resulted in cost savings for the private sector estimated at US$5 million, investments totalizing US$45 million, and creation of about 15 000 jobs. In 2006, before these reforms, starting a limited liability company in Rwanda took nine procedures, 18 days and 235.5% of (annual) per capita income in fees. Today it takes eight procedures, 6.5 days and 52.3% of annual income. Given weaknesses in the enabling environment and the risk-aversion of banks with regard to SME lending, most Governments – often supported by donors – continue to intervene directly in the market to increase the volume of credit lowing to SMEs, either through credit lines or partial credit guarantees (Berg and Fuchs, 2013). Several operational SETI policy instruments have been designed and applied successfully, around the world, to promote innovation within SMEs. Several empirical studies show that credit guarantees can increase irms’ use of external inance and can also help these irms to grow. 42 Rwanda has been designing and implementing a series of policy instruments to promote partial credit guarantees for SMEs from the banking system. The processing of claims was improved (by 50%) through the introduction of a partial payment of claims before legal procedures were exhausted. According to Berg and Fuchs (2013), this new rule increased the attractiveness of the partial credit guarantees scheme while maintaining incentives for loan recovery. This policy instrument was also improved through the introduction of a new guarantee product for working capital loans, which addresses a key inancing constraint of many SMEs, particularly start-ups. The entire scheme was developed and reined in close interaction with the private sector. The following Table 12 shows the main characteristics of the partial credit guarantees scheme. Table 12: Policy instruments for partial credit guarantees Scheme Purpose(s) Launch date Maximum loan Lending interest rate Maximum loan term [years] Amount inanced Number of loans inanced SME guarantee fund 50% loan guarantee scheme for SME lending by banks 2010 RWF 500 million Not prescribed, 1% guarantee commission 10 RWF 3 000 million in June 2012 14 Agriculture Guarantee Fund 50% guarantee for agricultural loans 2011 RWF 500 million Not prescribed, 1% fee 10 More than RWF 8 000 million 169 Source: Berg and Fuchs (2013) In order to promote business starts-ups, Rwanda created the Entrepreneurship Development Programme. Through training and awareness creation, it aims to empower youth and women, and provide them with entrepreneurial skills to achieve their dreams. The Rwanda Development Board administers this programme across the country. The programme assumes that building a young generation of Rwandan entrepreneurs will ultimately lead to vibrant SMEs contributing to creating decent jobs and reducing poverty. The overall goal of the Entrepreneurship Development Programme is building a critical mass of young Rwandan entrepreneurs in the next in the ive years. It seeks to provide existing and potential entrepreneurs with the right skills and knowledge to become competitive players in the local or global market. The speciic objectives are: (a) creating awareness among students of enterprise and selfemployment as a career option, (b) developing positive attitudes towards innovation, enterprise and self-employment, (c) instilling an entrepreneurial mind-set among all Rwandans (young and old, male and female), (e) providing Rwandans with entrepreneurial skills to help run and manage income-generating and job-creating activities, (f) encouraging start-ups and supporting particularly dificult aspects of entrepreneurship, (g) developing competencies necessary to a dynamic entrepreneur, such as critical thinking, decision-making and accountability. 43 BOX 5 – TECHNOLOGY, RESEARCH AND INNOVATION WITHIN THE NATIONAL INDUSTRIAL POLICY In order for Rwanda to compete in an increasingly competitive global economy and open trading system, it must build and acquire appropriate science-, technology-, and innovation-related entrepreneurial, engineering, and technical/vocational capacity to produce more value added goods and services. The Government of Rwanda with the support of key donors embarked on a two-stage SETI capacity-building program. The first stage involved assembling teams of Rwandan and international experts to prepare a series of SETI capacity-building needs assessments and action plans. This stage is expected to be followed by a second stage, in which the Bank and donors inance the implementation of the recommendations in the needs assessments and action plans. Several broad principles for building SETI capacity emerged from these studies and related work; some of these principles are directly relevant for the development of a successful Industrial Policy, including: 1. SETI capacity building should focus on inding practical solutions to practical problems. Especially for small countries like Rwanda that are at an early stage of the development process, broad, unfocused efforts to build science in general are unlikely to have the desired developmental impact. 2. SETI capacity building is a cross-cutting issue with a direct impact on such diverse programs as private sector development, rural and agricultural development, e-Rwanda, infrastructure and sustainable energy development, and education, among others. 3. SETI capacity building is not only about scientists working in research laboratories. All levels of technology and skills—ranging from sophisticated scientists to engineers to technical and vocational workers—have to be developed, in the appropriate proportions and sequence. 4. SETI capacity building extends beyond research and development. It is about getting knowledge out of the laboratory and into the market. Therefore knowledge diffusion is a critical component of the capacity building process. Rwanda‘s private sector must have the marketing, management, and entrepreneurship capacity to utilize new and existing knowledge to produce higher-value-added, more knowledge-intensive goods and services. 5. Public–private partnerships are an essential aspect of SETI capacity building. The government of Rwanda has an indispensable role to play in supporting essential research, providing basic education, and creating an environment that will enable the private sector to create the jobs that will diversify the economy and generate wealth. However, government investments in science and education will not bear fruit unless government capacity-building programs are consistent with the needs and requirements of the private sector. Developing these programs in partnership with the private sector is the best way to ensure the required consistency. 6. There are potential advantages to being a latecomer. A latecomer such as Rwanda does not have to invent everything it needs. It can achieve signiicant results and solve many problems by adapting and using off-the-shelf technology. However, even this seemingly simple task will require signiicant investments in capacity building. 7. SETI capacity building extends beyond high tech. Producing high quality coffee, silk, and roses —as Rwanda expects to do— requires signiicant scientiic, engineering, and technical capacity. Source: Republic of Rwanda (2011) 44 Characteristics of merchandise exports Governments are interested in setting up support programmes to enable irms to increase their export sales, given the positive impact that a surge in exports has on the economic growth and competitiveness of a country. Despite the recognized importance of micro-enterprises and SMEs, these still face major challenges today associated with business creation, survival and growth. To visualize research and innovation as components of merchandise exports over time, Figure 17 shows the evolution between 1996 and 2012, percentage of manufactured exports as a percent merchandise exports against high-tech exports expressed as a percentage of all manufactured exports. Over the past two decades, the share of manufactured exports remained stable at between 2% and 24% of all merchandise exports. Likewise, the high-tech component of manufactured exports remained steady at between 0.6% and 27% of the total. In 2013, the value of merchandise exports of Rwanda increased substantially by 22.7% to reach 620.5 million US$, while its merchandise imports increased slightly by 4.8% to reach 1 700 million US$. In 2013, 48.7% of Rwanda’s merchandise exports went to developing countries outside the region, whereas 32.4% to other economies in sub-Saharan Africa and 17.8% to high-income economies10. Embedding domestic irms into global value chains has been identiied as a key government priority to support export growth and diversiication, bolster private sector development and leap-frog the various impediments that continue to hinder the contribution of the country’s private sector. (Rep. of Rwanda, 2013a). Rwanda has selected a set of strategic exports that include agricultural products such as tea, coffee, horticulture, hides and skins, and minerals in addition to tourism. Furthermore, success in export growth hinges on greater value addition and product diversiication. Food exports, in particular, are contingent upon meeting required standards in quality control of processed food products and packaging. The competitiveness of the country’s industrial exports is however particularly challenged by its narrow domestic market and landlocked position, which renders transportation costs high. The Government of Rwanda is committed to a comprehensive privatisation policy to help reduce costs and prices and widen consumer choice, and for the state to play a strategic and catalyst role, ensuring that infrastructure, human resources and legal frameworks are geared towards stimulating economic activity and private sector investment. Not only is such a development believed to be as conducive for sustainable economic growth, but it is also seen as important to the emergence of a vibrant middle class of entrepreneurs and to sustaining a climate of good governance. Although foreign direct investment is encouraged, a local-based business class is viewed as a crucial component of development. The non-monetized and informal share of the economy – where the majority of people work – constitutes almost 66% of the total economy; this indicates the scale of the challenge, which lies ahead, of formalising the economy. 10 Merchandise exports to high-income economies are the sum of merchandise exports from the reporting economy (in this case, Rwanda) to high-income economies, according to the World Bank classiication of economies; these data are computed only if at least half of the economies in the partner country group had data. 45 High-technology exports [percentage of manufactured exports] 30 2003 25 2005 2004 20 2007 2006 15 2009 10 2002 2008 5 2010 1997 2011 1998 2001 2012 1996 1999 0 0 5 10 15 20 Manufactures exports [percentage of merchandise exports] 25 Figure 17: High-tech exports as a percentage of manufactured exports versus manufactured exports as a percentage of merchandise exports in Rwanda, 1998–2012. Source: UNESCO, based on raw data provided by World Bank National integrated innovation framework The Revised 2014 National Science, Technology and Innovation Policy of Rwanda proposed a National Integrated Innovation Framework with the purpose of creating linkages between policy, capacity and major issues, by using a cluster approach (Rep. of Rwanda, 2014d). The proposed approach will link not only the national policies to SETI projects, but also to external relationships with donor and international communities. The Government foresees that the strength for Rwanda lies in clear articulation of integrated issues and priorities, and how these are then relected in identiied needs to build up the knowledge base through human resource capacity building, underpinned by well identiied science and technology needs. For the Government, this dynamic creates a need for cluster approach to donors, and for strategic development of international partnerships to address the issues (Rep. of Rwanda, 2014d). The following Figure 18 shows the main nodes and connecting links of the proposed National Integrated Innovation Framework. 46 VISION 2020 ASPIRATIONS & RWANDA’S MAJOR ISSUES Technology-led economy, agriculture, land, water, health, environment, energy, ICT and infrastructure Cluster approach to national policy, project design, implementation INTEGRATION & INNOVATION PRIVATE SECTOR Cluster approach to donors development across policy, projects, implementation for economic growth and development HUMAN RESOURCES CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT Fundamental Role Urgent need at all levels from classroom to board room S&T AND ICT Cluster approach to international partnerships Fundamental Role Theoretical knowledge in practical context to advance problems and issues Figure 18: Overview of the National Integrated Innovation Framework. Source: Republic of Rwanda (2014e) The framework incorporates three of the six pillars of Vision 2020, such as (see page 14): human resource development, development of entrepreneurship and private sector, and modernization of agriculture and animal husbandry. The Revised 2014 national Science, Technology and Innovation Policy recognized that the country still needs a suitable infrastructure and a comprehensive development in order to provide an appropriate knowledge and technology base for the different sectors of the country. 47 BOX 6 – THE RWANDA INNOVATION ENDOWMENT FUND (RIEF) In 2010, the Government of Rwanda, through the Ministry of Education, in partnership with the UN in Rwanda, organized a meeting entitled: “Unlocking the Potential of Science, Technology and Innovation to achieve the Millennium Development Goals in Rwanda.” The premise was that development policies that recognize and incorporate to the fullest extent possible science, technology and innovation will most profoundly impact the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and support the a subset of the priorities set out in the Rwanda Vision 2020. The meeting focused on a comprehensive review of what has been achieved, the challenges faced, and way forward in the application of STI in the sectors of Agriculture, Health, Environment, Energy, water and sanitation, ICT and Education. One speciic outcome of the conference was a resolution to establish a Rwanda Innovation Endowment Fund (RIEF), similar to that being set up by the Economic Commission for Africa for the continent. Two years after the above mentioned meeting, the RIEF was established by the Government of Rwanda, through the Ministry of Education in partnership with UNECA (SRO-EA & ISTD), and the oficial launch took place on 5th April 2012. RIEF is managed by the Ministry of Education through the Directorate of Science, Technology and Research (DSTR). The objective of this Fund is to stimulate economic transformation through R&D in innovative market-oriented products and processes in priority areas of the economy, thereby increasing prosperity and the competitiveness of the Rwandan economy. The orientation can be either for economic growth, social development or a combination of the two. Following the oficial launch of the RIEF, a Management Team of the RIEF was established within the Ministry of Education chaired by the Director General for the Directorate of Science, Technology and Research (DSTR). The team includes DSTR staff from the R&D Unit supported by a 14 member Technical Advisory Committee, which was oficially appointed by the Hon. Minster of Education. Ten members of this committee were drawn from within Rwanda and cover a wide spectrum of skills and expertise. These are backed by four members from outside Africa comprising members with extensive and proven experience in entrepreneurship, funding of innovative start-up projects as well as the link between R&D and innovation for development. Building on the belief of the Government of Rwanda for economic development, as embodied in two documents namely, the Vision 2020 and the National Science, Technology and Innovation Policy, RIEF focuses on the 13 priority areas as stated in the National STI Policy. For the initial phase called “proof of concept, (RIEF I)”, the fund focused on three priority areas namely: Agriculture, Manufacturing and ICT. Following the success of RIEF I, it was decided to include Energy as the 4th priority area for the second round (RIEF II). The RIEF I was supported by seed funding from the Government of Rwanda and counterpart funding from UNECA. Further to this, National Awareness and Sensitization campaigns were held from September to October 2012 after which 370 applications were received from 29 districts. An assessment of concepts and full projects followed with the RIEF Management Team selecting only 8 innovations projects. The RIEF I Grant award ceremony took place on 2nd May 2013 and each successful project was awarded up to US$50 000 for a period of up to three years. Judging from the success of RIEF I, the Government of Rwanda, through the Ministry of Education, decided to support the fund on full scale, thus calling for the second phase (RIEF II) which started in October 2013. Through RIEF II, 299 applications were received from 29 districts and the evaluation process has been conducted. It is expected that 6 successful projects will be awarded up to US$ 50 000 each, in February 2015. Although the fund is open to applications from all Rwandans, preference is made to the following categories of people: 48 ▶ Young graduates: Application led by a young graduate (as a guide, someone who graduated in the past ive years) possibly leading a team whose member skills will include entrepreneurship / innovation, R&D, and business / marketing. ▶ The application can be made by an academic researcher possibly from a Higher Learning Institution (HLI) or a Research and Development Institution (R&DI) possibly leading a team whose member skills include entrepreneurship / innovation, R&D, and business / marketing. ▶ Regardless of the speciic background of the applicant he/she/they must demonstrate the entrepreneurial inspiration to start the innovative business. More details about RIEF can be found at: www.mineduc.gov.rw/rief Marie Christine Gasingirwa Director–General of Science, Technology and Research Ministry of Education, Rwanda AGRICULTURE SECTOR, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Agriculture is the backbone of the Rwandan economy. In 2013, agriculture generated 35.8% of the GDP and employed over 80% of the population. While promotion of improved seeds and inorganic/organic fertiliser under EDPRS I increased the use of these inputs from a very low base, many farmers still do not use fertiliser and the application practices are not optimally carried out. (Rep. of Rwanda, 2013a). Agricultural research has been recognized as an engine for driving growth in the agricultural sector in Rwanda, and thus a critical tool in the ight against hunger and poverty. Al-Ali (2014) considered that private sector should be encouraged to become deeply involved in the diffusion of these technologies; this can be done by the state applying incentives and speciic policy instruments, including subsidies. The Rwanda Agriculture Board’s Research Directorate is responsible for overall coordination of countrywide agricultural research activities, and thus for inluencing the adoption of technology to achieve sustainable agriculture development. Prior to July 2011, the Rwanda Agricultural Research Institute (ISAR) was mandated to conduct scientiic and technical R&D for agricultural and animal resources in Rwanda, aiming to improve the livelihoods of low-income farmers. The institute carried out research and promoted technologies in crop production, livestock, forestry, agroforestry, post-harvest management, land conservation and water management. Now, in the Rwanda Agriculture Board, research continues to be implemented in these areas, with stronger links between research and extension services to ensure that developed technologies are disseminated to the end users. The Rwanda Agriculture Board is also speciically committed to intensify research to achieve eficient, effective and sustainable agriculture production systems in crop cultivation and animal husbandry. Research activities have consistently aimed to contribute towards the improvement of food security. Gahakwa et al. (2014) showed that during the last decade, agricultural research in Rwanda played a key role in raising the nutritional levels of the Rwandan population and guaranteeing food security to the nation. In particular, the development and release of new, improved high yielding varieties in priority crops have helped to support the Crop Intensiication Programme. Agriculture research, technology, knowledge and skills are keys to improving productivity. Currently, the outreach of advisory services is not effective in Rwanda. It is estimated that only 32% of households receive information through this channel. Poor quality of delivery and/or information is a further constraint. 49 The capacity of the Animal Production Program to support the Girinka policy (one cow per poor family) through improved breeds, nutrition and health has been established. However, several challenges still need to be overcome, particularly the effective and timely transfer of technologies to end users. It is envisioned that ensuring that research is linked to extension services and dissemination of knowhow will accelerate technology transfer and uptake (Gahakwa et al., 2014). Some of the major research areas that received support in recent years were: (1) development and dissemination of improved crop varieties, (2) crop protection; (3) genetic resource conservation, (4) animal genetic improvement, (5) animal nutrition, (6) animal health, (7) soil and water management, (8) integrated soil fertility management, (9) improved agricultural productivity through fertilizer use and biological nitrogen ixation, (10) forestry and agro-forestry research, and (11) biotechnology (Gahakwa et al., 2014). The lack of local postgraduate programmes in agriculture sciences was strong barrier for the creation and expansion of agriculture researchers. To address this issue, all Rwanda’s public universities were merged into the newly established University of Rwanda in September 2013, and PhD programmes in the areas of soil management and agroforestry have been established (Rahija and Gatete, 2014). At the higher education level, agriculture R&D activities are now conducted under the College of Agriculture, Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine. Agricultural research has undergone a radical paradigm shift over the years, moving away from traditional research that extended processes linearly, and moving toward an Integrated Agricultural Research for Development (IAR4D) approach, based on innovation platforms. In IAR4D, stakeholders (farmers, scientists, traders, local authorities, NGOs and the private sector) are increasingly involved in research, from priority setting to technology development and technology transfer. IAR4D involves demand-driven research, and uses the organizational capacities of multiple stakeholders. The innovation platform is a key element, to select and test agricultural innovations. Ngaboyisonga et al., (2014) conducted a study in which stakeholders irst identiied and ranked constraints on agricultural production along the value chain, in their respective sites and contexts. Two or three main constraints were then translated into research questions. The aim became to generate practical solutions for productivity and marketing, while conserving natural resources. The researcher proposed a package of innovations; each stakeholder was assigned a role in testing, disseminating, and adopting each of them. A research agenda based on beneiciaries’ demand, targeting value addition and income generation, was thus elaborated and implemented. Because such an innovation platform proposed balancing proits and contributions, it was considered more attractive and sustainable than a traditional ield research approach. Furthermore working together towards a common interest enhanced national policies and built new and strong relationships among stakeholders. The study showed that small-scale farmers increased their income and were able to improve their livelihoods (building new houses, paying school fees for their children), while collaborating with research institutions, so as to address agricultural R&D demand. Table 13: Major constraints, enterprise focus, and quick win–win options in Rwandan agricultural Innovation Platforms Characteristics Constraints Mudende Rwerere Gataraga Remera Lack of markets for farm produce Insuficient options of sources of income Limited markets for farm produces especially for milk and potato Poor market access, lack of markets Especially for potato Lack and inaccessibility to markets and maize Low quality value Low quality of marketable farm produce of marketable produce Insuficient improved varieties of crops and fodder species Insuficient of improved and marketable varieties Vision Food security and enough money to acquire all basic needs Increased productivity Food security and leading to increased basic needs Milk/Irish potato Chili pepper, passion fruit, milk Irish potato/maize Bean, maize Organize milk Introduction of chili Establishing market Organize bean and market to target Inyange dairy and passion fruit outlets for potato maize markets cropping to target production, adding value to potato produce Food security, increased productivity And proits Enterprise focus Quick-win options Urwibutso Implementing partners* Other partners Core Insuficient improved and marketable varieties ISAR (presently RAB), Urwibutso, ISAR income to satisfy incomes and food security ISAR (presently RAB), CIAT Urugaga Imbaraga NUR, ISAE, MAK Urwibutso, ISAR Core Innovation Platform members, Sector Executive Secretary CIAT, Imbaraga, NUR, ISAE, MAK, SAC-R (presently RAB), CIAT, Imbaraga, NUR, ISAE, MAK, ANS-R, SAC-R Innovation Platform members, BRD, Core Innovation Platform members, Core Innovation Platform members, Sector Executive Banque Populaire, Input traders, Secretary, Milk Sector Executive Supermarkets collectors Secretary and restaurants, (presently RAB), CIAT, Urugaga Imbaraga, NUR, ISAE, ANS-R, SAC-R Sector Executive Secretary * Note: ANS-R Action Nord Sud-Rwanda, BRD Banque Rwandaise de Développement, CIAT International Center for Tropical Agriculture, ISAE Institut Supérieur de l’Agriculture et de l’Elevage, ISAR Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda, MAK Makerere University, NUR National University of Rwanda, RAB Rwanda Agriculture Board, SAC-R Send-a-Cow-Rwanda Source: Ngaboyisonga et al. (2014) 51 1.4 19 000 1.2 18 000 1.0 17 000 0.8 16 000 0.6 15 000 Tractors per 100 sq. km Agricultural land [sq. km] 20 000 0.4 14 000 13 000 0.2 Agricultural land [sq. km] Agricultural machinery [Tractors per 100 sq. km of arable land] 0.0 12 000 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Figure 19: Evolution of the agriculture land and number of tractors per 100 sq. km, 1960–2013. Source: UNESCO based on raw data provided by World Bank Ngaboyisonga et al., (2014) concluded that following the IAF4D principles resulted in agricultural options that were quickly adopted, applied in a very short period, and proitable to all stakeholders along the value chain. The study also identiied constraints to agricultural innovation platforms (see Table 13). After the Genocide, for over a decade, agricultural productivity declined, impoverishing the country, in particular the rural population. The major causes of the decline include the exhaustion, fragmentation, and overexploitation of available agricultural lands, owing to rapid rural population growth; the degradation of the soil and the environment; and the underuse of modern inputs, and weak research and extension services. Most of the agricultural sector was composed of fairly unproductive subsistence farming carried out on small plots located on steep slopes, with no protection against erosion, with rudimentary cropping practices and with insuficient inputs of fertilizing elements to compensate for those removed by crops. The EDPRS II considered that Rwandan agriculture should move from a largely subsistence base, to a commercialised base, which can build on comparative advantages. The document established the requirement of technical and value chain expertise, which can generate high levels of income per hectare. The level of technology used in the agriculture system is still low compared with international standards. For example Figure 19, shows the increase in arable land over time (1960–2013) as well as the number of tractors per 100 km2 of arable land. Since 1973, the number of tractors per area of arable land decreased. Within EDPRS II there is no explicit strategy to improve productivity through developing special policy instruments to increase the mechanization of the agriculture system. 52 The Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources has developed an Agriculture Gender Strategy (Rep. of Rwanda, 2010b) because they detected limited availability of research on gender-sensitive technologies. Research institutions in Rwanda rarely focus on developing gender sensitive technologies. Women in agriculture often ind themselves with technologies that are not adapted to their needs; for example, sizes of some agricultural machines are too big for women. Their practical needs are also not given research priority; for example, women and girls may most beneit from innovations that improve energy eficiency, access to clean water, proximity of water sources, nutrition, food processing and storage. Since 2010, the Government of Rwanda has been promoting R&D activities to fulil these requirements, with greater sensitivity to how gender can impact the research agenda. BOX 7 – HIGH SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS FROM INNOVATIONS AND TECHNOLOGY TRANSFERS PROMOTED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF RWANDA Universities contributed to signiicant socio-economic impacts through R&D. Three examples are: Quality coffee Before the Rwandan civil war of the early 1990s, coffee was the biggest foreign currency earner for Rwanda accounting for 70% of all exports; it was produced by nearly half a million small landholders, on approximately 37 000 hectares of land. Coffee production was affected by the war; it dropped from 35 000 tonnes in 1992 to 15 000 tonnes in 1999 because farmers abandoned their coffee plantations. To make matters worse, in 1999, world market coffee prices dropped to below those of 1990. As a result, Rwandan farmers lacked incentives to maintain coffee production. Post-war and post-Genocide, the nation frantically sought rapid economic growth. In particular, the government of Rwanda sought to (i) increase government revenue from foreign earnings and (ii) increase income for its citizens, the majority of whom are still small-holder farmers. It was understood that Rwanda will not achieve mass production, meaning that coffee or any other export crop will continue to be grown on small plantations. The US government provided inancial and technical assistance to support the transition. In this endeavour, the Government of Rwanda approached the Faculty of Agriculture of the National University of Rwanda to assist in looking for solutions. In 1999, they started a project to build capacity in the university to foster Rwanda’s potential agricultural exports, and to look for options to drastically improve incomes of rural villagers. The project, supported by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), conducted a study, which revealed that coffee could provide some solutions. It was established that there was a growing market in the US, Europe and Japan for high quality coffees. Such coffees are grown in high altitude areas and on small plantations. Also the project established that Rwanda’s Bourbon Arabica coffee is suitable for high quality coffee production and the country altitude was suitable. A study followed to improve the quality of coffees was introduced in 2000. Rwanda has since become a producer of high quality specialty coffee, and its coffee is marketed by prominent coffee roasters and importers in the United States, Europe, and Japan. Rwandan farmers have signiicantly increased their earnings (more than four fold), and more than 5 000 jobs have been created. The Cup of Excellence was held in Rwanda in 2009, to recognize quality coffees. More innovations have resulted in improvements to the taste and quality of coffees across the country. At the level of the University, more than 10 theses have been presented. 53 Biogas programme In order to fulil one of its core mandates, the Kigali Institute of Science and Technology (KIST) sought solutions to some issues the government had identiied. After the Genocide, Rwanda prisons were illed with more than 10 000 people who had committed genocide crimes. Forests were disappearing because trees were harvested to provide fuel to the prisons. A study conducted by KIST Centre for Innovation and Technology Transfer (CITT) established that toilet waste from the huge number of prisoners could be a used to produce biogas for cooking and electricity generation. KIST-CITT introduced a Biogas project to alleviate the deforestation problem. It installed large-scale biogas plants in prisons. The plants are used to treat toilet wastes and generate biogas for cooking. The bio-efluent is used as fertiliser for production of crops and trees. Starting with one biogas plant in 2001, now they are in all 14 prisons. Annual expenditure on irewood has dropped from US$1.7 Million to US$255 000. In addition, the government has introduced a National Domestic Biogas Programme for cooking and lighting at household level, and invested in vocational skills development. These activities also created new jobs. The programme is linked to the National Program of One Cow per Poor Household. Ban on plastic bags An academic staff of the National University of Rwanda undertook a study on the negative impact of plastic bags. This was a study conducted in completion of a PhD thesis in Environmental Economics. The study established that plastic bags have an overwhelmingly negative impact on the Rwandan economy, environment and on public health. The scattering of plastic bags prevents water penetration into the soil thereby leads to lower agricultural productivity. The bags clog drainage systems and lead to loods during the rainy season. They are frequently burned, releasing toxic fumes in the air, thus causing increase in respiratory and other related diseases. The researchers (as part of dissemination plan of his research indings) organized stakeholders’ dissemination meetings. The Rwanda Environment Management Agency picked it up. This resulted in the Government of Rwanda banning plastic bags. Since the ban, Rwanda has implemented many innovations including the local manufacture of reusable bags, and positive impacts are being recorded. Numerous studies, theses and journal/ conference articles have since been prepared. Inadequate intellectual property rights mechanisms prevent universities and researchers from collecting fees related to their inventions, which unfortunately limits the injection of new funding for further R&D and innovation. Verdiana Grace Masanja University Level Research and Postgraduate Studies Unit, University of Rwanda 54 INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES: A NEW DRIVER FOR RWANDA’S ECONOMY Rwanda’s National Information and Communications Infrastructure (NICI) Plan commenced in 1998 with the irst phase concentrated on a comprehensive ICT-led Integrated Socio-Economic Development Framework. This was followed by the development of an Integrated ICT-led Integrated Socio-economic Policy for Rwanda in 2000, aimed at facilitating the country’s transformation into an information-rich, knowledgebased society and economy within twenty years (Rep. of Rwanda, 2000). The third phase of the NICI plan, which covers the period 2011–2015, builds on the two previous phases to accelerate Rwanda to the inal phase of the NICI process. In this phase, emphasis has been placed on service development across ive focus areas: (1) e-Government, (2) community development, (3) private sector development, (4) cyber security, and (5) skills development. Rwanda’s Policy of Science, Technology and Innovation11 (Rep. of Rwanda, 2006) considered that the focus the STI policy on ICT should be applied to information technology, especially in the ields of intelligence systems and decision-making. According to the 2005 STI policy, the use and integration of science and computer literacy should be promoted and popularised in schools and in workplaces. Training efforts should be intensiied especially in technical and scientiic ields in order to advance absorption and understanding of the technologies. These initiatives inluence Rwanda’s local capacity to use, adapt, apply and introduce new programmes, products and services. Recently, the EDPRS II proposed improving private sector eficiency through accelerated technological innovation. This strategy proposed that deployment for last-mile connectivity (to access the internet) be accomplished through a public-private partnership framework, to ensure that businesses can get access to high-speed internet at low cost. The proposed scheme fosters and creates some business opportunities by outsourcing of government ICT-related support work, by building new infrastructure, and by promoting and facilitating services developed by the ICT private sector (Rep. of Rwanda, 2013a). The EDPRS II added a complementary area of focus: improving ICT Skills. This will build ICT professional skills and leverage ICTs in education in order to accelerate skills development. The scope of the skills development is twofold: irst, build ICT professional skills that will increase innovation in the ICT industry and enable all sectors of the economy; and second, to leverage ICTs in education. For schools, the Ministry of Youth and ICT will ensure that all schools are connected to ICT infrastructure, that technical support is available, and that teachers are trained in basic ICT skills. Currently, strategic national ICT projects are implemented and managed by the ICT Department in the Rwanda Development Board. However, the Rwanda Information Society Agency (RISA) is the proposed new structure for the governance, management and delivery of the goals and objectives of the new national ICT strategy, the SMART12 Rwanda Master Plan 2015–2020 (Rep. of Rwanda, 2014b). The objectives are to bring about increased accountability and transparency; to reduce duplication, and to place greater emphasis on performance in order to bring about the desired eficiencies, improve effectiveness, and increase return on investment. The key deliverables of the new SMART Rwanda Master Plan are: 1. 24-hour self-service government: all government services will be online by 2018. 2. Cashless and paperless government: all government inancial transactions will be made electronically and via mobile devices by 2018. 3. Over US$50 million saved through efficiency gains: savings through outsourcing and reduction of future wage bill by foregoing recruitment of additional Government of Rwanda ICT staff. 11 The 2014 revised version of the Policy Science, Technology and Innovation includes ICT as one of the sector priorities. 12 SMART: Service-oriented, Modern, Accountable and Real-Time. 55 4. Almost US$1 billion value of opportunities for the private sector: this is the approximate value of projects to be implemented by SMART Rwanda Master Plan, mostly through the public-private partnership model. 5. SMART Rwanda contributes 10% to GDP: broadband access and other ICT infrastructure projects offer a platform for economic growth. 6. Close to 100 000 jobs are created by investment due to the SMART Rwanda Master Plan: foster an enabling environment for private investments to drive job creation, productivity and competitiveness supported by technology and innovation. The successful policies implemented in Rwanda have enabled the number of telecom network operators to increase from 1 in 2005 to 3 in 2013. ICT composite network coverage increased from 75% to 90% during the same period. Rwanda is currently collaborating with institutions such as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Carnegie Melon University to upgrade the capacity of ICT instruction and develop critical ICT skills to support the country’s contribution to ICT global value chains. In 2013, the government of Rwanda and Korea Telecom agreed on a joint venture to, among other things, deploy and operate a high-speed 4G broadband network, which will cover 95% of the population and expand the country’s online services capability. A subsequent joint venture was agreed between government of Rwanda and Korea Telecom in 2014 to expand the nation’s capabilities to undertake an unlimited range of online economic and social activities. These partnerships will allow Rwanda to explore niches in ICT-enabled high-value shared services, in the inancial sector and in business process outsourcing, for examples. Rwanda announced the completion of the nationwide 2 300 kilometre iber-optic cable in early 2011. The cable, which covers the entire country, connects with the Seacom undersea cable along the east coast of Africa and has seven regional links to neighbouring countries. Figure 20 presents the evolution of internet users per 100 inhabitants between 1995 and 2013 and Figure 21 shows the trend of mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 inhabitants, between 1998 and 2013. In both cases, the curves lift off after 2005. 10 9 Internet users per 100 inhabitants 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 0 Figure 20: Evolution of internet users per 100 inhabitants, 1995–2013. Source: UNESCO, based on raw data provided by the International Telecommunications Union 56 70 Mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 inhabitants 60 50 40 30 20 10 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 0 Figure 21: Evolution of mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 inhabitants, 1998–2013. Source: UNESCO, based on raw data provided by the International Telecommunications Union The SMART Rwanda Master Plan 2015–2020 (Rep. of Rwanda, 2014b) identiied a series of very ambitious goals to promote innovation in the private sector. In each case, at least one project was proposed, such as: To cultivate new local ICT enterprises: in order to cultivate new local ICT enterprises in the future, the proposed project will seek to identify technically innovative and entrepreneurial talent from the earliest education level, primary school and then to track that through high school to college, university and beyond. The goals will be: to establish 100 innovation studios in primary and high schools; have 200 supported new projects in universities, colleges; 1000 students placed in world class technology universities; and US$ 100 million invested by new venture funds to support the tech entrepreneurs . To grow existing endogenous ICT companies: in order to facilitate existing endogenous companies in their competitiveness and help them growth to become global players, a competitiveness index project is proposed. It will look at the investment readiness of indigenous companies, under a lagship project Rwanda ICT Business Investment Readiness Index. Goals will be: 50 stock market list-able companies; 100 indigenous companies with market capitalization of US$ 100 million; US$ 10 million in new annual local investments, and 10 000 advanced technology-jobs created. To Improve business and industry productivity and efficiency: ICT’s contribution to economic development can come in three broad categories both to private and public organizations: (i) reducing costs, (ii) Improving service delivery and (iii) creating new revenue streams. A project will aim to assess ICT’s added value to business and industry, and to track it, in order to maximize it. Goals will be: 500 000 farmers trained and tracked to assess ICT-impact on their business; 500 000 businesses using ICT in their business; and 1 000 000 new ICT jobs. To expand exports and foreign direct investment: in order to expand private sector ICT exports and foreign direct investments in relation to local ICT businesses, a project will seek to expand ICT export potential and attractiveness for foreign direct investment. Goals will be: US$ 100 million in new export revenue; 50 exporting companies; US$ 1 billion in operational foreign direct investments; and 100 000 export-related jobs created. 57 SUPPLY AND DEMAND OF SKILLED LABOUR IN RWANDA Over the past two decades in Rwanda, some progress in the areas of education and skills development has been made. However, signiicant barriers still remain, and it is challenging to match skills with opportunities in the labour market (Rep. of Rwanda, 2013c). In order to address the critical skills scarcity, the government designed a ive-year program for skills development to deliver EDPRS II (2013–2018) in the following high priority sectors: (i) infrastructure; (ii) agriculture; (iii) natural resources; (iv) investment, trade and industry; (v) ICT; (vi) health and (vii) education. In spite of the crosscutting nature of SETI activities, within this selection process, science and engineering were not identiied as a priority. Rwanda Vision 2020 foresees a knowledge economy in the country by year 2020. The emerging knowledge societies (i.e. Brazil, China, Malaysia, etc.) usually need a threshold of 1 000 or 1 200 full time equivalent (FTE) scientiic researchers per million inhabitants, to trigger the transformation of the country into a knowledge economy. Developed countries have more than 5 000/6 000 FTE researchers per million inhabitants. Recent estimations show that Rwanda has less than 40 FTE researchers per million inhabitants (see pages 86–89), an amount 30 times smaller than the critical mass needed to trigger a knowledge economy, which is also equivalent to 125/150 times smaller than the number of FTE researchers per million inhabitants that a developed country has. Developing quality, adequately skilled human resources is—for EDPRS II—the key towards achieving desired levels of economic growth; reducing the rate of poverty; achieving economic transformation and rural development; improving productivity, youth employment, and accountable governance. In order to implement the ive-year program for skills development, the following policy actions have been taken (Rep. of Rwanda, 2013c): ▶ put in place a National Capacity Building Secretariat (NCBS) to coordinate implementation of Capacity Building activities in the public, private sectors and civil society to mitigate overlaps and duplication of effort; ▶ establish a high level National Steering Committee to oversee the implementation of the ive year program for skills development in priority sectors; ▶ put in place a mechanism for private sector investment in priority skills development; ▶ prioritize scholarships for high lyers in priority sectors; ▶ securing fees waivers from reputable training providers in priority areas; ▶ initiate twinning arrangements and partnerships between local institutions and international /regional institutions with priority for acquiring skills, best practices and knowledge management; ▶ put in place a National Commission for Science and Technology (see pages 150–151) in collaboration with relevant institutions, to monitor the progress and performance of Rwandans undergoing training in areas of science and technology; and advise the government on strategic and relevant placement of trainees in areas of science and technology; ▶ strengthen the operations of the labour market, speciically by improving information systems to ensure an overarching and long-term perspective; ▶ put in place a national qualiication and competency framework; 58 ▶ prepare an annual sector capacity-building plan that is based on needs assessment conducted every ive years; ▶ establish technology and business incubation facilities in the SETI oriented institutions of higher education in Rwanda; ▶ empower national training institutions to effectively offer courses in both priority skills and specialised skills; ▶ create national centres of excellence, and decentralize academic faculties in priority skills. Figure 22 shows the required skills by graduation level (i.e. ISCED level 6, 7 and 8; see Glossary, pages 252–253) and the number of technicians, artisans and international certiication13. The Ministry of Public Service and Labour estimated that the education sector requires 96% of the projected number of new PhDs (2013–2018). The requirement of new masters has the following distribution: investment, trade and industry (36%); education (25%); natural resources (18%) and health (21%). The ICT sector requires 92% of the graduates with professional and international certiication, the infrastructure sector 65% of the TVET technicians and the agriculture sector 65% of the artisans. 102 Short training (0.001%) 14 663 International certification (16%) 484 PhD (14%) 1 809 Masters (51%) 1 260 Bachelors (35%) 47 108 TVET Technicians (51%) 30 224 Artisans (33%) Figure 22: Required number of skills in Rwanda, 2013–2018. Source: Rep. of Rwanda (2013c) The Government of Rwanda envisages big projects to be undertaken within the next ive years including: construction of a railway line, energy generation and gas methane projects, booming industry and private investments; construction of new roads; irrigation infrastructures and new mines; and expanded ICT exploitation. The government recognizes the need of engineers and technicians to facilitate the projected operations. This is the reason why the capacity building for these sectors will foresees a set of strategies, such as: (a) coordinate with the University of Rwanda to provide programmes related to the critical and scarce skills in priority sectors; (b) expand the capacities of TVET institutions with the support of private investors; (c) put in place an Aviation Training Centre to enhance air trafic service and airport operations; (d) identify top innovative and hardworking graduates and take them abroad for graduate programmes and industrial detachments in specialized careers; among others. 13 According to the Rwanda Qualiication Framework for Higher Education, in Rwanda there are only seven education levels instead of the eight levels proposed by ISCED’s new classiication. See http://www.hec.gov.rw/ IMG/pdf/Rwanda_National_Qualiications_Framework_for_Higher_Education_Institutions-2.pdf 59 The government is exploring the possibility of piloting a Regional Centre of Excellence for training in one region’s university, or a collaborative programme by several universities from the region. This approach shall tap into capabilities of universities that already have some of the core department related to Country priority sectors. Some plan have been developed in this direction with the support of the World Bank (see pages 82–83). There are also plans for setting standards and guidelines for researchers, engineers and technicians career path progression. These proposals originally started in the late seventies when some regulations were introduced to complete the harmonization of the status of all researchers in Rwanda with those of scientists-teachers of the University (Morand, 1981, 1984). These discussions took into consideration the Recommendation on the Status of Scientific Researchers adopted by UNESCO Member States during the General Conference held in 1974 (UNESCO, 1974b). EDUCATION PROFILE AND HUMAN CAPITAL FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING Investment in human capital via education is a major tool for sustainable development. Education is recognized the world over as a fundamental and universal human right and a prerequisite for economic growth, human development and poverty reduction. It enables the population to make informed decisions about its economic, social and political well-being. Education is important for protecting children from exploitative labour practices and is the most empowering tool for gender equality and equity. The education sector is uniquely responsible for promoting and raising high-qualify human resources for critical areas such as SETI, which are commonly seen as dominant factors behind rapid economic and industrial growth and for improving quality of life. Rwanda Vision 2020, its National Policy on Science, Technology and Innovation, and the EDPRS II are all based on the premise that, through embarking on a concerted effort to build SETI capacity, Rwanda will greatly enhance its prospects of achieving the growth, poverty reduction, wealth creation and export diversiication objectives. The education strategies in Rwanda are shaped by a number of national aspirations and international goals embodied in policy declarations and plans. These include Rwanda Vision 2020 and Seven-Year Government Programme, the priorities of the EDPRS II, the Millennium Development Goals and Education for All Goals. There are also regional commitments made as part of Rwanda’s membership of the East African Community (Rep. of Rwanda, 2013b). During the past decade, the Government of Rwanda have been releasing a number of sub-sector policies in education. These policies include: (1) 2008 Girls Education Policy, (2) 2008 Higher Education Policy, (3) 2008 Quality Standards in Education, (4) 2008 Special Needs Education Policy, (5) 2008 and 2014 ICT in Education Policy, (6) 2008 Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) Policy, (7) 2011 Teacher Development and Management Policy, (8) 2011 Early Childhood Development Policy and Strategic Plan, (9) Youth and Adult Literacy Strategic Plan (awaiting approval), (10) School Health Policy (in development), (11) Draft Policy on Teacher Incentives (in development), (12) 2005 and 2014 National Science, Technology and Innovation Policy. 60 In addition to these policies, the following strategic plans were also developed: (a) 2008 Nine-Year Basic Education Strategy, 2008–2012 Draft Strategic Plan for Technical Education and 2009 Draft Higher Education Strategic Plan. The structure of Rwandan education system In Rwanda, the education system is composed of four main levels: (i) pre-primary, (ii) primary, (iii) secondary, and (iv) higher education, with a signiicant technical vocational education and training (TVET) stream at both secondary and higher education levels. In addition, there is non-formal education, or Adult Basic Education (ABE) as it is now more commonly referred to. Compulsory education spans the nine years from age 7 to age 15, covering primary and lower secondary education, and is commonly known as Nine Years Basic Education (9YBE). Pre-primary education is organised in nursery schools and for a period of three years for children between the age of 4 and 6. Primary education lasts six years with the oficial school age at this level being from 7 years to 12 years. This stage focuses on core literacy and numeracy skills, as well as preparation for secondary studies. Primary education ends with national examinations, which determine eligibility for proceeding to Lower Secondary school. Secondary education also lasts for 6 years with the oficial age for this level being from 13 years to 18 years of age. It is subdivided into lower secondary (the irst three years) and upper secondary (the last three years), both culminating in national examinations which respectively determine eligibility for upper secondary, and secondary graduation or entry to higher education. At upper secondary level students choose between continuing in general secondary schools, or enrolling in a Technical Secondary School or a Teacher Training Colleges to train as a primary teacher. Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) provides young people and the unemployed with the skills to gain productive employment and also provides those already in employment with an opportunity to upgrade their skills, including entrepreneurs and those wishing to work for themselves. TVET is delivered through the Technical Secondary Schools, Vocational Training Centres and Integrated Polytechnic Regional Centres. Higher education students can pursue their studies in a range of academic directions or opt to enter an array of technical or vocational ields. Undergraduate degrees currently require four years to complete, though the option of reducing this to three years in order to harmonise with the rest of the region is being explored. One of the most important objectives of the National Science, Technology and Innovation Policy (Rep. of Rwanda, 2006, 2014d) is the promotion of knowledge acquisition. The policy proposes different types of interventions according to the different education levels, from primary schools to higher education. The following Figure 23 shows a brief description of different objectives and proposed policy interventions. 61 Cultivate interest in science and technology Retain interest in science and technology Train competent artisans to give high quality support to the development needs of Rwanda Train high-level technicians to give high quality support to development needs of Rwanda High-level theoretical and practical training for medical practitioners, technologists in various fields, agriculturalists, scientists, engineers, doctors, etc. Pre-primary & primary schools Lower secondary school Upper secondary school Quality of Teaching Quality of learning environment Quality of teaching Aids Laboratories and laboratory equipment Quality of science & technology teaching Vocational training institutions Quality of teaching and curriculum Institutional infrastructure Technical equipment Technical training schools Quality of teaching and curriculum Institutional infrastructure Technical equipment Higher academic, technical & professional institutions public and private Quality of teaching and curriculum Institutional infrastructure Technical equipment Figure 23: Objectives and interventions at all levels of science and technology education and training. Source: Republic of Rwanda (2014d) Primary education Rwanda has made impressive strides since 2000 in extending access to basic education to as many of its children as possible. The challenge going forward is to target the hardest-to-reach to ensure that all children of the oficial primary age group are accessing schooling (Rep. of Rwanda, 2013b). Since the introduction of 9 years basic education in 2009, primary education in Rwanda is fee-free. Since 2011, there has been an expansion to 12 years basic education. This has positively impacted on increasing the number of enrolled pupils in this part of the education system (Rep. of Rwanda, 2014c). Table 14 shows a list with the most relevant indicators on primary education in Rwanda (2008–2013). The number of pupils, teachers and schools increased over the considered period. However, the number of classrooms decreased, which implies that the number of pupils per classroom increased. The number of students per teacher is still very high. 62 The achievements in the area of strengthened performance in SETI in primary education include (Rep. of Rwanda, 2014c): ▶ the total number of laptops in primary schools increased from 226 500 in 2012/13 to 269 478 in 2013/14. As the original target was 245 756 laptops, the Ministry of Education has surpassed not only that target, but has also gone beyond the 2014/15 target of 259,252 laptops; an increase of 19% was achieved in only one year, as compared to the targeted 8.50% increase planned for two years. ▶ the share of primary schools with internet connectivity was 4% in the iscal year 2013/14. This value is lower than the projected target (6.9%). This implies that more effort needs to extend internet connectivity, especially in view of the 2014/15 target of 7.7%. ▶ the percentage of primary schools with required science facilities (science kits) was 39% in the FY 2013/14. The predicted target for that year was 33%, and that for 2014/15 was 37%. ▶ in terms of other science equipment, the percentage of primary schools with required science corners was 3% in the FY 2013/14. The predicted target for 2013/14 was 5.6%. Since the target was not met, more needs to be done with regard to science corners provision in order to meet the target of 8.2% for the FY 2014/15. Table 14: Indicators of primary education in Rwanda, 2008–2013 Indicator 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2 190 270 2 264 672 2 299 326 2 341 146 2 394 674 2 402 164 Females [%] 50.9 50.8 50.7 50.9 50.7 50.7 Males [%] 49.1 49.2 49.3 49.1 49.3 49.3 Total number of students Total number of qualiied teachers 35 672 35 664 36 352 40 299 40 397 40 159 Females [%] 53.2 53.0 53.7 51.6 52.6 53.1 Males [%] 46.8 47.0 46.3 48.4 47.2 46.9 Qualify teachers [%] 91.0 96.0 98.5 98.6 95.6 95.2 Total number of schools 2 432 2 469 2 510 2 543 2 594 2 650 30 989 31 453 27 184 28 817 28 914 29 367 71 72 85 81 83 82 Gross enrolment rate [%] 127.9 128.5 126.5 127.3 123.2 138.5 Gross enrolment rate females [%] 128.5 129.5 127.6 128.9 124.8 139.4 Gross enrolment rate males [%] 127.3 127.4 125.2 125.7 121.7 137.5 Net enrolment rate [%] 94.2 92.9 95.4 95.9 96.5 96.6 Net enrolment rate females [%] 95.1 94.1 96.5 97.5 98.0 97.5 Net enrolment rate males [%] 93.3 91.6 94.2 94.3 95.0 95.7 Students/Teachers ratio 61:1 64:1 63:1 58:1 59:1 60:1 Students/Qualiied teachers ratio 67:1 66:1 64:1 59:1 62:1 63:1 Classrooms Students per classroom Source: Rwanda Statistical Yearbook 2014 63 Secondary education Table 15 shows the most relevant indicators on secondary education in Rwanda (2008–2013). The number of students, teachers, schools, classrooms increased. The number of students per classroom and students per teacher decreased. In terms of basic infrastructure, the Ministry of Education (Rep. of Rwanda, 2014c) has recorded a signiicant increase in the percentage of secondary schools with access to electricity (54%) and with access to clean water (51%) in 2013/14. On the one hand, the percentage of secondary schools with internet connectivity was only 14% in 2013/14, imposing severe restrictions to achieve the projected target for 2014/15, which is 45%. On the other hand, the percentage of secondary schools with access to computers was 76% in 2013/14. Moving on to the discussion of science facilities in secondary schools, it should be noted that the percentage of secondary schools with required science kits was 71% in 2013/14. The growth in the percentage of secondary schools with required science corners was less successful than in the case of science kits. This value stood at 7% in 2013/14, while only 17% of the schools had science laboratories. The proportion of students enroled in science and technology ields at upper secodary level increased from 41% in 2012/13 to 59% in 2013/14. Table 15: Indicators of secondary education in Rwanda, 2008–2013 Indicator 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Total number of students 288 036 346 518 425 587 486 437 534 712 566 370 47.2 49.0 50.7 51.5 52.2 52.6 Females [%] Males [%] 52.2 51.0 49.3 48.5 47.8 47.4 5 849 8 710 8 681 13 206 15 748 17 698 Females [%] 24.5 28.4 26.8 27.8 27.4 28.5 Males [%] 75.5 71.6 73.2 72.2 72.6 71.5 Qualify teachers [%] 57.4 60.4 60.0 64.4 67.5 69.3 Total number of schools 689 686 1 399 1 362 1 466 1 502 6 420 7 695 9 477 11 487 13 490 15 087 45 45 45 42 40 38 Gross enrolment rate [%] 20.7 25.9 31.5 35.5 38.0 41.5 Gross enrolment rate females [%] 23.4 25.0 31.5 36.2 40.0 42.5 Gross enrolment rate males [%] 22.0 26.8 31.5 34.9 37.0 40.3 Net enrolment rate [%] 13.9 13.2 22.6 25.7 28.0 36.4 Net enrolment rate females [%] 13.9 13.7 23.7 27.2 30.0 38.5 Net enrolment rate males [%] 13.8 12.8 21.6 24.2 26.0 34.1 Students/Teachers ratio 28:1 24:1 29:1 24:1 23:1 22:1 Students/Qualiied teachers ratio 49:1 40:1 49:1 37:1 34:1 32:1 Total number of teachers Classrooms Pupils per classroom Source: Rwanda Statistical Yearbook 2014 64 Technical vocational education and training (TVET) As identiied in the country’s Vision 2020, one of the pillars of continued growth is human resource development. In order to provide a strategic response to the challenges to skills development across all sectors of the economy, the Government of Rwanda has created the Workforce Development Authority (WDA), an institutional framework working under the Ministry of Education (Rep. of Rwanda, 2014c). The main mission of WDA is to promote and guide the development and upgrading of skills and competencies of the Rwandan workforce, in order to enhance its competitiveness and the employability of its participants through Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET). TVET institutions will be required to be models of entrepreneurship for students, including incorporating business practices in inancial management. Institutions will be expected to develop strategic plans, which will include targets for income generation. Because providing TVET is substantially more expensive than the provision of general education, the Government of Rwanda considers especially important that TVET graduates acquire skills that ensure their employability (Rep. of Rwanda, 2010a). As the economy becomes more sophisticated and dynamic, TVET graduates will increasingly need to have general business or ‘catalytic’ skills, for example ICT, communication (language, business, interpersonal), problem solving and critical thinking. Consequently, TVET institutions in Rwanda will need to ensure adequate coverage in their programmes of these skills. EDPRS II proposed the establishment of Sector Skills Councils to provide a forum for feedback and discussion to ensure that employers’ voices are heard throughout the policy-making process for skills and TVET policy. The irst such Council was established in the mining sector, after which councils are being established for the other seven priority Rwanda Development Board sectors (construction, agriculture, energy, trade & manufacturing, inancial services, ICT, and tourism). The Rwanda Development Board identiied 4 key objectives for each Sector Skills Council. These are: reducing skills gaps and shortages; improving productivity and business performance; increasing opportunities to boost the skills and productivity of everyone in the sector’s workforce, including action on equal opportunities; and improving quality and relevance of training for employment. According to EDPRS II, the TVET courses design must be demand-driven, and the education and private sector must coordinate to ensure this is fulilled. In this way, the Sector Skills Councils will give private sector employers a voice in the entire policy process of design, provision, and evaluation of employment-focused education. Focus will be on training for priority sectors with high potential for job growth including priority export sectors in areas such as construction, tourism, and food processing. The production of training modules and curricula development has been centred on a Competence-Based Training approach. The recruitment of trainers and upgrading of their skills constitute a core responsibility of the WDA. So far, there are 2 909 trainers in TVET system and about 358 of these were trained in 2013/14. Competency-Based Training was also introduced with the hospitality sector. Currently, there are 416 trainees and four hotel training sites under this skills development project. Under a Skills Development Fund initiative aiming at quick skills delivery (conducted in partnership with World Bank), over 37 TVET training providers and companies have been funded to take part in skills development in different training ields. So far, over 1 200 youth beneiciaries have been empowered and certiied. 65 In the process of ensuring and improving the quality of TVET delivery, the WDA has put in place training standards and speciic requirements for training facilities. Furthermore, at least 200 TVET schools have been inspected for quality assurance. In terms of strengthening the relevance of education and training to meet labour market demands, private sector/industry involvement in curricula development and TVET skills delivery have been crucial. The ongoing up-scaling of Industrial Attachment Practice to all 340 TVET schools is helping TVET graduates to make their skills more relevant to the labour market. Since the Sector Skills Council initiative started in 2013, seven councils are in place thus far, bringing private sector on board for the task of making TVET more demand-driven. Table 16 provides an overview of the main achievements of TVET programmes. Table 16: Main achievements of TVET programmes 2013/14 TVET Sub-programs Progress 2013/14 Observation Competence Based Curriculum 25 40 Training of Trainers on Competence Based Training 20 296 Examination and certiication 17 223 21 600 TVET Schools Development 16 21 About 21 schools have been rehabilitated or renovated Supply of equipment to TVET schools 35 69 The number of schools supplied with equipment increased by 34 4 216 5 321 n/a 416 9 123 12 231 220 123 73 681 83 893 TVET Awareness Campaign Industrial Based Training Industrial Attachment Programme Accreditation and Quality Assurance TVET Enrolment Source: Republic of Rwanda (2014c) 66 Baseline 2012/13 More 15 Competence Based Curriculum have been developed More trainings planned for 2014/15 About 99% of students are expected to sit for exam The TVET Expo attracts more people annually The Industrial Based Training started in 2013/14 in hospitality sector The number of internees increased by 7% More than 100 TVET schools are inspected every year. The number of trainees increased by 12% Higher education The overarching mission of the higher education sub-sector is “to provide quality higher education programmes that match the labour market and development needs of Rwanda for graduates who are capable of contributing to national economic and social needs and who can compete on the international labour market”. Around half of all university graduates in the workforce are employed by the public sector, which might be an indication that the skills currently acquired though higher education are more relevant for public sector than for private sector employment. The links between universities and employers have been inadequate and this will need to be addressed more directly (Rep. of Rwanda, 2010a). In order to remain demand-driven and allow university graduates to drive innovation in the private sector, higher education institutions need to respond to changes in technology and innovations in the productive sector. This in turn requires universities to absorb up-to-date knowledge and adapt it to-date equipment and teaching materials, and provide adequate practical experience and assessment. Figure 24 presents the evolution of the higher education enrolment (total, female and male) represented as a percentage of the gross, between 1970 and 2013. Figure 25 shows the total enrolment in tertiary education per 100 000 inhabitants, between 1967 and 2013. Both igures represent the long-term evolution of the population’s access to higher education. It is possible to distinguish two different periods: from Independence (c. 1962) to Genocide (c. 1994), with a very restricted access to higher education (less than 60 students per 100 000 inhabitants) and a quasi-exponential explosion after the Genocide (reaching around 750 students per 100 000 inhabitants in 2013). The curves are in agreement with the policies expressed within Rwanda Vision 2020 and EDPRS I & II documents. Figure 25, shows more clearly the change of slope after that occurs after year 2000, when Rwanda Vision 2020 was released. 9 8 Percentage of gross 7 Total tertiary enrollment Tertiary enrollment: female Tertiary enrollment: male 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Figure 24: Total, female and male tertiary enrolment in Rwanda as a percentage of gross, 1970–2012. The dotted lines are the best-itting curves. Source: UNESCO, based on raw data provided by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics 67 Enrolment in tertiary education per 100 000 inhabitants, both sexes 750 700 650 600 550 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 3297 3235 Mauritius Algeria 133 114 Niger Seychelles 419 Madagascar 286 422 Côte d'Ivoire 651 Rwanda 435 685 Mali Burkina Faso 708 Zimbabwe 487 783 São Tomé and Príncipe 500 Mauritania 810 Dem Rep of the Congo 1 000 941 1084 1202 1 500 Ghana 1533 2 000 1281 2 500 Lesotho 2446 3 000 2929 3360 3 500 Tunisia Figure 25: Total tertiary education enrolment (both sexes) per 100 000 inhabitants in Rwanda, 1967– 2013. The dotted lines is the best-itting curve. Source: UNESCO, based on raw data provided by the Ministry of Education of Rwanda and UNESCO Statistical Yearbooks (1972–1999) Central African Republic Congo Liberia Sudan Cape Verde Egypt 0 Figure 26: Total tertiary education enrolment (both sexes) per 100 000 inhabitants in several African countries (c. 2012). Source: UNESCO, based on raw data provided by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics 68 In spite of the exponential growth shown in the tertiary enrolment per 100 000 inhabitants, the present value is still low compared with other developing regions or with countries of the African continent. The critical mass needed to trigger a knowledge economy is probably ten times the present value. Rwanda still has eleven times less students per capita than Japan, South Korea or USA; ten times less than Argentina, Chile, Cuba or Mongolia; ive times less than Tunisia, Mauritius or Algeria, four times less than Cape Verde, Egypt or India, etc. Figure 26 shows the higher education enrolment per 100 000 inhabitants in several African nations for the year 201214. Table 17 presents the 2012–2013 sex-disaggregated enrolment at different public higher education institutions in Rwanda, while Table 18 shows the same information for the private institutions. In both cases, the total enrolment increased in the past years. It is very important to emphasize that on September of 2013 a major reform of the higher education system took place in Rwanda. The Government of Rwanda established the University of Rwanda (UR) through the Law no 71/2013 (Official Gazette N° 38 of 23/09/2013). This was done through the merger of seven public higher education institutions: the National University of Rwanda, Kigali Institute of Science and Technology, School of Finance and Banking, Kigali Institute of Education, Kigali Health Institute, Institute of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry and Umutara Polytechnic (see pages 162–171). The University of Rwanda seeks to support the development of Rwanda by research and the advancement of existing knowledge, while being committed to the highest standards of academic excellence and creating a place where students are being prepared for lives of service and leadership. The University of Rwanda is now structured on disciplinary colleges. All similar disciplines from former Institutions were pooled together to form a given College as explained below: ▶ College of Science and Technology: Kigali Institute of Science and Technology15 (KIST) contributed with 43% of the infrastructure; the Faculties of Science and Engineering and the Centre for Geographic Information Systems and Remote Sensing of former National University of Rwanda contributed with 51%; inally the Departments of Science and Technology of Umutara Polytechnic and the Institute of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry together contributed with the remaining 6%. ▶ College of Business and Economics: the National University of Rwanda contributed with 73% of the new college, Umutara Polytechnic with 19% and the School of Finance and Banking with 8%. ▶ College of Agriculture, Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine: the National University of Rwanda contributed with 39% of the infrastructure (and 92% of staff); the Institute of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry contributed with 35%; Umutara Polytechnic with 21%; and the Kigali Institute of Science and Technology contributed with 5%. ▶ College of Education: the Kigali Institute of Education contributed with 98% of the infrastructure and the National University of Rwanda contributed with the remaining 2%. ▶ College of Medicine and Health Sciences: the National University of Rwanda provided all the medicine and public health disciplines infrastructures (93% of the total for the College) including three teaching hospitals and state of the art national laboratory (ISO certiied), Kigali Health Institute contributed 6.5% (nursing, dentistry and paramedical); and the Umutara Polytechnic with 0.5% (environmental health). ▶ College of Arts and Social Sciences: 99% of the infrastructure was provided by the National University of Rwanda (Law, Arts and Humanities, Social Sciences) and the remaining 1% comes from the former Kigali Institute of Education (gender studies). 14 To avoid any methodological bias, and use comparable data among different countries, Figure 22 was prepared based on the standard practice followed by UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). The 2014 Rwanda Statistical Yearbook (Rep. of Rwanda, 2014a) shows that the tertiary education enrolment (both sexes) per 100 000 inhabitants in past years have higher values than the ones published by UIS. For example, 701 for 2010; 808 for 2011; 800 for 2012 and 913 for 2013. 15 With the exception of the Food Science and Technology Department which transferred to the new College of Agriculture, Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine. 69 With this reform, the National University of Rwanda made contributions to each College, also 39% of the students, 34% of academic staff and 87% PhD holders, 96% Masters programmes, 98% of major funding for research and infrastructure (ICT band width, library resources, etc.) were inherited from the former university. Table 17: Enrolment in higher education institutions (public) in Rwanda, 2012–2013 Higher-Education Institution (public) 2012 2013 Males Females Total Males Females Total School of Finance and Banking 1 631 1 090 2 721 1 626 1 110 2 736 Umutara Polytechnic 2 072 1 374 3 446 2 072 1 374 3 446 Higher Institute of Agriculture and Animal 1 686 681 2 367 1 750 722 2 472 25 13 38 134 72 206 794 523 1 317 845 530 1 375 Kigali Institute of Education 5 850 3 004 8 854 5 906 3 423 9 329 Kigali Institute of Science and Technology 1 968 737 2 705 2 142 781 2 923 National University of Rwanda 7 798 3 401 11 199 7 227 3 529 11 256 Kavumu College of Education 331 185 516 454 341 795 Rukara College of Education 751 338 1 089 1 125 545 1 670 1 423 275 1 698 1 809 331 2 140 446 188 634 421 126 547 Kabgayi School of Nursing and Midwifery 31 182 213 41 244 285 Rwamagana School of Nursing and Midwifery 16 203 219 30 246 276 Byumba School of Nursing and Midwifery 75 116 191 114 166 280 Kibungo School of Nursing and Midwifery 80 105 185 131 130 261 104 136 240 146 180 326 Integrated Polytechnic Regional Centre South – – – 164 19 183 Gishari Integrated Polytechnic – – – 184 21 205 Kitabi College of Conservation and Environmental Management – – – 18 2 20 25 081 12 551 37 632 26 839 13 892 40 731 Husbandry Institute of Legal Practice and Development Kigali Health Institute Kicukiro College of Technology Tumba College of Technology Nyagatare School of Nursing and Midwifery Total Enrolment in Public Institutions Source: Rwanda Statistical Yearbook 2014 70 Table 18: Enrolment in higher education institutions (private) in Rwanda, 2012–2013 Higher -Education Institution (private) 2012 Males 2013 Females Total Males Females Total Catholic University of Rwanda 736 1 175 1 911 791 1 442 2 233 Protestant Institute of Arts and Social Sciences 367 298 665 577 425 1 002 Institut Supérieur Pédagogique de Gitwe 394 727 1 121 355 698 1 053 Institut Polytechnique de Byumba 892 980 1 872 1 117 1 090 2 207 4 851 6 969 11 820 5 702 6 579 12 281 454 919 1 373 443 869 1 312 Institute of Agriculture Technology and Education of Kibungo 1 916 1 863 3 779 2 173 2 842 4 415 Independent Institute of Lay Adventist of Kigali 2 446 3331 5 777 2 790 3 685 6 475 Kigali Institute of Management 336 512 848 542 945 1 487 Rwanda Tourism University College 889 998 1 887 1 044 1 260 2 304 Institut d’Enseignement Supérieur De Ruhengeri 1 698 1 541 3 239 1 661 1 738 3 399 Adventist University of Central Africa 1 502 1 302 2 804 1 268 1 095 2 363 Grand Séminaire de Nyakibanda 219 0 219 215 0 215 Mount Kenya University 919 713 1 682 1 332 959 2 291 Kibogora Poltechnic – – – 161 155 316 Carnegy Mellon University – – – 18 6 24 St Joseph Integrated Technical College – – – 192 20 212 Akhilan Institute of Women – – – 0 128 128 17 669 21 328 38 997 20 381 23 336 43 717 Kigali Independent University Catholic Institute of Kabgayi Total Enrolment in Private Institutions Source: Rwanda Statistical Yearbook 2014 Table 19 shows the distribution of graduates (bachelors and advanced diplomas) classiied by major ield of knowledge (UNESCO, 1978, 1988; OECD, 2002) between 1996 and 2013. During the whole 18-year period, the average distribution of graduates per major ield of knowledge was the following: natural sciences 10%, engineering and technology 10%, medical and health sciences 16%, agricultural sciences 10%, social sciences 48% and humanities 7%. Considering, the distribution only over the last year (2013) the shares changed a little bit: natural sciences 14%, engineering and technology 18%, medical and health sciences 18%, agricultural sciences 2%, social sciences 45% and humanities 3%. Table 20 shows the distribution of Master degrees classiied by major ield of knowledge between 2005 and 2013. It clearly shows the low number of Master degrees produced. Within this period, there were no Masters at all over several years. This low number of Masters does not allow the presentation of any aggregated statistical distribution. Social sciences had the major proportion of Masters in the whole period. In July 2014, the University of Rwanda Academic Workload Framework was approved. For research activities performed by the academic staff, the framework establishes that: (1) Associate professors and full professors will spend 50% of their time on research; (2) lecturers, senior lecturers, and module leaders will spend 40% on research; (3) assistant lecturers and programme leaders will spend 35% on research; (4) heads of departments, deputy deans of schools and college directors of centres will spend 30% on research; and (5) deans of schools will spend 25% on research. 71 Table 19: Graduates (bachelors and advance diplomas) in higher education in Rwanda, 1996−2013 Natural sciences Year Male Female Engineering Medical and and Technology Health sciences Male Female Male Female Agricultural sciences Male Female Social sciences Male Female Humanities Male Female 1996 25 8 13 0 50 35 22 7 78 30 43 14 1997 49 13 22 1 179 64 38 16 296 112 77 31 1998 90 35 90 5 106 45 32 5 372 141 15 7 1999 26 7 57 5 6 6 24 7 258 126 33 9 2000 64 18 0 0 70 41 78 5 123 70 75 29 2001 33 12 0 0 59 23 28 11 188 84 36 23 2002 35 9 220 58 109 33 27 11 247 129 47 14 2003 20 7 0 0 137 128 90 11 107 134 0 0 2004 67 27 226 54 170 141 289 73 460 336 50 2 2005 123 37 531 120 31 28 112 69 412 404 33 20 2006 361 73 100 12 465 443 275 71 1 279 1 014 132 28 2007 145 67 235 66 41 24 188 63 538 619 0 0 2008 1 054 241 499 85 756 594 349 100 1 450 1 410 895 306 2009 386 126 168 38 277 318 498 176 978 1 439 172 113 2010 619 173 438 101 431 387 536 299 2 239 1 808 75 6 2011 360 124 612 176 188 297 624 216 2 052 1 757 145 184 2012 1 099 445 1124 282 894 871 1130 486 3 186 2 237 98 75 2013 900 326 1284 343 655 899 149 63 2 514 1 426 148 105 Source: Ministry of Education of Rwanda Table 20: Postgraduates and Master’s degrees in Rwanda, 2005−2013 Year Natural sciences Male Female Engineering Medical and and Technology Health sciences Male Female Female Male Female Social sciences Male Female Humanities Male Female 2005 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2006 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2007 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2008 0 0 36 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2009 0 0 0 0 6 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2010 0 0 18 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2011 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2012 59 13 5 1 0 0 0 0 86 33 61 0 2013 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 7 0 0 Source: Ministry of Education of Rwanda 72 Male Agricultural sciences During the academic year 2013/2014, the proportion of students enrolled in science and technology ields at tertiary level was 30% of the total enrolment. However, higher education institutions in Rwanda recorded a number of challenges: (i) not enough laboratory technicians to operate the laboratories in the University of Rwanda; (ii) low numbers of academics and researchers applying for a research grant; (iii) high staff turnover; and (iv) high reliance on expatriate staff in certain areas (Rep. of Rwanda, 2014c). Based on the previous challenges, the Ministry of Education suggested the following actions: (a) training and other incentives for laboratory technicians to ensure their availability and retention; (b) elaboration and implementation of an aggressive staff development policy; (c) elaboration and implementation of staff retention strategies; (d) tackling the inancial and material issues which hinder the Early Childhood Development and catch-up programme; and (e) increasing the inancial and material support for the adult literacy programme. Higher education and gender Education statistics in sub-Saharan African countries show that women continue to lag behind men in education in general and speciically in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (Masanja, 2010). Rwanda is signatory to various international conventions, including, the Convention for the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action and other instruments for promoting gender equality. The commitment was also translated into action by integrating gender dimensions into the Rwanda Vision 2020 and by establishing institutional structures to address challenges of achieving gender equality, including placing responsibility for it and women’s empowerment at a central level within government. Rwanda’s constitution mandates a minimum female representation in politics and public sector management. The constitutional provision and the government’s commitment to gender equality have resulted in an increase in the number of parliamentary seats held by women from 17% in 1994 to 56% in 2008 and 64% in 2013. The UN Millennium Development Goal target on parity between boys and girls in primary and secondary education enrolment has been achieved. However, as it was shown on Figure 24 (see page 67) and on Table 17 and 18 (see pages 70–71), female students account for only for 44% of the total enrolment in 2013. The sex distribution of graduates (bachelors and advanced diplomas), classiied by major ield of knowledge (see Tables 19 and 20) between 1996 and 2013, shows that during the 18-year period the average percentage of female graduates in various ields of knowledge were as follows: natural sciences 24%; engineering and technology 19%; medical and health sciences 49%; agriculture sciences 27%; in social sciences 44% and in humanities 32%. Narrowing this to results during the last year (2013) only, the sex distribution of graduates shows that the percentage of female graduates is: natural sciences 27%; engineering and technology 21%; medical and health sciences 58%; agriculture sciences 30%; in social sciences 36% and in humanities 42%. Figure 27 shows the participation of female teachers within tertiary education between 1970 and 2010. The highest participation was obtained in 1974 with women making up 19.2% of all teachers. Since then, this participation decreased to its lowest value in 1990: 5%. After the Genocide, the females teaching within the higher education system increased again to 16.2% in 2010. These values are still far from reaching gender parity. The 2014 revised Science, Technology and Innovation Policy (Rep. of Rwanda, 2014d) does not include any speciic strategy to promote gender equality for the research and innovation system in the country. 73 Female teachers in tertiary education [% total] 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 2010 2008 2006 2004 2002 2000 1998 1996 1994 1992 1990 1988 1986 1984 1982 1980 1978 1976 1974 1972 1970 0 Figure 27: Distribution of female teachers within the higher education system in Rwanda, 1970–2010. The dotted line is the best-itted curve. Source UNESCO, Source: based on raw data provided the UNESCO Institute for Statistics BOX 8 – REDUCING THE GENDER GAP IN RESEARCH AND POSTGRADUATE STUDIES Although the negative consequences of not having enough female students, teachers, researchers and professors in higher education institutions is well known, the status quo prevails. The former National University of Rwanda undertook a holistic approach to promote gender equality in all its spheres. In 2011, the National University of Rwanda carried out a study aimed irst, to comment on how the National University of Rwanda, at the institutional level, deals with gender issues in general, and among the academic staff in particular; and second, to illuminate factors that have obstructed female academic staff members’ career aspirations, research and publishing. It was established that existing gender discrepancies arise largely from barriers at the institutional level. Based on the study indings, it was proposed that the National University of Rwanda should address the following: ▶ women´s perspectives in decision making, ▶ gender analysis in research, ▶ gendered knowledge, ▶ gender-sensitive pedagogical environment, and ▶ gender-responsive organisational cognitive system and work culture. The National University of Rwanda started the process of integrating gender into its policy framework. A gender baseline study and a gender audit were carried out in 2011/ 2012. A iveyear gender strategic plan was developed, and a process to streamline gender in the organs and committees was initiated. The Gender Strategic Plan includes gender capacity building, gender training, evaluation of gender aspects in research proposals, in recruitment, in staff promotion, 74 in career development, and in PhD and Masters Scholarships. A Gender Committee would be formed in each Faculty. They would be tasked to analyse all activities from a perspective of gender equality and follow up on the extent to which targets have been achieved. Now the National University of Rwanda does not exist anymore, the newly-created University of Rwanda will take over and it has committed to contextualise and continue the gender policy and processes initiated by the National University of Rwanda. The National University of Rwanda also started initiatives for gender analysis to be integrated in curricula and research. Two projects, one funded by the Dutch Government another by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), both introducing Masters programmes and small scale research projects were piloting gender as a theme integrated into curricula and research. Both projects have been inherited by the University of Rwanda and continue. The USAID project deals with the Master of Science in Agribusiness and the Dutch-funded projects deals with the Master of Science in Geo-Information Science for Environment and Sustainable Development. In both projects, integrating gender in curricula emphasises three things: (i) equal treatment, which focuses on non-discriminatory practices; (ii) afirmative action, which involves addressing disadvantages experienced by women as compared to men; and gender mainstreaming, which refers to making a conscious and systematic effort to promote gender equality. Gender integration in curricula The representation of men and women in education and related employment in the disciplines shows that women are very much underrepresented. Through the Masters programmes, gender gaps will be addressed and gender knowledge and skills are instilled in students aiming for them to be transformative agents in their work-life experience. The programmes aim to attract and retain qualiied women by taking the following actions: ▶ Recruitment: Extra efforts are made to ensure qualiied women are aware of the programme and are convinced to apply for admission. ▶ Admissions: Some afirmative action to attain gender balance in admission have been introduced. ▶ Financial Support: Because many qualiied women might fail to join the programme due to inancial reasons, inancial support for women has been introduced. ▶ Mentoring: additional support is offered to ensure women receive the kind of assistance they need in order to be successful in the program; e.g. child care facilities, etc. ▶ Alternative Delivery Systems: In order to accommodate the schedules of working-women who also might have responsibilities in the home and in their local communities, the programme offers lexible alternative delivery systems. Nights and weekends for example might not be accessible by married women and young mothers. ▶ Women in Leadership Training: The USAID-supported Programme offers Seminars, Workshops, and Training for both female and male students on “Women in Leadership” with the aim to develop professional and leadership skills of women in the workforce and sensitizing all students to gender dynamics in professional contexts. Each programme has a speciic module on Gender, which contains gender theories and gender dimension of the subject matters. Also, gender is integrated in all other modules where the theories are applied to the speciic gender dynamics in the science and society interplay. Gender integration in curricula considers gender sensitivity and gender inclusiveness in the content and in delivery. In addition, the USAID-supported programme includes an internship scheme, which has a gender component as an opportunity for students to gain understanding of gender dynamics in the workplace. Gender analysis is expected of students in the assessment of their participation in these internships. The internships’ aim is to offer workforce experience and help students, both men and women, to gain the knowledge, skills, and conidence they need in order to enter the workforce upon graduation. 75 Gender integration in research In both projects, frameworks have been developed and training of researchers are undertaken to ensure the gender dimension in research content is taken into consideration, and researchers do analysis of the relevance of gender for and within the subject matter. Researchers conduct an assessment to ensure the following: (i) the scientiic methodology differentiates between the sexes/genders and takes into account men’s and women’s situations equally. (ii) that data collection tools are gender-sensitive to avoid gender bias; (iii) research reports, oral presentations and publications use gender-inclusive language and enable readership to detect the different realities of men and women; (iv.) Research involves gender-balanced end-user groups to guarantee the highest impact; (v) researchers considers speciic dissemination actions – e.g. publications focusing on gender and Institutions that focus on gender so as to include women and girls in the target groups for dissemination. Verdiana Grace Masanja University Level Research and Postgraduate Studies Unit University of Rwanda Student mobility Since the seventies, there has been a great expansion in higher education enrolment across the world. Governments are currently going through a period of policy transition, with policy makers seeking to reorient the objectives and instruments of policy to relect the increasingly sharp awareness of knowledge creation and learning as drivers of innovation, growth, employment and wealth. Human resources are recognised as being key for conducting scientiic research, developing new technologies, commercialising and diffusing innovation. Among them, doctorate holders are not only the most qualiied in terms of educational attainment, but also those who are speciically trained to conduct research. Governments and institutions increasingly build internet-based social networks that are expressly designed to allow post-graduate students, doctorates and researchers abroad to keep in contact with institutions in the home country, e.g., diaspora networks. The international mobility of tertiary students has been a phenomenon of growing interest for scholars and policy makers since the sixties and can have a signiicant impact on shaping the structure of national innovation systems. The mobility of students worldwide is perhaps the most visible form of cross-border higher education, and one that has been monitored over years. According to UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2012), in 1980 the population of internationally mobile students was about 1.1 million. The number increased slightly to 1.3 million in 1990 but by 2009 had tripled to 3.4 million. The number of mobile students has been expected to grow to 8 million by 2020 (Altbach, 2006). Students from Rwanda are dispersed across a wide range of host countries. A wider dispersion may imply that students are returning to their home country with a richer mix of new ideas. Table 21 shows the number of Rwandan tertiary students studying abroad within the top-40 countries over the past 15 years. In order of importance, France, USA, Belgium, India, Canada, Germany, United Kingdom and South Africa were the preferred destinations. South Africa is not only the leading host country in Africa but also ranks 11th among host countries worldwide. Its higher education sector is well developed with strong infrastructure and several respected research institutions that appeal to international students. 76 Table 21: Number of Rwandan tertiary students studying abroad, 1998–2012 Country 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 7 8 10 Austria Australia 50 38 2 42 28 19 19 Belgium 275 478 440 622 217 1 Burundi 36 9 10 7 8 8 15 22 29 15 13 11 15 12 10 9 11 8 50 76 89 98 72 217 697 Cameroon Canada 13 25 39 51 42 48 63 60 66 15 93 Central African Republic 210 25 132 90 1 1 93 111 126 11 Congo 20 Cuba 1 6 1 3 1 1 1 Czech Republic Denmark 2 2 2 2 3 2 1 5 3 1 9 12 19 21 20 24 1 1 2 10 16 2 2 4 5 6 9 10 11 8 France 170 225 247 309 418 482 504 588 599 561 556 599 692 716 Germany 109 107 100 89 84 77 59 34 47 66 69 61 85 75 6 4 4 6 4 2 3 Finland 3 Greece India Ireland 1 Italy 25 Japan Malaysia 1 1 5 2 191 145 128 45 2 35 30 4 3 5 4 3 4 2 4 4 2 18 22 28 35 29 27 27 26 34 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 6 3 2 3 2 1 1 2 409 719 3 3 4 42 28 50 62 6 7 6 9 23 18 24 2 6 Mauritius Morocco 3 2 11 12 32 41 50 47 Mozambique 20 Namibia Netherlands Norway 4 Philippines Poland 9 8 3 7 7 15 24 18 9 17 13 9 6 5 9 13 35 1 4 11 21 39 68 85 80 80 76 60 64 57 41 6 1 4 6 2 3 2 2 2 1 5 6 7 6 5 4 6 6 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 6 6 2 1 3 3 2 9 12 19 14 9 18 19 4 4 Portugal Republic of Korea Russian Federation Saudi Arabia 7 8 10 8 8 3 13 12 13 16 5 17 Serbia South Africa 3 45 54 12 26 3 3 10 6 133 193 219 472 25 Spain 6 7 2 3 6 1 3 4 7 7 4 Sweden 1 8 6 6 10 5 12 25 27 32 40 63 7 57 55 48 44 48 31 31 31 36 29 30 25 18 48 47 45 48 82 75 82 88 91 112 90 99 84 74 121 226 263 149 275 199 223 215 270 360 447 448 450 12 12 3 1 Switzerland United Kingdom USA Zimbabwe 17 Note: empty cells indicate that no information on the number of Rwandan tertiary students was submitted to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics by the host country. Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics 77 A fraction of the Rwandan tertiary performing postgraduate studies abroad are Government- sponsored by scholarships and other policy instruments. The following Tables 22–24 show the information that the Ministry of Education have been collecting on the number of Rwandan graduate and postgraduate students studying abroad. These numbers are smaller than the total numbers of Rwandan tertiary students shown in Table 21. This is so because the information collected by UNESCO Institute for Statistics is based on a different source: surveys conducted by each UNESCO Member State on the number of foreign tertiary students in their homeland, classiied by nationality and year (these surveys suggests numbers of Rwandans studying abroad may be slightly higher than known to the Ministry of Education). Table 22 shows the estimation made by Rwanda’s Ministry of Education about the sex-disaggregated distribution of Rwandan students studying abroad to obtain a Bachelor degree, according to the major ield of knowledge (2001–2020). It has to be noted that in some foreign countries (i.e. China, Germany, Norway or the Russian Federation) the Rwandan students need to start learning the local language. In this case, the time required to obtain a degree is extended. Table 23 shows the estimation made by Rwanda’s Ministry of Education about the sex-disaggregated distribution of Rwandan students studying abroad to obtain a Master’s degree, according to the major ield of knowledge (2004–2014). Finally, Table 24 shows the estimation made by Rwanda’s Ministry of Education about the sex-disaggregated distribution of Rwandan students studying abroad to obtain a PhD, according to the major ield of knowledge (2001–2014). Table 22: Number of Bachelor’s degrees by major ield of knowledge obtained by Rwandans abroad, 2001–2014 Natural sciences Year Male Female Engineering Medical and and Technology Health sciences Male Female Female Male Female Social sciences Male Female Humanities Male Female 2001 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2002 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2003 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2004 3 1 10 3 2 0 2 2 8 5 1 0 2005 4 1 3 0 4 3 4 1 24 14 2 5 2006 10 3 24 5 3 0 13 4 7 8 6 1 2007 3 0 5 1 2 0 10 4 5 5 1 2 2008 14 5 8 1 9 4 12 3 6 4 1 0 2009 7 2 9 3 2 0 14 0 5 9 0 0 2010 8 6 38 3 14 1 1 0 7 4 0 0 2011 22 13 41 6 18 11 8 0 13 5 0 0 2012 34 7 60 6 13 4 7 5 31 18 0 1 2013 40 11 104 16 6 4 12 2 15 2 0 0 2014 17 8 138 2 4 4 5 0 6 6 0 0 Source: Ministry of Education of Rwanda 78 Male Agricultural sciences Table 23: Number of Master’s degrees by major ield of knowledge obtained by Rwandans abroad, 2004–2014 Year Natural sciences Male Female Engineering Medical and and Technology Health sciences Male Female Male Female Agricultural sciences Male Female Social sciences Male Female Humanities Male Female 2004 4 1 0 1 4 1 0 1 5 10 1 1 2005 3 0 7 1 3 0 4 0 10 10 8 3 2006 3 4 13 6 3 4 1 0 14 12 1 1 2007 6 1 9 1 6 1 1 0 14 8 1 0 2008 7 6 8 1 7 6 1 2 18 7 1 0 2009 15 2 21 4 15 2 1 5 39 15 0 0 2010 22 4 30 7 22 4 9 3 60 28 1 0 2011 18 2 15 1 18 2 11 6 14 12 0 0 2012 10 6 23 1 10 6 0 1 16 7 0 0 2013 29 6 41 5 29 6 5 0 31 14 1 1 2014 44 9 90 12 44 9 14 6 60 15 2 1 Source: Ministry of Education of Rwanda Table 24: Number of PhDs by major ield of knowledge obtained by Rwandans abroad, 2003–2014 Year Natural sciences Male Female Engineering Medical and and Technology Health sciences Male Female Male Female Agricultural sciences Male Female Social sciences Male Female Humanities Male Female 2003 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 2004 2 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 4 0 3 1 2005 1 0 0 0 2 1 1 0 5 0 1 0 2006 7 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 2007 2 1 1 0 3 0 1 0 5 0 5 1 2008 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 5 0 3 1 2009 3 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 3 3 3 2010 3 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 9 0 4 0 2011 2 0 1 0 3 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 2012 6 1 0 0 3 0 1 0 15 2 2 0 2013 4 1 7 1 2 1 0 0 7 1 3 0 2014 3 0 4 1 4 0 3 0 12 1 3 1 Source: Ministry of Education of Rwanda 79 INTERNATIONAL PROJECTS ON EDUCATION, SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY The Government of Rwanda has been working with international partners to foster co-operation agreements around high-impact SETI projects, such as: Establishment of the International Centre for Theoretical Physics branch in Rwanda (in progress) The establishment of the International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP) branch in Rwanda was approved by the Cabinet of the Government of Rwanda in October 2013. The main activities of the ICTP Branch in Rwanda will be: (a) promotion of capacity building in basic science, and many other areas of science such as climate change, telecommunication, high performance computing, etc.; (b) a focus on experimental science through partnership with numerous laboratories in Italy; (c) PhD training (full-time and sandwich), Masters and fellowship programmes; (d) various high level research programmes, partnerships and networks and (e) visiting scientist programmes, whereby global experts will be supported to teach as visiting professors. Preparatory works toward starting the ICTP branch are on-going. The centre will be hosted by the University of Rwanda College of Science and Technology. Establishment of the Rwanda Academy of Science (in progress) Since its establishment, the Rwanda Academy of Science (RAS) taskforce accomplished the following tasks: (i) developing the RAS concept paper as a guiding document; (ii) organizing and conducting the RAS awareness-raising general meeting which took place on December 2013, involving over 60 distinguished academics; (iii) with support from the Ministry of Education, the RAS taskforce employed a legal consultant to construct the institution’s legal framework. The RAS taskforce developed and approved the following documents: RAS Framework Report; RAS Draft Law; RAS Governance Structure; and RAS Administrative Procedures Manual. It is expected that following the Cabinet approval of RAS, a permanent secretariat will be appointed. Partnership in Applied Sciences Engineering and Technology (in progress) The Ministry of Education of Rwanda is working with the World Bank in a Partnership in Applied Science Engineering and Technology (PASET), aiming to promote S&T skills at all levels of education. PASET meetings was held in Senegal in June 2014 in which 12 African countries participated, and in Ethiopia in July 2015 in which 8 participated. The participating state include Angola, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Cote d’Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, Senegal, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia. 80 BOX 9 – THE IMPORTANCE OF ACADEMIES OF SCIENCE Academies of science, medicine and engineering can be found in most of the world’s countries. With their members selected from among the leading scientiic, medical and engineering minds within a country, academies are merit-based. Typically, although they are supported by government funds, they are also independent institutions designed to recognize excellence and achievement. However, the strength of academies is not what they can do for the scientiic community, but that they are able to mobilize scientists to play a leading role in society and development. This is especially true when it comes to providing up-to-the-minute syntheses of complex issues on areas of science that touch on policy. By mobilizing national science leaders, as well as international experts, academies are able to produce unbiased reports, recommendations and advice for policy-makers. In Africa, some 20 countries have established national science academies – many of them in the past few years following the capacity building efforts of IAP – the global network of science academies (hosted by The World Academy of Sciences in Trieste, Italy) and its regional network for Africa, NASAC – the Network of African Science Academies, based in Nairobi, Kenya. These academies should be seen as a resource to be used by their national governments when seeking advice on scientiic issues – whether the issue is developing a nation’s renewable energy policy for the next 20 years, or plans to manage water resources more sustainably, or to improve agricultural production or urban health. It is also through IAP and NASAC that Africa’s weak and new academies can synergise their strengths and work together for greater impact. One such example is IAP’s Science Education/ Science Literacy Programme, which is promoting Inquiry-based Science Education (IBSE) in several African countries via academy-led initiatives. The programme promotes science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) education that will develop necessary critical thinking skills in children, as well as promoting outreach activities to the general public that will improve their understanding of science and technology issues. To date, despite its focus on the use of science and technology for development, Rwanda does not have a national science academy. This is changing, however, with plans to establish a Rwanda Academy of Sciences during 2015 already at an advanced stage. In 2013, the Rwandan Ministry of Education appointed a taskforce to carry out all necessary consultations for the establishment of the academy. The taskforce held a irst consultation meeting in July 2013 to explain the key roles and functions of an academy to national stakeholders and discuss the concept note for the academy. A revised concept for the proposed Rwanda Academy of Sciences was presented at a second consultative meeting in December 2013. The inal document has since been submitted to the Rwanda Law Reform Commission and the Rwanda Cabinet to request formal approval for establishing the academy. Such a move will bring Rwanda in line with other African countries with active science academies, such as Kenya, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa and Uganda. The new Rwandan academy will also be able to tap into lessons learned by the suite of newly-established academies on the continent, including Mozambique, Sudan and Tanzania. As the input of science and technology is increasingly being recognized by decision-makers when designing effective policies, the role of academies in providing timely and unbiased advice is being recognized more and more around the world. The establishment of the Rwandan academy will thus complement the governmental science institutions and will contribute in a fair and informed way to Rwandan national development. Peter McGrath IAP/IAMP Coordinator The Global Network of Science Academies, Trieste, Italy 81 BOX 10 – HIGHER EDUCATION CENTRES OF EXCELLENCE IN AFRICA From 12th to 13th of March 2014, the Forum on Higher Education for Science, Technology and Innovation: Accelerating Africa’s Aspirations, took place in Kigali, Rwanda. It was jointly organized by the Government of Rwanda and the World Bank and brought together senior government representatives from Ethiopia, Mozambique, Rwanda, Senegal and Uganda16. The purpose of the meeting was strengthening science, technology and innovation capabilities for economic transformation and development in Africa. Representatives of international and regional research organizations, educational institutions, eminent scientists and technologists, the private sector, as well as technical and inancial partners, participated in the Forum. The President of the Republic of Rwanda, His Excellence Paul Kagame, spoke at the Forum. Participating African governments resolved to adopt a strategy that uses strategic investments in science and technology to accelerate Africa’s development, aiming to create developed knowledge-based societies within one generation. Within the inal declaration, the participating governments declared their commitment to the following fourteen actions: 1. to collaborate with business people, development partners and other stakeholders so as to develop and implement an action plan that will accelerate the supply of qualiied human resources in critical areas of science, engineering and technology that will address Africa’s development challenges; 2. to promote adoptive research for technology transfer, giving it more weight to create competitive value chains; 3. to use FDI as a platform to technology capability accumulation by higher education and research institutions; 4. to increase the share of students in sciences, engineering and technology to serve strategic areas of Africa’s development, such as agriculture, extractive industries, energy, ICT, health and environment and set national, sub-regional and regional target as well as setting up mechanism to monitor these targets; 5. to promote and encourage regional solutions including creation of regional partnerships and initiatives as well as the establishment of regional institutions and centres of excellence with the scale and inances to provide high quality specialized training and conduct strategic research linked to development needs; 6. to work together to support STI initiatives for Africa’s development that aim at strengthening higher education and other knowledge institutions and mechanisms; 7. to undertake reforms of the tertiary education systems to build science and technology capacity including rebalancing the system towards increasing the number and quality of graduates with science and technology competences, strengthening governance, and improving quality assurance and accountability for results; 8. to strengthen science and mathematics education at all levels including a focus on science and mathematics at the primary and secondary levels with an emphasis on girls ‘science and mathematics learning to ensure a supply of students interested in the ield at postsecondary levels; 9. to increase female participation in science, engineering and technology in order to achieve gender parity in STI system, including decision-making, education and employment; 10. to enable Research and Development to drive technological adaptation and innovation by business. These include creating an enabling environment as well as explicit policies to encourage private-sector demand for science and ethnology; 16 http://www.mineduc.gov.rw/innovation/IMG/pdf/HEST_AGENDA_FINAL.pdf 82 11. to build public support for science, engineering and technology by having inclusive and participatory process of formulating and implementing STI policies and programs; 12. to harness the African Diaspora in order to tap into preexisting international networks and capitalize on the potential reservoir of talent and entrepreneurship in support of building science and technology capacity; 13. to strengthen existing data sources and develop new sources of information and knowledgesharing, including an up-to-date solid statistics, and indicators of inputs, policies and outcomes of the STI system; and 14. to establish a mechanism/ identify institutions for monitoring progress towards these commitments, including reaching out to AMCOST and other regional bodies. In order to implement the forum recommendations, the World Bank approved a US$ 290.8 millionproject to establish and fund a series of Higher Education Centers of Excellence in Africa. The project will involve selecting a group of higher education institutions operating in Africa, and strengthening their capacity to deliver quality education and applied research in relevant areas to address regional challenges. Remy Twiringiyimana Director of Research and Development Rwanda Ministry of Education 83 R&D indicators for Rwanda UNESCO has been conducting global surveys on R&D indicators since the early 1960s (UNESCO, 1960). For decades, this work was performed by the organization’s former divisions of Science Policy and of Statistics on Science and Technology. Between 1970 and 1999, information from UNESCO’s global R&D surveys was published in the UNESCO Statistical Yearbooks and in special reports prepared by the aforementioned divisions. Between 1960 and 1990, several R&D surveys were conducted in Africa. In Rwanda, UNESCO conducted R&D surveys in 1965, 1967, 1980–1985, 1990 and 1995 (UNESCO, 1972, 1982a, 1998). In the late 1990s, the Division of Statistics left UNESCO headquarters in Paris to become the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) in Montreal. Since then, the UIS has become the international repository of statistics on R&D input for the United Nations system. In 2014, it published the indings of its irst global innovation survey (although Rwanda was not yet among the countries participating). In 2003, African countries endorsed the compilation of indicators for scientiic research, technological development and innovation. To make this possible, the African Science, Technology and Innovation Indicators (ASTII) initiative was launched on 17 September 2007 in Mozambique as a lagship programme of Africa’s Science and Technology Consolidated Plan of Action. The overall goal of ASTII is to help improve the quality of STI policies at national, regional and continental levels by strengthening Africa’s capacity to develop and use STI indicators. ASTII sets out to support evidence-based policy addressing Africa’s development challenges in the context of STI. So far, ASTII has brought together 28 African Union member states and published two African Innovation Outlooks (AU–NEPAD, 2011; NPCA, 2014). In 2015, the Government of Rwanda will start conducting R&D surveys through the Directorate of Science, Technology and Research under the Ministry of Education and the National Statistical Ofice. R&D PERSONNEL Policymakers and researchers have increasingly emphasized the importance of skilled people—what social scientists refer to as human capital—to both knowledge creation and productive innovation. As technical content spreads throughout a knowledge-based economy, the knowledge and skills associated with science and engineering are increasingly necessary for workers with formal training in science and engineering skills who work in non-research and innovation jobs as well as for those in occupations traditionally classiied as part of the R&D labour force. The planning and formulation of SETI policies requires the knowledge, especially in developing countries, of the total numerical strength of the most qualiied human resources, namely the total stock and the number of economically active persons who possess the necessary qualiications to be scientists, engineers and technicians. In this section, the assumed deinitions on the different categories of R&D personnel follow the ones presented in the Glossary (see pages 252–254). Certain categories of measures are better adapted for addressing some questions than others, and not all general population and workforce surveys include questions in each category. Fortunately, the available data on Rwanda, presented in this study, has not only the historical value, but also affords the possibility to ind some long-term trends, and thus to consider if policy change causes impacts. Table 25 shows the distribution across ields of scientists and engineers engaged in R&D by their ield of study, 1967 and 1981 corresponding to the data generated by two UNESCO R&D surveys. Table 26 shows the number of full-time equivalent (FTE) researchers and technicians engaged in R&D activities in Rwanda for several years between 1965 and 2009. Data corresponding to the years between 1965 and 1995 were published at the UNESCO Statistical Yearbook (UNESCO, 1972, 1982, 1998). Data corresponding to years 2008 and 2009 were estimated for this study based on: data about researchers within the higher education sector, published by UIS, and data on the public sector provided by the Agricultural Science and Technology Indicators (ASTI) initiative (see Table 27). These values have an uncertainty of +/- 15%. 86 Medical sciences Agricultural sciences Social sciences Total Natural sciences Engineering and technology Medical sciences Agricultural sciences Social sciences Researchers 207 25 13 75 24 70 245 37 40 14 64 90 Technicians 454 13 59 198 88 96 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a Researchers [F] 17 1 0 8 0 8 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a Technicians [F] 85 7 6 50 0 22 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a [Head counts] Engineering and technology 1981 Natural sciences 1967 Total R&D personnel by their ield of study Table 25: Historical data on head counts number of scientists and engineers engaged in R&D by their ield of study, 1967 and 1981 Source: UNESCO Statistical Yearbook (1972, 1982) Figure 28 presents the evolution of the number of FTE researchers and FTE researchers per million inhabitants between 1965 and 2009 using the same data. The dotted lines are the best itting curves and their shape show a total correspondence with the evolution of other related indicators within the same period (i.e. Fig. 3, Fig. 7 particularly the curve of GDP per capita in PPP, Fig. 9, Fig. 24 and Fig. 25). In all the cases, their trends shows an abrupt slope-change between 2000 and 2005. This is interpreted as a consequence of important improvements in the country governance. In general, the number of scientiic articles published in mainstream journals corresponds well to the number of scientists working (Lemarchand, 2015). A correspondence is found between the evolution of the number of FTE researchers and the evolution of the number of scientiic articles published in main- stream journals, when Figure 28 and Figure 30 (see page 101) are compared. 350 Full time equivalent (FTE) researchers FTE researchers per million inhabitants 300 35 30 250 25 200 20 150 15 100 10 50 0 1964 FTE researchers per million inhabitants 40 FTE researchers 5 0 1969 1974 1979 1984 1989 1994 1999 2004 2009 2014 Figure 28: Long-term evolution of FTE researchers and FTE researchers per million inhabitants. The dotted lines are the best itting curves, 1965 – 2009 87 Table 26: Historical data on FTE R&D personnel, several years between 1965 and 2009 Full time equivalent R&D personnel Year Total Personnel Researchers Technicians Administrative 1965 n/a 18 n/a n/a 1967 n/a 19 n/a n/a 1980 n/a 48 n/a n/a 1981 117 54 36 27 1982 130 62 41 27 1983 149 64 55 30 1984 164 69 60 35 1985 n/a 71 n/a n/a 1990 n/a 101 n/a n/a 1995 122 70 16 36 2008* n/a 263 n/a n/a 2009* n/ a 306 n/a n/a Source: UNESCO Statistical Yearbook (1972, 1982, 1998) * Note: estimation by UNESCO based on surveys of FTE researchers the higher education sector, and at the government sector within agriculture sciences Since 2001, there has been a deliberate effort to build the capacity of agricultural researchers in Rwanda. The Agriculture Science and Technology Indicators (ASTI) initiative, which is led by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), has the most complete internationally comparable database on agricultural R&D investments and capacity for developing countries. Table 27 shows the data collected by ASTI on Rwanda. The number of public agricultural researchers in Rwanda grew signiicantly during 2008–2011. Moreover, the number of FTE researchers qualiied to the PhD level increased from 13 to 22, while the number qualiied to the MSc level more than doubled (Rahija and Gatete, 2014). The researcher/technician ratio is still below the required target of 1:2. Furthermore, a staff competence indicator is the number of PhDs that are actively engaged in research; it is low, hence, there is a critical need to further build the capacity and numbers of scientists (Gahakwa et al., 2014). 88 Table 27: Characteristics of FTE researchers in Agriculture sciences, 2005–2011 FTE researchers in agriculture sciences Total [Government sector] Number per 100 000 farmers 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 119 120 125 125 143 163 180 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 Number of PhDs 12 12 13 13 20 22 22 Number of MSc 28 31 34 40 59 76 94 Number of BSc 78 77 78 71 64 64 65 Male [% of total] – – – 84 – – 76 Female [% of total] – – – 16 – – 24 < 31 years [% of total] – – – – – – 17 31–40 years [% of total] – – – – – – 50 41–50 years [% of total] – – – – – – 26 51–60 years [% of total] – – – – – – 6 > 60 years [% of total] – – – – – – 1 BSc [% of total] 66 64 62 57 45 40 36 MSc [% of total] 24 26 27 32 41 47 52 PhD [% of total] 10 10 11 11 14 14 12 Speciality crops [% of total] – – – 59 – – 65 Speciality livestock [% of total] – – – 25 – – 16 Speciality isheries [% of total] – – – 1 – – 1 Speciality forestry [% of total] – – – 3 – – 2 Speciality natural resources [% of total] – – – 4 – – 3 Other commodity focus [% of total] – – – 8 – – 12 Source: Agricultural Science and Technology Indicators (ASTI) database R&D expenditure in Rwanda In developed countries, R&D activities are an important input to commercial innovation and the objectives of government agencies. R&D is part of a class of intangible inputs that also include software, higher education, and worker training. Intangibles are at least as important sources of long-term economic growth as are physical investments in machinery. In developing countries, without an industrialized economy and without a minimum threshold of R&D personnel (i.e. 1 000/ 1 200 FTE researchers per million inhabitants), it is virtually impossible to determine any high correlation between investment in R&D and its impact on economic growth. It happens frequently that the expenditure for a given year does not correspond exactly to what was foreseen, because of changes in sources of funds (e.g. new contracts) and of the gradual spending of sums allotted to SETI activities (e.g. the acquisition of scientiic equipment may entail, from the decision to purchase to the payment of the invoice, a procedure which exceeds one year). It goes without saying that inancial appropriations and actual expenditure are two complementary indicators, each stressing some aspects, and requiring different treatment and sources of data. It may be recalled that SETI policy-makers attach great importance to inancial appropriations especially for the public sector. However, highest priority is attributed herein to the real inancial effort made by SETI organizations, as shown by actual expenditure. 89 Funds that support the conduct of R&D usually come from a variety of sources, including businesses, national and other governments, academic institutions, foreign donors and other non-proit organizations. The mix of funding sources varies in relation to the characteristics of individual countries. There is no recent data about the proile of R&D expenditures in Rwanda. In 2013, the authorities of the Directorate of Science, Technology and Research at the Rwanda Ministry of Education estimated that R&D expenditure was approximately 0.4% of the GDP17. Figure 29 shows a compilation of the data registered over the years by different UNESCO Statistical Yearbooks (UNESCO, 1972, 1982a, 1998) on the R&D expenditures as a percentage of GDP between 1963 and 1995. This historical data also show that 80% the expenditures were provided by the government and the remaining 20% by foreign donors. The data from Figure 29 clearly relects a drastic halt in spending caused by the Genocide. This data is also consistent with the evolution of the number of FTE researchers (see Figure 28) and the evolution of scientiic publications over time (see Figure 30, page 101). Thanks to surveys made my ASTI, the agriculture research sector is the only one with recent data on R&D expenditures. Rahija and Gatete (2014) show that agricultural R&D spending in Rwanda grew by about 50% during 2005–2011. The government contributes the largest share of the Rwanda Agricultural Board’s funding (55% 2011). Some is generated internally through the sale of good and services (5% in 2011). The Rwanda Agriculture Board also relies on foreign inancial sources to fund research activities. Several regional and international organizations contribute to fund agricultural R&D activities in Rwanda, such as Association for strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA), A Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA), Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), among others. Table 28 presents the main inancial igures on agriculture research in Rwanda, which were collected by the ASTI database. 0.54 0.55 Historical series of R&D expenditures in Rwanda 0.50 Percentage of GDP 0.45 0.40 0.35 0.33 0.30 0.24 0.25 0.26 0.21 0.20 0.17 0.15 0.21 0.17 0.15 0.10 0.04 0.05 0.0004 0.005 0.00 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1982 1983 1984 1985 1991 1993 1995 Figure 29: Historical series of R&D expenditures in Rwanda, several years between 1963 and 1995. Source: UNESCO Statistical Yearbook (1972, 1982a, 1998) 17 Presentation of Dr Marie Christine Gasingirwa, Director General for Science, Technology and Research, Rwanda Ministry of Education, First Regional Conference on Bio-Innovate, See: http://bioinnovate-africa.org/component/joomarticle/item/142rwanda-seek-science-technology-and-innovation-policies-to-sustain-growth 90 Table 28: Characteristics of R&D expenditures in agriculture sciences, 2005–2011 FTE researchers’ spending 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Total, public [million constant 2005 PPP$] 18.6 18.8 18.9 20.2 21.8 23.4 27.2 Total, public [million constant 2005 US$] 6.2 6.3 6.3 6.8 7.3 7.8 9.1 Total, public [million constant 2005 LCU] 3 472.1 3 501.9 3 515.9 3 768.0 4 057.9 4 358.5 5 071.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 Salaries [% of total spending] –- –- –- –- –- 44.2 40.2 Operating and program costs [% of total spending] –- –- –- –- –- 51.1 54.2 Capital investments [% of total spending] –- –- –- –- –- 4.7 5.6 Government [% of total funding] –- –- –- –- –- 52.5 55.4 Donors and development banks [% of total funding] –- –- –- –- –- 38.8 39.2 Sales of goods/services [% of total funding] –- –- –- –- –- 8.7 5.4 As a share of Agriculture GDP [%] FTE researchers’ funding Note: inancial data exclude the higher education sector. Source: Agricultural Science and Technology Indicators (ASTI) database R&D ACTIVITIES, SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL SERVICES (STS) AT THE UNIVERSITY OF RWANDA THROUGH INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION Unlike department-based research institutes or public research institutes, the primary function of higher education Institutions is teaching, not research, which is the secondary function of most universities. In many developing countries, the higher education Institutions are the main seat of R&D activity. After the 2013 after the reorganization of the public higher education system in Rwanda, the University of Rwanda became the most important research university in the country. Box 11 presents a set of widely-accepted deinitions to estimate the R&D expenditures within a higher education institution (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2014). As it was mentioned before, the Government of Rwanda is planning to implement in 2015 a new R&D survey. As a result, accurate data on R&D expenditures by sector (public, business, higher education and private non-proit) is expected. In general, the sources of funding for R&D activities in a higher education institution are composed income from endowments, shareholdings, property, student fees and subscriptions to own journals, direct grants from national, federal state, provincial and local government, funds from government research institutes, national agencies funding (i.e. research and innovation funds), domestic business including industry funds, other national sources, such as other higher education institutions, not-for-proit organizations and donations and bequests from individuals (see Box 11). In Africa, foreign R&D investment usually contributes an extensive part of the total. Table 29 presents an inventory of the Memoranda of Understanding of the University of Rwanda, recently signed to support R&D activities, as well as scientiic and technological services. The table also provides information on international participating organizations, brief descriptions of each individual project, and fund amount. 91 BOX 11 – DEFINITION AND CALCULATION OF IN-HOUSE R&D EXPENDITURE AT HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS A higher education institution is –for the purposes of a survey— considered a ‘unit’. It may have expenditures on R&D either within the unit (intramural) or outside it (extramural). Intramural expenditures are all expenditures for R&D performed within a statistical unit or sector of the economy during a speciic period – whatever the source of funds. Expenditures made outside the higher education institution but in support of intramural R&D (e.g. purchase of supplies for R&D) are included. Extramural expenditures are the sums the unit has paid or committed itself to pay to another unit (or organization or sector) for the performance of R&D during a speciic period. This includes acquisition of R&D performed by other units, and grants given to others for performing R&D. Annual R&D expenditure data should be compiled based on performers’ reports. As supplementary information, the review of trace records of extramural expenditures is desirable. R&D expenditure is broken down into two major accounting categories – namely, current expenditure and capital expenditure. Current expenditures Current expenditures are principally composed of: Labour costs of R&D personnel: annual wages and salaries and all associated costs or fringe beneits. If R&D is not the primary function of certain persons, the R&D coeficients derived from time-use studies or other methods could be used directly at an appropriate level (i.e. individual, institute, department, university, etc.) to estimate the share of R&D in total labour costs. Other current costs: encompass non-capital purchases of materials, supplies and equipment to support R&D, including water, gas and electricity; books, journals, reference materials, subscriptions to libraries, scientiic societies, etc.; materials for laboratories such as chemicals or animals; costs for on-site consultants; administrative and other overhead costs (e.g. ofice, insurance, post and telecommunications); costs for indirect services (e.g. security, storage, computer services, printing of R&D reports and the use, repair and maintenance of buildings and equipment); and labour costs of non-R&D personnel. Current expenditures include (but not limited to): ▶ Direct project costs, project consumables and running costs linked to research, such as materials, fuels and other inputs, including telephone and printing. ▶ Subsistence and travel expenses. ▶ Repair and maintenance expenses. ▶ Payments to outside organizations for use of specialised testing facilities, analytical work, engineering or other specialised services in support of R&D projects carried out by this reporting unit. ▶ Commission/consultant expenses for research projects carried out by this reporting unit. ▶ The relevant percentage of indirect and institutional costs and utility costs, such as rent, space charge, leasing and hiring expenses, furniture, water, electricity and any other overhead costs. ▶ The relevant percentage of labour costs of persons providing indirect services such as the head ofice, human resources, inances, security and maintenance personnel as well as staff of central libraries and IT departments. 92 Where current expenses such as direct project costs and consumables are used solely for R&D, allocate the full cost of the items. If these current expenses are used for more than one activity, include only an estimate of the portion used for R&D. Only where such an estimate of the portion used for R&D is not available, such as indirect and utility costs and labour costs of staff providing indirect services, it is advised that respondents apply the percentage time that researchers in the reporting unit spent on R&D to the total of these current expenditures. For example, if a faculty’s income and expenditure statement shows that the current expenditure for indirect and utility costs and labour costs of staff providing indirect services for the year was US$ 1 250 000 and that researchers on average spent 22% of their time to R&D, then this component of R&D current expenditure may be estimated as 0.22 x US$ 1 250 000 = US$ 275 000. Exclude from current expenditures: ▶ Contract R&D expenses where the research project is carried out elsewhere by others on behalf of this reporting unit. ▶ Payments for purchases of technical expertise (goodwill). ▶ Licence fees. ▶ Depreciation provisions. Capital expenditures Capital expenditures are the annual gross expenditures on ixed assets used in the R&D programmes of the unit. They include: ▶ land and buildings; ▶ instruments and equipment; and ▶ computer software. The full cost of capital expenditures must be reported in the year of purchase (do not depreciate). Capital expenditures include – but are not limited to: ▶ Expenditure on ixed assets used in the R&D programmes of the unit. ▶ Acquisition of software, including license fees, expected to be used for more than one year. ▶ Purchase of databases expected to be used for more than one year. ▶ Major repairs, improvements and modiications to land and buildings. Where a capital expenditure is used solely for R&D, allocate the full cost of the item. If the capital expenditure is used for more than one activity, include only an estimate of the portion used for R&D. For example, a new piece of equipment will be used for R&D (included), testing (excluded) and quality control (excluded). If the intended use of this new equipment for R&D purposes is 40% of the total usage (i.e. the other 60% for other activities), only 40% of the total equipment cost should be considered as relevant R&D expenditure. Only where such an estimate of the portion used for R&D is not available, apply the percentage time that the unit’s researchers spent on R&D to the cost of the item. Exclude from capital expenditures: a) Other repairs and maintenance expenses. b) Depreciation provisions. c) Proceeds from the sale of R&D assets Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2014) 93 94 Table 29: Memoranda of Understanding of the University of Rwanda to support R&D and STS activities Project name Area of support by each cooperation Agreement date Funder SPH Training Health Researchers into Vocational Excellence Project Training Health Researchers into Vocational Excellence 2009–2014 Training Health Researchers into Vocational Excellence SPH BTC–CTB Scientiic support 2011–2012 APPEAR To promote professional social work education and practice to more effectively contribute towards social development and poverty reduction in achieving the Millennium Development Goals in East Africa European Union through EU FP7 – Healthy futures Agreed contract amount Fund Currency College where each project belongs 244 469 Pound CMHS* Belgian Development Agency (BTC) 62 460 Euro CMHS* March, 2011–Feb, 2014 Austrian Development cooperation 19 075 Euro CASS* Healthy, environmental change and adaptive capacity: mapping, examining and anticipating future risks of waterrelated vector-borne diseases in eastern Africa 2011–2014 European Union 330 440 Euro CST* CGIS ESRI Germany GIS Software site license and management support 2009 – 2013 ESRI (private company) 209 880 Euro CST* NICHE/RWA/071 Strengthen the capacity of the University of Rwanda to provide quality education, research and consultancy 1st April 2011 – 31st March 2015 Netherlands Organisation for International Cooperation in Higher Education 1 800 000 Euro CST* Liege University under sponsor of European Union, EDULINK PROJECT Financing Postgraduate Studies in Pharmaceutical Sciences 2010–2013 EDULINK 122 886 Euro CMHS* Conseil Inter Universitaire Francophone / Belgium Supports capacity building of the Faculties of Applied Science. It also support the UR ICT and Research and Postgraduate Studies Unit for post–doctoral scholarships 2010–2014 Conseil Interuniversitaire de la Communauté Française (CIUF) 1 320 000 Euro All Colleges GLMC-European Union. To Support Great Lakes Media Council in Rwanda 2011–2014 European Union 500 000 Euro CASS* Ulg-UCL/CUD-CIUF (a) Establishment of a unit of analysis ensuring the quality control and the development of drugs or not and the toxicant research (b) to reinforce the capacity of research and formation of the department of Pharmacy 2007–2014 Conseil Interuniversitaire de la Communauté Française (CIUF) 370 000 Euro CMHS* SPARK Entrepreneurship education and development. 2011-2014 USAID 50 000 Euro CBE* PIC project To Support Research training 2010-2015 Belgium 19 000 Euro CMHS* Project name Area of support by each cooperation Agreement date Funder BTC-CTB Etude de guidance scientiique pour le passage à un programme integré de la coopération Belgo-rwandaise dans le secteur de santé 2008-2014 Belgian Development Agency (BTC) Rubarn Africa project Research on exploring connections between rural transformation , mobility , and urbanization process 2012-2016 ARISE-Network Project Research and Training Centre Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council Agreed contract amount Fund Currency College where each project belongs 2 111 111 Euro CMHS* European Union 162 960 Euro CST* 2012–2016 Netherlands Organisation for Scientiic research 242 913 Euro CMHS* Research in areas of Social worker 2013–2015 Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council 102 711 Euro CASS* SIDA Research Collaboration Research Cooperation 2007–2014 Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA) 249 000 000 SEK All Colleges SPH Rockefeller Project Establishing a Centres of Excellence for Strengthen Health Care 2011 – 2014 Rockfeller Foundation 964 340 US$ CMHS* SPH CDC Project Supporting the UR/SPH to improve Quality of HIV/AIDS and Health Service Delivery to the population of Rwanda 2010-2015 Centres for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC) 3 232 000 US$ CMHS* SPH Global Fund Project Single stream of Funding SSF/HIV/AIDS 2010–2013 2010–2013 Global Fund 846 000 US$ CMHS* SPH PHIT Project MPhil/PhD Program Coordination (Capacity Building Project.) 2010–2015 Rwanda Population Health Implementation and Training (PHIT) 559 316 US$ CMHS* UNICEF and RBC Impact Assessment of the PMTCT program at six weeks in Rwanda 2010 – 2012 UNICEF 619 386 US$ CST* Association of Africa Universities To raise HIV awareness in higher learning Institutions of CASRN 2011–2014 Association of African Universities 55 000 US$ CASS* MacArthur Foundation Enhancing capacity building for conservation and climate change adaptation in Albertine Rift Region 2012–2014 MacArthur Foundation 250 000 US$ CBE* MIS Rockefeller Foundation To support development of MIS 2007–2014 Rockefeller Foundation 304 000 US$ CASS* Sharing growth through informal employment in East and Southern Africa project Research Inform employment 2012–2014 International Development Research Centre (IDRC) 167 000 US$ CASS* 95 96 Project name Area of support by each cooperation Agreement date Funder Trust Africa IDRC Study on SMEs In Rwanda 2012–2013 International Development Research Centre (IDRC) USAID To asses and document social economic and environment effects of land used consolidation in Rwanda 2013–2014 USAID Simulation Centre Project Dalhousie University 2012–2014 Dalhousie University Rwanda women leadership program in agriculture To strengthen women research in Agriculture 2013–2015 USAID Engaging graduate students in achieving health infant growth Western Ontario 2012-2014 Research Project HRH Project Contribution to residency stipend 2013–2014 Centres for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC) and Committee on Agriculture (COAG) Centre for Global Health at Aarhus University Mutual educational and scholarly interest 2012–2016 Denmark – The Centre for Global Health at Aarhus University MHA Master of Hospital Administration (MHA) Program 2012–2019 GCC Project Implementing Research on Hypertension in Low and Middle Income Countries 2013–2018 Agreed contract amount Fund Currency College where each project belongs 44 525 US$ CASS* 109 658 US$ CASS* 45 850 US$ CMHS* 631 180 US$ CAVM* 7 530 US$ CMHS* 371 071 US$ CMHS* 23 353 US$ CMHS* Ministry of Health–Single project implementation unit 471 383 US$ CMHS* Grand Challenge Canada (GCC) 552 396 US$ CMHS* Note: CST: College of Science and Technology; CBE: College of Business and Economics CAVM: College of Agriculture, Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine; CE: College of Education; CMHS: College of Medicine and Health Sciences, and CASS: College of Arts and Social Sciences Source: University of Rwanda A scientometric analysis of Rwanda Basic research is usually carried out in universities or other academic institutions. The traditional method used to measure or assess the results of academic research uses bibliometric indicators. Bibliometrics is a general term for the inventory and statistical analysis of articles, publications and citations and other more complex indicators of scientiic production derived from such statistics. Bibliometric indicators are important tools for assessing R&D, performance and the specialization of countries, institutions, laboratories, universities, thematic areas and individual scientists. As with any indicator, they are not faultless and should, therefore, be interpreted with caution. The procedure for assessing the impact of industrial R&D is essentially based on an analysis of patent statistics and, when it comes to the impact of industrial R&D on trade, based on an analysis of high-tech products, as well as through studies of the trade balance of high-tech items for each country. Both bibliometric analyses and patent statistics are included in a discipline known as scientometrics. At present, thanks to exponential growth in our data-processing capacity, it is possible to prepare sophisticated multidimensional indicators on the production of scientiic articles in all disciplines, from exact sciences to humanities. Moreover, very precise analyses can be made of the impact of publications, the state-of-the-art of knowledge in various subject areas in each country, the level of co-operation in terms of co-authorship of publications, co-citations, the creation and evolution of scientist networks (‘invisible colleges’), etc. By analysing cross-references used in patent applications or by cross-referencing information published in scientiic literature, we can use bibliometrics to examine the links between STI and patents (Lemarchand, 2010). One of the most relevant sources of information about the productivity of scientiic knowledge is accessible through international databases (Lemarchand, 2013). This type of information is not usually open access. In particular, a very well established class of indicators about scientiic production can be estimated by counting the number of articles and citations published in mainstream journals. One of the most complete databases is the Web of Science, which includes the Science Citation Index (SCI), Social Science Citation Index (SSCI) and Arts and Humanities Citation Index (A&HCI). The latter is now maintained by ThomsonReuters, a private company, and covers 12 000 peer-reviewed journals. The other major database is SCOPUS, which is maintained by Elsevier Science and covers 18 000 peer-reviewed journals. An analysis of the aggregated temporal evolution in the data available at the Web of Science shows a homogeneous trend that is independent of any academic discipline and avoids any substantial change in national trends, owing to the continual incorporation of new journals in the databases. In this way, it is also possible to study the evolution in cooperation patterns among countries and institutions, search for the most developed disciplines and analyse the impact of scientiic research based on how other scientists have made use of this material. Not all Rwandan scientists submit their research results to mainstream journals listed by the Web of Science. Therefore, the existence of local and regional journals in several countries may relect some peculiar domestic circumstances or a speciic national scientiic agenda that are not considered by the mainstream journals. For this reason, publication in mainstream journals represents only a fraction of the total scientiic production of any particular country. The main advantage of using these databases is that they have been systematically collected and organized over several decades using similar methodologies, allowing us to perform a long-term analysis with a relatively high level of conidence (Lemarchand, 2012). In spite of the drawback of underrepresented local and regional journals, it can be argued that there is a good correspondence among Web of Science database (SCI Extended, SSCI, A&HCI) and other international databases on scientiic knowledge production. De Moya-Anegón and Herrero-Solana (1999) and Lemarchand (2012) have shown a strong correlation in the distribution of citable articles between the Science Citation Index Extended and other databases like PASCAL, INSPEC, COMPENDEX, CHEMICAL ABSTRACTS, BIOSIS, MEDLINE and CAB. They have obtained the following values for the correlation coeficient (R) among the different databases: 0.957 ≤ R ≤ 0.997. This inding supports the hypothesis that the combination of SCI Extended, SSCI and A&HCI, listed by the Web of Science database, is a good indicator for any study of mainstream scientiic knowledge production and trends in co-authorship networks among different countries. 98 At this point, it is important to take into account that, during the period analysed here (1966−2013), the number of journals has expanded substantially and, consequently, so has the total number of published articles included in the Web of Science database. Mabe (2003) showed that journal growth rates have been remarkably consistent over time, with average rates of 0.034 since 1800 to the present day. This study presents evidence that, during the entire 20th century, these growth phenomena appear to show a system that is self-organizing and in equilibrium, with a 0.032 growth constant. Considering that the Web of Science database includes only a fraction of all the new journals that are published, the growth rate for databases should be even smaller than that estimated by Mabe (2003). Lemarchand (2012, 2015) has developed a mathematical model showing the proportionality between the size of the national scientiic network (e.g. number of FTE researchers in a country) and the corresponding scientiic productivity (in terms of the aggregate number of publications per year and the number of coauthored scientiic articles between pairs of countries). In this way, the productivity of scientiic articles over time is a good proxy for estimating the extent of growth in the number of full-time-equivalent researchers. In recent years, several studies on scientometric productivity among African countries were performed by several research groups and international organisations (Adams et al., 2010; Pouris, 2010; AU-NEPAD, 2011; Onyancha and Maluleka, 2011; Toivanen and Ponomariov, 2011; AOSTI, 2013; UNESCO, 2013, 2014a, 2014b; Nature Index Africa, 2014; NPCA, 2014; World Bank and Elsevier, 2014). The number of Rwanda’s scientiic publications listed by international databases (i.e. Web of Science, SCOPUS, etc.) has evolved in recent decades. In 2013, Rwanda occupies the 125th rank in the world and the 25th rank in Africa. Table 30 shows the distribution of mainstream scientiic publications, number of citations, citations per article, H index18, world ranking and African ranking for 53 African countries. Between 1996 and 2013, Rwanda produced 1 061 scientiic publications listed by SCOPUS which received 8 700 citations, where 767 were self-citations. The average number of citations per article was 14.08. Rwanda’s H index for this period was 43, placing it 145nd in the world. Table 30: Distribution of mainstream scientiic publications, citations, H index and regional and global ranks for all African countries, 2013 Articles Citable articles South Africa 15 181 14 180 8 224 2642 0.54 Egypt 13 554 12 908 4 339 1407 Tunisia 5 672 5 242 1 175 358 Country Citations SelfCitations Citations per article African rank World rank 260 1 34 0.32 148 2 38 0.21 97 3 51 H* index Nigeria 4 926 4 628 834 217 0.17 103 4 53 Algeria 4 561 4 400 798 271 0.17 89 5 54 Morocco 3 577 3 240 1 202 349 0.34 109 6 57 Kenya 1 955 1 858 1 153 274 0.59 149 7 65 Ethiopia 1 365 1 310 461 134 0.34 82 8 77 Ghana 1 133 1 048 508 92 0.45 82 9 81 Uganda 1 076 1 012 706 152 0.66 111 10 83 Tanzania 993 933 657 134 0.66 102 11 85 Cameroon 975 936 444 96 0.46 78 12 87 Sudan 657 634 156 27 0.24 58 13 96 Senegal 576 535 213 54 0.37 83 14 98 Zimbabwe 430 411 245 35 0.57 81 15 105 18 The H index is an indicator of the impact of an individual’s scientiic output and also, in an aggregate manner, that of institutions and countries (Hirsch, 2005). 99 Malawi 423 393 408 54 0.96 89 16 106 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 411 397 112 22 0.27 41 17 108 Benin 386 371 137 53 0.35 55 18 109 Burkina Faso 377 368 171 30 0.45 71 19 112 Botswana 354 331 100 10 0.28 63 20 113 Zambia 344 319 289 62 0.84 75 21 115 Congo 331 311 221 25 0.67 56 22 116 Côte d’Ivoire 306 295 122 29 0.40 76 23 118 Madagascar 256 244 128 39 0.50 62 24 122 Rwanda 232 210 143 34 0.62 43 25 125 Mozambique 218 203 179 22 0.82 60 26 126 Namibia 211 199 135 28 0.64 62 27 127 Mauritius 207 193 64 18 0.31 45 28 128 Mali 196 187 196 18 1.00 59 29 131 Gabon 156 147 91 15 0.58 67 30 133 The Gambia 149 134 239 10 1.60 85 31 134 Togo 126 117 32 5 0.25 33 32 139 Niger 104 100 74 8 0.71 51 33 147 90 86 40 4 0.44 35 34 150 Swaziland Angola 62 61 24 3 0.39 28 35 161 Seychelles 46 44 23 3 0.50 38 36 165 Democratic Republic Congo 45 41 22 2 0.49 33 37 166 Sierra Leone 45 41 27 1 0.60 23 38 167 Mauritania 41 39 9 2 0.22 28 39 168 Guinea 39 37 10 1 0.26 37 40 169 Burundi 38 37 5 1 0.13 26 41 170 Central African Republic 37 31 16 0 0.43 36 42 172 Lesotho 37 36 48 10 1.30 23 43 174 Guinea-Bissau 35 34 12 3 0.34 44 44 176 Cape Verde 33 28 18 3 0.55 13 45 178 Liberia 29 27 10 2 0.34 16 46 179 Eritrea 26 24 11 2 0.42 28 47 184 Chad 25 24 8 1 0.32 29 48 187 Comoros 20 18 2 0 0.10 11 49 189 Djibouti 17 17 5 1 0.29 15 50 192 Somalia 14 12 4 0 0.29 13 51 198 Equatorial Guinea 9 9 4 0 0.44 17 52 205 São Tomé and Príncipe 4 3 4 0 1.00 15 53 215 Source: SCOPUS database (December 2014) Figure 30 presents the long-term evolution in the number of scientiic articles listed in the SCI Extended, SSCI and A&HCI between 1973 and 2013. After reaching a peak of 38 publications in 1992, the number of published articles in mainstream journals decreased linearly to a lowpoint of 6 papers in 2000. Since then the number of scientiic publications listed in the WoS shows exponential growth. 100 Figure 31 shows the evolution in scientiic articles listed at the SCI Extended, SSCI and A&HCI between 1970 and 2013 per million-inhabitants. This indicator is a proxy for measuring the level of societal interest in promoting the creation of knowledge. The shape of this curve follows the same mathematical function shown in the previous igure. Until today, the highest peak was reached in 2013 with 15.7 publications per million population. The last survey of R&D indicators in Rwanda was done in 2009, listing 306 FTE researchers19 or 29 FTE researchers per million inhabitants. Each FTE researcher published an estimated 0.29 scientiic articles in mainstream journals in 2009. This is equivalent to each FTE researcher publishing just one article every 3.4 years. This is a relatively low individual productivity compared with other countries of the region (UNESCO, 2013, 2014a, 2014b). Over the years, the specialized literature has tended to assume that there is a high correlation between the number of publications per million population and GDP per capita in different countries (Konrad and Wahl, 1990; Ye, 2007). This correlation has been tested in several empirical studies by applying different mathematical models (Lemarchand, 2012), including for African countries (UNESCO, 2013, 2014a, 2014b). Figure 32 shows that, in the case of Rwanda, this correlation is relatively good (R2=0.86), following a parabolic mathematical relation. This means that any increment (or other type of variation) in one unit of GDP per capita would generate a change in the number of scientiic publications per million inhabitants (l) approximately equal to l = [0.00039 a2- 0.201 a + 27.792], where a is GDP per capita. Slowness of improvement relative to that of GDP can be explained by the absence of inancial incentives and adequate policy instruments to promote research and innovation in Rwanda. In this context, the evolution in the number of scientiic publications over time will be more strongly related to other incentives affecting an individual scientist, who may, for example, need to publish in order to advance in in a career. The observed growth in the number of publications since year 2000 relates to the fact that an increasing majority of these articles (around 85%) have been co-published with other countries (see Figure 33 and Table 31). 200 Publications listed at WoS 175 150 125 100 75 50 25 0 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Figure 30: Evolution in number of scientiic publications listed by the Web of Science for Rwanda, 1973−2013. The dotted line indicates the best-itting curve. Source: UNESCO, based on data provided by Web of Science 19 As it was explained in previous section (see page 87) this value is an estimation based on the combination of FTE researchers within the higher education sector and the government sector (agriculture research). 101 Publications listed at WoS per million inhabitants 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Figure 31: Evolution in the number of scientiic publications per million inhabitants in Rwanda, 1973−2013. The dotted line indicates the best-itting curve. Source: UNESCO, based on data provided by Web of Science and UN Statistics Division 18 R² = 0.86 WoS publications per million inhabitants 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 GDP per capita [constant 2012 US$] Figure 32: Quadratic correlation between GDP per capita in constant US$2012 and the number of scientiic publications listed by Web of Science per million population, 1973−2013. Source: UNESCO 102 Figure 33 shows the internationalization of Rwanda’s publications. In the past decade, between 71.4% and 99% of all scientiic articles have been co-published with authors from abroad. International co-authorship as a percentage of the total number of publications in Rwanda 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 Figure 33: Evolution in international collaboration in scientiic publications as a share of total annual publications in Rwanda. The dotted line is the best-itting curve. Source: UNESCO, based on data provided by Web of Science Table 31 shows the distribution of co-authored articles with Rwanda for the 30 most important partners over four different periods. A quick analysis shows how rapidly co-authorship has increased. In the irst 11-year period between 1973 and 1983, the total amount of articles was very small (70) and Belgium was the top partner, sharing 32.9% of publications, followed by the United Kingdom (11.4%), the Netherlands and Canada (2.9%)). In the period 1984−1993, with a total production of 247 articles, again Belgium had become the top partner (35.2%), followed by the USA (16.6%), France (12.1%), Switzerland (4.9%) and Spain (3.2%). Over the third decade period (1994−2003), the top partner was the USA (37.4%), followed by Belgium (23.3%), France (20.2%), the United Kingdom (14.1%) and Switzerland (7.4%). During the most recent decade (2004−2013), the USA attained the top position (40.3%), followed by Belgium (19%), the United Kingdom (14.6%), Uganda (10.6%) and the Netherlands (10%). 103 Table 31: Countries with which Rwandan scientists co-authored mainstream scientiic publications, 1973−2013 1973−1983 Rank 1984−1993 1994−2003 2004−2013 Country Pub Share of total [%] Country Pub Share of total [%] Country Pub Share of total [%] Country Pub Share of total [%] Rwanda 70 100.0% Rwanda 247 100.0% Rwanda 163 100.0% Rwanda 881 100.0% 1 Belgium 23 32.9% Belgium 87 35.2% USA 61 37.4% USA 355 40.3% 2 UK 8 11.4% USA 41 16.6% Belgium 38 23.3% Belgium 167 19.0% 3 Netherlands 2 2.9% France 30 12.1% France 33 20.2% UK 129 14.6% 4 Canada 2 2.9% Switzerland 12 4.9% UK 23 14.1% Uganda 93 10.6% 5 Zimbabwe 1 1.4% Spain 8 3.2% Switzerland 12 7.4% Netherlands 88 10.0% 6 USA 1 1.4% Germany 7 2.8% Cote d’Ivoire 12 7.4% Kenya 86 9.8% 7 Spain 1 1.4% Peru 5 2.0% Netherlands 11 6.7% South Africa 79 9.0% 8 South Africa 1 1.4% Japan 4 1.6% Germany 11 6.7% Zambia 64 7.3% 9 Rep. Dem. Congo 3 1.2% Uganda 8 4.9% Germany 56 6.4% 10 UK 3 1.2% Zambia 6 3.7% France 47 5.3% 11 Zimbabwe 2 0.8% Kenya 5 3.1% Tanzania 42 4.8% 12 Philippines 2 0.8% Brazil 5 3.1% Switzerland 34 3.9% 13 Netherlands 2 0.8% Spain 4 2.5% Canada 26 3.0% 14 Italy 2 0.8% 3 1.8% Italy 22 2.5% 15 Colombia 2 0.8% Thailand 3 1.8% Luxembourg 21 2.4% 16 Canada 2 0.8% South Africa 3 1.8% Sweden 20 2.3% 17 Sweden 1 0.4% Canada 3 1.8% Cameroon 19 2.2% 18 Saudi Arabia 1 0.4% Bangladesh 3 1.8% Rep. Dem. Congo 18 2.0% 19 Mali 1 0.4% Australia 3 1.8% Burkina Faso 18 2.0% 20 Kenya 1 0.4% Tunisia 2 1.2% India 17 1.9% 21 Ethiopia 1 0.4% Sweden 2 1.2% Zimbabwe 15 1.7% 22 Cote d’Ivoire 1 0.4% Italy 2 1.2% Nigeria 14 1.6% 23 Congo People Rep 1 0.4% Burundi 2 1.2% Ghana 14 1.6% 24 Cameroon 1 0.4% Zimbabwe 1 0.6% Australia 13 1.5% Rep. Dem. Congo 25 Ukraine 1 0.6% Mozambique 12 1.4% 26 Tanzania 1 0.6% Mali 12 1.4% 27 Senegal 1 0.6% Congo 12 1.4% 28 Russia 1 0.6% China 11 1.2% 29 Papua New Guinea 1 0.6% Gabon 11 1.2% 30 Norway 1 0.6% Burundi 11 1.2% Source: UNESCO, based on articles listed at the Science Citation Index Extended, Social Science Citation Index and Arts & Humanities Citation Index 104 Table 32 shows the 25 most productive institutions in Rwanda in terms of scientiic articles included in the SCI Extended, SSCI and A&CI from 1973 to 2013. The National University of Rwanda20 has been the country’s leading institution for the production of scientiic articles only in two periods 1973–1983 (54.3% of the publications) and 2004–2013 (26.1% of the publications). This is a very different than the performance shown by other countries of the region like Botswana, Malawi and Zimbabwe (UNESCO, 2013, 2014a, 2014b). In these countries, the national universities dominated the production of scientiic articles over all periods, with shares above 50% of national publications. The other relevant institutions with shares over 10% of the total national scientiic publications were: the Central Hospital of Kigali, Karisoke Research Centre, the National AIDS Control Programme and more recently the Ministry of Health. This is consistent with the fact that the most important research topics are related to medical and health sciences (see Table 34 and Figure 34). Table 32: Distribution of mainstream scientiic publications in Rwanda, by national institution and laboratory, 1973−2013 1973−1983 1984−1993 1994−2003 2004−2013 Institution Pub Share of total [%] Institution Pub Share of total [%] Institution Pub Share of total [%] Institution Pub Share of total [%] Rwanda 70 100.0% Rwanda 247 100.0% Rwanda 163 100.0% Rwanda 881 100.0% 1 National University of Rwanda 38 54.3% Central Hospital Kigali 2 Central Hospital Kigali 12 17.1% National University of Rwanda 3 Karisoke Research Centre 8 11.4% National AIDS Control programme 4 Ruhengeri Hospital 3 4.3% 5 Rwanda Tourisme & Parcs Nationaux Rank 6 Institute Sci. Agron. National 41.7% AIDS Control programme 43 National 26.4% University of Rwanda 230 26.1% 66 Central 26.7% Hospital Kigali 40 Rwanda 24.5% Ministry of Health 105 11.9% 41 National 16.6% University of Rwanda 36 22.1% 52 5.9% Rwanda 8.6% Biomed Centre 29 3.3% 29 3.3% 25 2.8% 103 Rwanda Ministry of Health 16 6.5% Ministry of Health 9 Institute 3.6% Sci. Agron. Rwanda 9 Kigali Institute of 5.5% Science and Technology 7 4.3% 4.3% Hospital Nemba 2 2.9% Project San Francisco 8 Institute for Research, 3.2% Science and Technology 3 Rwanda 14 Project San Francisco Project Mu Buzima 7 Institute Trop. Med. 2 2.9% Institute Sci. Agron. Rwanda 6 2.4% Project San Francisco 6 Partners 3.7% Health Rwanda 24 2.7% 8 Vet. Res. Lab. 2 2.9% Ministry of Agriculture 4 1.6% Mt Gorilla Vet Centre 4 Kigali 2.5% Institute of Education 23 2.6% 9 Hop. Kigeme 1 1.4% Reg. Sanit. Gisenyi 3 1.2% Centre Med. Soc. Bilyogo 3 1.8% 22 2.5% Kigali Health Institute 20 On September 2013, a reform of the public higher education system took place (see pages 162–171). Several higher education institutions were merged and consolidated with the creation of the University of Rwanda. Table 32 represents the institutional productivity before the new afiliations appear in the scientiic articles in 2014. 105 1973−1983 Rank 1984−1993 2004−2013 Institution Pub Share of total [%] Institution Pub Share of total [%] Institution Pub Share of total [%] Institution Pub Share of total [%] Rwanda 70 100.0% Rwanda 247 100.0% Rwanda 163 100.0% Rwanda 881 100.0% 22 2.5% 18 2.0% 1.4% Centre Int. Agr. Trop. 2 0.8% Curphametra 2 Rwanda Zambia HIV 1.2% Research Group 1.4% Centre Med Soc. Nyamirambo 2 Karisoke 0.8% Research Centre 2 Central 1.2% Hospital of Kigali 12 Centre Med. Soc. Bilyogo 2 Wildlife Conservation 0.8% Society Rwanda 2 1.2% Kigali University 18 2.0% 13 Hospital Ruhengeri 2 0.8% CRP Sante 2 1.2% University Teaching Hospital Kigali 13 1.5% 14 Adventist University Central Africa 1 Centre Vet 0.4% Volcans 2 Partners Health 1.2% Inshuti Mu Buzima 12 1.4% 15 CIAT Rwanda 1 Afrena 0.4% Rwanda Project 1 Int. Gorilla 0.6% Conservation Program 9 1.0% 16 Centre Med Social Kanombe 1 0.4% Byumba Hospital 1 0.6% Rwanda Dev. Board 9 1.0% 17 Curphametra 1 Centre 0.4% Med Social Bilyago 1 Institute 0.6% Sci. Agron. Rwanda 8 0.9% 18 Damien Fund Rwanda 1 Int. Gorilla 0.4% Conservation Program 1 Mt Gorilla 0.6% veterinary Centre 8 0.9% 1 0.6% Rwanda Agriculture Research Institute 8 0.9% 1 0.6% Kanombe Mil Hospital 7 0.8% 10 Mt. Gorilla Vet. Centre 1 11 Pecherie Ihema 1 19 Murunda Health Centre 1 Ministry of Education, Science, 0.4% Technology and Research 20 Projet Carte Pedol Rwanda 1 0.4% 21 Rwandese Red Cross 1 0.4% Ruhengeri Hospital 7 0.8% 22 Sci. Agr. Inst. Rwanda 1 0.4% Rwanda Agriculture Board 7 0.8% 23 Volcano Vet Centre 1 0.4% Government of Rwanda 6 0.7% 24 Umutara Polytech 5 0.6% 25 Interact Rwanda 4 0.5% Source: UNESCO, based on Web of Science articles 106 1994−2003 Nyungwe Forest Conservation Project Figure 34 shows the distribution of publications (1996−2013) for six main research ields 21 (UNESCO, 1978; OECD, 2002): agricultural sciences; arts and humanities; engineering and technology; exact and natural sciences; medicine and health sciences and social sciences. This igure was organized in this way in order to allow comparisons with R&D input indicators for the number of graduates, number of researchers by ield of science (i.e. Tables 19 and 20, page 72) and R&D expenditure, all of which were disaggregated by ield of science. Figure 34 shows that, over the past two decades, most research articles have related to medicine and health sciences (between 35% and 65%), followed by agricultural sciences (between 6% and 35%), exact and natural sciences (between 6% and 30%), social and human sciences (between 4% and 25%). The share of publications in engineering and technology has oscillated between nothing (1996–2004) and 15% (2007). 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 Medical and Health Sciences Natural Sciences Agricultural sciences Social and Human Sciences Engineering and Technology Figure 34: Distribution of publications by ield of science, 1996−2013. Source: UNESCO estimation based on SCOPUS data 21 Due to the small number of published articles, in Figure 34, “arts and humanities” and “social sciences” were merged into “social and human sciences” 107 Figure 35 shows the distribution of graduates in Rwanda between 1996 and 2013 by main ield of science. Clearly, there is no correlation between the shares of scientiic publications and graduates by ield of science. Taking into account the goal to transform Rwanda in a knowledge economy by 2020, these graphs show the need to increase the numberof engineers and research in engineering in order to transform the present proile of the country. 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 Medical and health sciences Natural Sciences Agricultural sciences Social sciences Engineering and technology Humanities Figure 35: Distribution of Rwandan graduates by ield of science, 1996–2013. Source: UNESCO based on raw data provided by the Ministry of Education of Rwanda Table 33 presents the ten most important foreign and international research organizations responsible for co-authoring scientiic articles listed in the SCI Extended, SSCI, and A&HCI. As observed in the previous tables, the diversity of institutions and the number of co-publications have increased over time. The most important collaborative ties established over a period of decades were with the Free University of Brussels, Ghent University, the University of Cambridge, the University of California, the University of Bordeaux, the Institut national de la santé et de la recherche médicale (INSERM), John Hopkins University and the Institute of Tropical Medicine Antwerp. 108 Table 33: Top ten foreign research institutions and centres co-authoring articles with Rwandan scientists, 1973−2013 1973−1983 Rank 1984−1993 1994−2003 2004−2013 Institution Pub Share of total [%] Institution Pub Share of total [%] Institution Pub Share of total [%] Institution Pub Share of total [%] Rwanda 70 100.0% Rwanda 247 100.0% Rwanda 163 100.0% Rwanda 881 100.0% 23 14.1% University of California 73 8.3% 23 14.1% Harvard University 70 7.9% 21 12.9% Emory University 68 7.7% 21 12.9% Institute Trop. Med, 51 5.8% 17 10.4% Columbia University 49 5.6% 17 10.4% University of Amsterdam 47 5.3% Ghent University 45 5.1% 11 15.7% Free University of Brussels 65 Institut national de la santé 26.3% et de la recherche médicale. Ghent University 7 10.0% University of California 34 13.8% 3 University of Cambridge 7 10.0% Belgian Rwandese Med Coop 18 Institute 7.3% of Tropical Medicine 4 University St Raphael 4 5.7% Institute Trop. Med, 18 7.3% 16 Johns 6.5% Hopkins University 1 Free University of Brussels 2 University of Bordeaux University of California 5 University of London 3 4.3% Institut national de la santé et de la recherche médicale 6 Inst Hyg Epidemiol 2 2.9% Universite Bordeaux 16 6.5% 7 University of Antwerp 2 2.9% Ghent University 13 Belgian 5.3% Rwandese Med Coop 14 8.6% 8 Assistance Techn. Belge 1 1.4% KU Leuven 13 World 5.3% Health Organization 12 Free 7.4% University of Brussels 42 4.8% 9 Centre University Recherche Pharmac. Med. Tradit. 1 1.4% World Health Organization 13 Centre 5.3% Orstom Petit Bassam 10 6.1% University of London 38 4.3% 10 Dartmouth College 1 1.4% Johns Hopkins University 9 State 3.6% University of New York 9 33 3.7% University of Alabama International 5.5% AIDS Vaccine Initiative Source: UNESCO based on articles listed at the Science Citation Index Extended, Social Science Citation Index and Arts & Humanities Citation Index 109 Table 34 analyses in detail the distribution of articles by 30 sub-ields of science over four different periods between 1973 and 2013. The data show clearly that medicine and agriculture are the most important research ields in Rwanda over this 41-year period. Table 34: Distribution of mainstream scientiic articles by sub-ield, 1973−2013 1973−1983 Rank 110 1984−1993 Sub-ields Pub Share of total Sub-ields Rwanda 70 100.0% Rwanda Pub 1994−2003 Share of total 247 100.0% 1 General internal medicine 15 21.4% Infectious diseases 46 18.6% 2 Tropical medicine 11 15.7% General internal medicine 43 3 Zoology 6 8.6% Tropical medicine 4 Plant sciences 6 8.6% 5 Public environmental occup. health 4 6 Pharmacology and pharmacy 7 Sub-ields Rwanda Infectious diseases Pub 2004−2013 Share of total 163 100.0% Sub-ields Rwanda Infectious diseases Pub Share of total 881 100.0% 48 29.4% 174 19.8% 17.4% Immunology 47 Public 28.8% environmental 144 occup. health 16.3% 30 12.1% Virology 29 17.8% Immunology 107 12.1% Immunology 30 Public 12.1% environmental occup. health 17 10.4% 100 11.4% 5.7% Agriculture 28 11.3% Agriculture 13 8.0% Virology 92 10.4% 4 5.7% Pharmacology and pharmacy 25 10.1% Tropical medicine 10 General 6.1% internal medicine 58 6.6% Environmental sciences ecology 4 5.7% Public environmental occup. health 24 General 9.7% internal medicine 9 5.5% Agriculture 47 5.3% 8 Dermatology 4 5.7% Plant sciences 21 8.5% Plant sciences 8 Environmental 4.9% sciences ecology 44 5.0% 9 Arts & humanities 4 5.7% Virology 20 8.1% Paediatrics 8 Science 4.9% technology other topics 43 4.9% 10 Behavioural sciences 3 4.3% Microbiology 18 Environmental 7.3% sciences ecology 7 Health care 4.3% sciences services 42 4.8% 11 Agriculture 3 4.3% Paediatrics 12 4.9% Pharmacology and pharmacy 6 3.7% Pharmacology and pharmacy 40 4.5% 12 Veterinary sciences 2 2.9% Ophthalmology 10 4.0% Veterinary sciences 5 3.1% Plant sciences 32 3.6% 13 Science technology other topics 2 2.9% Integrative complementary medicine 9 3.6% Microbiology 5 3.1% Parasitology 30 3.4% 14 Obstetrics & gynaecology 2 2.9% Obstetrics & gynaecology 6 2.4% Pathology 4 2.5% Respiratory 26 3.0% 15 Microbiology 2 2.9% Chemistry 6 2.4% Cell biology 4 2.5% Psychology 25 2.8% 16 Marine freshwater biology 2 2.9% Forestry 5 2.0% Rheumatology 3 1.8% Microbiology 23 2.6% Tropical medicine 1973−1983 Rank 1984−1993 Sub-ields Pub Share of total Sub-ields Rwanda 70 100.0% Rwanda Pub 1994−2003 Share of total 247 100.0% Sub-ields Rwanda 17 Infectious diseases 2 2.9% Entomology 5 2.0% Respiratory 18 Biochemistry and molecular biology 2 2.9% Environmental sciences ecology 4 19 Area studies 2 2.9% Biochemistry and molecular biology 4 20 Paediatrics 1 1.4% Zoology 21 Pathology 1 1.4% 22 Mathematics 1 23 Literature 24 Pub 2004−2013 Share of total 163 100.0% Sub-ields Rwanda Pub Share of total 881 100.0% 3 Biomedical 1.8% social sciences 23 2.6% 1.6% Parasitology 3 1.8% Zoology 21 2.4% 1.6% Obstetrics & gynaecology 3 1.8% 20 2.3% 3 1.2% Genetics heredity 3 1.8% Physics 17 1.9% Veterinary sciences 3 1.2% Evolutionary biology 3 1.8% Water resources 16 1.8% 1.4% Urology & nephrology 3 1.2% Energy fuels 3 1.8% Chemistry 15 1.7% 1 1.4% Surgery 3 1.2% Chemistry 3 1.8% Cardiovascular cardiology 14 1.6% Life sciences biomedicine 1 1.4% Science technology other topics 3 Biochemistry 1.2% and molecular biology 3 Biotechnology 1.8% & applied microbiology 14 1.6% 25 Integrative complementary medicine 1 1.4% Rheumatology 3 1.2% Anthropology 3 1.8% 13 1.5% 26 Genetics heredity 1 1.4% Respiratory 3 1.2% Zoology 2 Biochemistry 1.2% and molecular biology 13 1.5% 27 Forestry 1 1.4% Pathology 3 1.2% Surgery 2 1.2% 11 1.2% 28 Demography 1 1.4% Oncology 3 Marine 1.2% freshwater biology 2 1.2% Surgery 11 1.2% 29 Chemistry 1 1.4% Research experimental medicine 2 0.8% International relations 2 1.2% Nutrition dietetics 11 1.2% 30 Cell biology 1 1.4% Dermatology 2 0.8% Government law 2 1.2% Geology 11 1.2% Obstetrics & gynaecology Food science technology Veterinary sciences Source: UNESCO, based on articles listed at the Science Citation Index Extended, Social Science Citation Index and Arts & Humanities Citation Index 111 WHAT PATENTS TELL US ABOUT RESEARCH AND INNOVATION A patent is a document issued by an authorized government agency granting the right to exclude—using the legal system—anyone else from the production or use of a speciic new device, apparatus, or process for a stated number of years (see Glossary, page 254–255). The grant is issued to the inventor of this device or process after an examination that focuses on both the novelty of the claimed item and its potential utility. Measuring the link between publications and patents has been a subject of academic research in recent decades. It helps us to understand the intensity and orientation of research, as well as the relation between science and technology. A measurable relation allows us to investigate knowledge transfers and potential spillovers; to describe the knowledge base of particular technologies; to disclose the technological neighbourhood of scientiic themes or research fronts; to reveal an ongoing innovation process (from research to technology then on to commercialisation). A patent constitutes a milestone in the progress of a given technology. However, it is only one piece in a larger puzzle of technological innovation, which entails combining new knowledge with a suitable business strategy and other factors to achieve commercial success. Patent data have been widely used in many innovation studies (Griliches, 1990). Next to patent count data, it is obvious that patent documents, because of legal reporting requirements, provide the STI policy expert with a wealth of information, which can be used for various types of foresight and strategic analysis. For instance, typical patent documents contain the names and the addresses of the inventors and their applicants, as well as references to other scientiic and technological documents. This information can easily be used to map progress and collaboration in technological ields, as well as to assess the vitality of various organisations (irms as well as universities) in a particular ield of technological development or in a particular system of innovation. The kind of economic studies in which patent statistics have been used include those that examine: the long-term changes in the amount and direction of inventive output in particular industries; the relationship between these changes and other long-term economic indicators; the relative eficiency of companyinanced and government-inanced industrial R&D; the contribution of individual irms to particular areas of innovative activity; the relative signiicance of foreign and home-generated technology; and individual inventive output. Patent analysis takes many forms, with important distinctions between micro- and macro- analyses (Trippe, 2003). In the private sector, for instance, intellectual asset management groups probe deeply to understand the development of individual technologies through a systematic mapping of the content of patents. From the perspective of SETI policy studies, the methodological approach has recourse to macro-analysis. This analysis focuses on studying the patenting patterns at national level, combining this with bibliometric research. Even though patent grants can be thought of as a moving average of past applications, statistical studies reveal that the igures for granted patents tend to luctuate as much, or more, than the number of patent applications. It is also clear that economic conditions impinge on the rate of patent applications (Griliches, 1990). Any analysis of long-term temporal series of patents will relect the innovation behaviour of a particular country and the stage of national development at different epochs, as well as any economic, political and societal crises along the way. 112 BOX 12 – INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE, GENETIC RESOURCES AND IPR The Declaration on Science and the Use of Scientiic Knowledge that came out of the World Conference on Science in June 1999, which was organized by the International Council of Science (ICSU) and UNESCO, calls for a broad collaboration between science and local cultures in meeting the challenges of the future. The declaration noted that “traditional and local knowledge systems” are “dynamic expressions of perceiving and understanding the world, [which] can make and historically have made, a valuable contribution to science and technology.” The need to develop a special legislative and institutional framework for the protection of traditional knowledge and to ensure prior-informed consent and beneit-sharing for access to genetic resources in Rwanda was emphasised as a priority need by various stakeholders in Rwanda. According to the conclusion of a national stakeholders’ workshop held in Rwanda, the legal and institutional framework needs to be aimed, among others, at: recognising the value of traditional knowledge and responding to the needs of the knowledge holders; promoting respect for traditional knowledge and its conservation and preservation including repression of unfair and inequitable uses of the knowledge; promoting innovation and creativity and overall community development including facilitating legitimate trade in traditional knowledge-based goods and services; and preventing bio piracy. Other countries, like Botswana, already have legal instruments to protect indigenous knowledge and their communities (see UNESCO, 2013). The new Rwanda Intellectual Property Law mandates the development of a special law on traditional knowledge and genetic resources. To be able to develop a comprehensive law will require a national stakeholder consultations and the development of the legislative framework all of which will require technical and inancial assistance. To ensure that the resulting legislative and institutional framework is comprehensive and it for purpose the technical assistance should be provided by an interdisciplinary team of experts (Rep. of Rwanda, 2009a). Stakeholders also considered the need for technical and inancial assistance to train the representative of the key stakeholders within government and in the private sector, research institutions and civil society in basic concepts around innovation, IP and creativity, including the use of lexibilities in international treaties was emphasised by numerous stakeholders. Equally, many stakeholders stressed the need for technical and inancial assistance to support national public awareness programmes delivered through radio, television and other media. In the medium-term, a consensus gave priority to the development of advanced tailor-made courses on development, innovation and intellectual property for: government oficials in all the key ministries and agencies particularly Ministry of Trade and Industry, Ministry of Youth and ICT, Ministry of Education, and Rwanda Development Board; senior industry managers and managers of the key scientiic institutions; and for IP teaching in law, economics, science and management faculties at the university. To ensure continued education and capacity development among governmental, private sector, research and civil society stakeholders as well as to support research and policy analysis in the longer-term, the need for establishing an intellectual property resource and information centre was also identiied as a priority. Technical and inancial assistance will therefore be needed to establish such a resource and information centre at Ministry of Trade and Industry. Such a centre would provide services to both government oficials and other stakeholders including researchers. Source: Republic of Rwanda (2009a) 113 Patent ofices and regional bodies Aggregate patent statistics are usually classiied in a variety of ways and have been compiled since the late 19th century22. Studies of patent statistics are generally based on information produced by international databases. The most relevant databases are United States Patents and Trademark Ofice (USPTO), Japan Patent Ofice (JPO) and European Patent Ofice (EPO). This is so because these ofices are based in highly industrialized countries, which consequently have a higher likelihood of transforming the patent claims into an innovation. In 1974, the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) became a specialized agency of the United Nations system with a mandate for administering intellectual property matters, and compiling and publishing global statistics on patents, trademarks and industrial designs. Rwanda acceded to the Convention establishing the WIPO in 1983, as well as the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property and the Bern Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, in the same year. These conventions were brought under the World Trade Organisation’s Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) in the 1986–1994 Uruguay Round. In 1996, Rwanda acceded to the World Trade Organisation and has therefore been subject to the TRIPS Agreement ever since. In 2011, Rwanda acceded to the WIPO- administrated Hague Agreement and Patent Cooperation Treaty, and in 2013 to the Madrid Protocol. The African Regional Intellectual Property Organization (ARIPO), formerly the African Regional Industrial Property Organization, is an intergovernmental organization-fostering co-operation among African states in patenting and other intellectual property matters. ARIPO was established by the Lusaka Agreement23 of 1976. It has the capacity to hear applications for patents and registered trademarks in its member states which are parties to the Harare (patents) and Banjul (marks) protocols. Rwanda deposited its Instrument of Accession to ARIPO on the 24th of June 2011, and acceded to the Harare Protocol. Rwanda thus became the 17th member state, and state party to the Harare Protocol. ARIPO also features a protocol on the protection of traditional knowledge, the Swakopmund Protocol, signed in 2010 by nine of ARIPO’s member states. As of December 2014, the protocol had not yet been endorsed by Rwanda. The approach to patents under the Rwanda Intellectual Property Law follows the standard approach in line with the requirements of the WTO’s TRIPS Agreement. The statute deines the criteria for patentability, the scope of patentable subject matter, the rights conferred by a patent, and use exceptions. The recent law,accession to the Harare Protocoland other international treaties on patent, industrial designs, trademarks, etc. is likely to result in the increase in the number of patent applications. 2009 Intellectual Property Policy In 2006, within the republic of Rwanda’s Policy on Science, Technology and Innovation (Rep. of Rwanda, 2006) intellectual property rights were mentioned as part of sector policy statements and strategies, but no speciic action or mechanism was explicitly addressed24. 22 The year 1883 marked the birth of the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, the irst major international treaty designed to help the people from one country obtain protection in other countries for their intellectual creations in the form of industrial property rights, known as: (a) inventions (patents); (b) trademarks and (c) industrial designs. 23 The members of ARIPO are those, which have ratiied the Lusaka Agreement: Botswana, The Gambia, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Rwanda, Somalia, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. 24 The 2014 Revised National, Science, Technology and Innovation Policy, reproduced an abridged version of the 2006 text on IPR. However, no speciic policy instruments or mechanisms were proposed here to improve the intellectual property ownership in the country. 114 In 2009, the Government of Rwanda proposed the irst explicit policy on intellectual property (Rep. of Rwanda, 2009a). This policy was designed with the objective of providing guidance and a road map to ensure that the intellectual property laws, practices and strategies in Rwanda support and facilitate the achievement of the country’s high-level vision and targets. For Rwanda, the key strategy is to facilitate technological learning. The implementation of the policy will require a conducive national and international environment. Consequently, this Intellectual Property Policy is based on the following six interrelated objectives: 1. Increasing technological literacy and advanced scientiic and technological skills that in turn would increase the innovation capacity. 2. Promotion of innovation and creativity including minor and incremental innovations to provide an opportunity for the largest number of individuals and irms to participate in innovation. 3. Increasing access to foreign and local technology by local irms and research institutions. 4. Improving access to IP-based essential goods and services especially health and food 5. Facilitating investments in innovative and creative activities. 6. Enhance the protection of traditional knowledge and facilitate equitable access to genetic resources and beneit-sharing. 7. The 2009 Rwanda Intellectual Property Policy proposed to enable disclosure of patent applications and information on use exceptions, so as to support the irms and research institutions accessing technologies, especially as part of individuals’ accessing essential goods and services. In this regard, the 2009 Rwanda Intellectual Property Policy suggests: ▶ The exclusion of pharmaceutical products from patentability in accordance with the WTO Decision providing transition period for LDCs until, at least, 2016 will be maintained. ▶ Consideration should be given to retaining patent examiners to enforce the requirements of enabling disclosure under the IP law in key sectors such as agriculture even though Rwanda does not intend to have routine examination of all patent applications. This will promote technology transfer and dissemination. ▶ The research and experimental use exception, including for commercial purposes and for public not-for-proit use as contemplated under the IP Law should be encouraged in both public and private sector institutions. Restricting the exception to not-for-proit entities or activities would be counter-productive. The exception should be aimed at facilitating a broader set of technological activities related to the application of knowledge to particular problems. ▶ To support transfer of technology, specialists should be retained to scrupulously examine the terms and conditions of licensing agreements to ensure that such licenses do not restrict competition or negatively affect the government’s effort to boost technology transfer and that there are no prohibited clauses as stipulated in IP Law. Such specialists, who should also perform surveillance functions, could be attached to the Ministry of Trade and Industry, the Rwanda Development Board or the Rwanda Science and Research Council. Continuous monitoring of the behaviour of parties is important since parties might present legally a permissible contract to the authorities but later enter into side agreements that defeat government objectives. ▶ Where applicable, and in appropriate cases, compulsory licenses should also be considered in cases of dependant patents and to remedy abuse and enforce competition regulations. 115 BOX 13 – TRADITIONAL MEDICINE IN RWANDA: ROOM FOR INNOVATION AND PATENT PROTECTION Plant biodiversity plays major speciic roles in the cultural evolution of local human societies. Of the many diseases traditionally treated with medicinal plants, hepatitis ranks amongst one of the most severe. In contrast to many other pathologies, the symptomatology of a number of hepatic conditions is evident. Traditional healers can easily evaluate the response to treatments and thus select eficient herbal medicines. Recently, Mukazayire et al. (2011) presented a very well documented study exploring the extent to which plant remedies are used in the traditional treatment of hepatitis and the concepts underlying the preparation of remedies speciically used for hepatitis patients in Southern Rwanda. Indeed, Mukazayire et al. (2011) published the irst comprehensive inventory of the natural lora of Southern Rwanda which is applied to control hepatitis. This survey identiied 86 herbs used in traditional remedies, where Crassocephalum vitellinum, Hypoestes trilora, and Erythrina abyssinica were the most widely used plants. Previous surveys made in different regions (Northern and Western Rwanda) had reported 49 of these herbs but with different association of plants and varied modes of preparation, suggesting widespread but also very local traditional knowledge. Mukazayire et al. (2011) identiied for the irst time a group of endemic plants, commonly used to treat hepatitis in Southern Rwanda. The study showed that many indigenous plants still not known are used and deserve to be studied. The study concluded that: (a) Southern Rwandese traditional health practitioners possess a vast knowledge of medicinal plants; (b) herbal remedies for hepatitis are widely used in this region; (c) Southern Rwanda shows a high diversity of herbal medicines which have a clear potential, both scientiic and commercial, to be further explored from the chemical, pharmacological and toxicological points of view. The authors considered the strategic value that preservation of bio-cultural data and phytoteraphy identiication might have for the quality of life of Rwandans. Since 1996, the Government undertook a series of studies, and held numerous discussions on the pharmaceutical sector with its national and international partners and make essential drugs accessible to all the people of Rwanda as part of its health policy. Simiyu et al. (2010) presented detailed arguments showing that the main opportunities in science-based health innovation and biotechnology for Rwanda are in traditional plant technologies (see Table 35 for selected opportunities). In recent years, several local companies have been developing health products. For example, a irm called Ikirezi Natural Products has been involved in extraction and export of geranium oil, which is used as an essential oil in remedies for dermatological conditions. Also interested in health technology is Rwanda’s largest industrial manufacturer, Utexrwa, which specializes in textile manufacture. The company has expressed interest in manufacture of pyrethrum impregnated mosquito nets which would serve two purposes: provide a market for pyrethrum that is currently being exported unprocessed outside the country, and create savings by reducing imports of long lasting mosquito nets. There are talks between the irm and universities in Canada about developing technology that could use pyrethrum to replace synthetic pyrethroids, for long lasting Insecticide–treated mosquito nets (Simiyu et al., 2010). An adequate set of SETI policy instruments is needed to promote the identiication of active substances from traditional medicines and to design appropriate legal devises for guaranteeing the protection of IPR of indigenous communities. Source: Mukazayire et al. (2011) and Simiyu et al. (2010) 116 Table 35: Various products and processes being developed in Rwanda institutions Product General Area Traditional herbal medicines • Gifurina-Datura stramonium • Anti-spasmodic • Bentakor-P. Lanceolata • Anti-cough • Tusinkor-E. Globulus • Anti-cough • Tumitusilinga-T.Vulgaris • Oral disinfectant • Kanwalina-M.Sacchalinensis • Anti-arthritic • Calendula-C.Officinalis • Anti-inlammatory • Tembatembe A-N.Mitis • Scabies Essential oils-Geranium Organization Description Institut de Recherche Whole plant extracts. Adoption of existing practices by traditional healers and carry out safety and eficacy tests Scientiique et Technologique Cosmetics / Ikirezi Natural Dermatology Products (private irm) Intravenous luids and water for injection Pharmaceutical Laboratory of Rwanda (Laborphor) Extraction of essential oils from geranium plant For use in hospitals, since transport costs for this bulky product are high Pyrethrum treated long lasting mosquito nets Malaria Utexrwa (private irm) Concept under development with researchers from Canada Health information technology software Health IT National Treatment and Research AIDS Center Developing software for integrating health information, in partnership with Voxiva Source: Adapted from Simiyu et al. (2010) Analysing patent trends in Rwanda Rwanda has had some form of IP framework since colonial times. The policy and legal environment has continued to evolve since then, with incremental changes being introduced over time. The lead agency for policy-making and legislative development on intellectual property in Rwanda is Ministry of Trade and Industry except with respect to copyright where the lead agency is Ministry of Sports and Culture. Until mid-2008, a few staff at Ministry of Trade and Industry were responsible for all IP policy and legislative work, as well as intellectual property administration. At Ministry of Sports and Culture, there is also limited staff time dedicated to copyright. Since the creation of the Ofice of the Registrar General at the Rwanda Development Board, intellectual property administration has been transferred to its responsibility, and both Ministries tasked to focus on policy-making, policy implementation and monitoring. According to WIPO (2014), 2 567 000 patent applications were presented during 2013 at different patent ofices in the world, where 66.5% corresponded to applications by residents. In the same period, Africa generated 14 900 patent applications, where only 15.4% corresponded to applications by residents. In 2013, Rwanda generated 70 patents applications, where 57% were presented by residents. Figure 36 shows the evolution in patent applications, disaggregated by residents and non-residents of Rwanda, between 1967−2013 (see Glossary, pages 254–255). Figure 37 shows the evolution patent grants, disaggregated by residents and non-residents, between 1964–2012. Historically the number of patent applications and patent grants has been very small compared with other countries of the region (see UNESCO 2013, 2014a and 2014b). Only in recent years, these numbers have increased. Rwanda presented only two patent applications at the United States Patents and Trademark Ofice, between 1991 and 2010. 117 45 Patent applications by non-residents 40 Patent applications by residents 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Figure 36: Evolution in patent applications in Rwanda by residents (triangles) and non-residents (circles), 1967−2012. The dotted line is the best-itting curve. Source: UNESCO, based on data provided by WIPO. 25 Granted patents to residents Granted patents to non-residents 20 15 10 5 0 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Figure 37: Evolution in patents granted in Rwanda by residents (triangles) and non-residents (circles), 1964−2012. The dotted line is the best-itting curve. Source: UNESCO, based on data provided by WIPO. 118 These curves are consistent with trends in the local productive sector, the lack of endogenous industrial innovation and the absence of incentives for entrepreneurship and commercialization of research results during twentieth century. The new policy instruments that were implemented in recent years are changing this behaviour effectively. Figure 38 shows the distribution of patent application by top ield of technology for recent years (1998–2012). Macromolecular chemistry, polymers 25% Semiconductors 50% Organic fine chemistry 25% Figure 38: Patent applications in Rwanda by top ield of technology, 1998–2012. Source: WIPO What trademark and industrial design data reveal about innovation Recently, trademark data have also been used to convey information on two key aspects of innovation, which are not usually covered by traditional indicators: marketing innovation and innovation in the services sector (Millot, 2009). Different empirical studies have shown the link between trademark counts and other indicators of innovation performance, when available. For instance, trademark numbers at the irm level have been found to correlate positively with innovation as relected in responses to innovation surveys, with R&D (for certain industries), with patents, and with the number of new product launches. This correlation is particularly high in knowledge-intensive services and in high-tech sectors like the pharmaceutical industry. A further advantage of trademarks as a source of data is their broad availability and relatively easy accessibility. A trademark is a sign capable of distinguishing the goods or services of one enterprise from those of other enterprises. Trademarks are protected by intellectual property rights. In principle, a trademark registration will confer an exclusive right on the use of the registered trademark. This implies that the trademark can be used exclusively by its owner, or licensed to another party for use in return for payment. Registration provides legal certainty and reinforces the position of the right holder, for example, in case of litigation. The term of registration can vary but is usually ten years. It can be renewed indeinitely on payment of additional fees. Trademark rights are private rights and protection is enforced through court orders. 119 The link between trademark deposits and product innovation is relatively straightforward: the commercialisation of new products is sometimes associated with the creation of a new trademark in order to communicate about the innovation and, later, possibly become the reference on the market for the product, which in turn enables irms to appropriate the beneits of their innovation. When it comes to marketing innovation, the link with trademark deposits is more complex. Data on trademarks are available for Rwanda from 1965 onwards. Figure 39 shows the evolution in trademark applications by residents and non-residents between 1965 and 2012. The vertical axis has a logarithmic scale. The non-resident applications’ trend shows three decades with a relatively constant number of applications (1965–1995) followed by an exponential growth after the Genocide (c. 1994). However, the resident applications’ trend shows an oscillatory erratic behaviour with a strong drop during the Genocide. 1 000 Number of trademarks applications [log-scale] Trademark applications by non-residents Trademark applications by residents 100 10 1 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Figure 39: Evolution in the number of trademark applications in Rwanda, 1965−2012. The dotted line is the best-itting curve. The vertical axis is expressed on a logarithmic scale. Source: UNESCO, based on data provided by WIPO Table 36 shows the number of trademark registrations by residents and non-residents, as well as the number of trademarks registered by Rwandans abroad (1998–2012). The number of trademark registrations follows very well the behaviour of the trademark applications in the same period. According to WIPO (2014) an estimated 956 600 industrial design applications were iled worldwide in 2013, with modest growth of 1.7% over 2012, the lowest in the past two decades after three consecutive years of double-digit growth. 120 Industrial designs are applied to a wide variety of industrial products and handicrafts. They refer to the ornamental or aesthetic aspects of a useful article, including compositions of lines or colours or any threedimensional forms that give a special appearance to a product or handicraft. The holder of a registered industrial design has exclusive rights against unauthorized copying or imitation of the design by third parties. Industrial design registrations are valid for a limited period. The term of protection is usually 15 years for most jurisdictions. In an industrial design application or registration, some ofices allow applications to contain more than one design for the same good or in the same class—others allow only one design per application. To capture the differences in application iling systems across ofices, one needs to compare their respective application and registration design counts (WIPO, 2014). It is important to notice that ARIPO does not register industrial designs with automatic region-wide applicability. Thus, for this ofice, each application is counted as one application abroad if the applicant does not reside in a member state or as one resident application and one application abroad if the applicant resides in a member state. Table 36: Trademarks registrations, 1998–2012 Year Residents World rank Non–residents World rank Abroad World rank 1998 4 91 136 107 – – 1999 5 97 104 113 – – 2000 2 93 124 110 – – 2001 29 88 173 110 – – 2002 17 91 130 113 – – 2003 179 77 28 111 – – 2004 40 87 245 105 – – 2005 21 92 187 113 – – 2006 26 93 254 110 – – 2007 14 93 224 115 3 149 2008 0 – 0 – – – 2009 0 – 0 – 27 133 2010 0 – 0 – 2011 0 – 0 – 3 170 2012 109 82 408 111 0 – – Source: WIPO 121 Table 37 shows number of industrial designs applications and registrations by residents and non-residents in Rwanda (1998–2012). Table 37: Industrial design applications and registrations, 1998–2012 Industrial design applications Year Resident Non– resident World rank Resident World rank Non– resident World rank 1998 0 – 1 96 0 – 1 87 1999 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 – 2000 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 – 2001 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 – 2002 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 – 2003 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 – 2004 0 – 3 97 0 – 3 89 2005 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 – 2006 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 – 2007 0 – 1 107 0 – 1 101 2008 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 – 2009 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 – 2010 0 – 0 – 0 – 0 – 2011 0 – 1 108 0 – 1 106 2012 20 79 20 94 0 – 16 92 Source: WIPO 122 World rank Industrial design registrations Historical background to SETI policies in Rwanda SCIENCE IN COLONIAL TIMES As early as 1923, the Geological Service was established in Rwanda and located at Ruhengeri (Birunga volcano region). A great variety of research was carried out by the oficial services and by private institutions and a considerable body of documentation was collected, in those days, on casseterite, gold, wolfram, beryl, and so on. The irst institution of higher education, the diploma-granting Grand Seminary de Nyakibanda, was established in 1936 by the Roman Catholic Church speciically to train men for the priesthood. The Congolese National Institute of Agronomic Research (INEAC*) was originally created in 1934. This institute carried out research on: (a) food crops (production of the most suitable varieties, study of fallow land, rotation, irrigation, and so on); (b) cash crops (production of Arabica coffee seeds, sorting, varieties, comparative trials, studies of introduced varieties of tea); (c) animal husbandry (selection of local stock, cross-breeding with introduced species, feeding of dairy cattle, and so on); (d) agrostology (study of pasture-land associations, new pasture lands, behaviour of various types of plant, and so on); (e) forestry (management of the Butare arboretum, comparative trials); (f) soil science (soil map of Rwanda, soil chemistry laboratory, analyses); (g) entomology and phytopathology (disease control methods, cotton plants, coffee plants, banana trees, citrus trees, and so on); (h) creation of rural communities and local experiments (supervision of pilot rural communities, advice to government staff managing them). INEAC research work was carried out in: (a) the sparsely populated and arid low-altitude zone (4 500 feet) at Karana; (b) the heavily populated medium-altitude zone (5 000 to 5 900 feet) at Rubona; (c) in the cold and heavily populated high altitude zone at Riverere. In 1947, Prince Charles of Belgium (1903–1983) founded the Institute for Scientiic Research in Central Africa (IRSAC*). This institute had its headquarters at Butare in Central Rwanda in the medium-altitude zone. It also had two research sites: in the low-altitude zone at Muriuli (Musara) and in the high-altitude zone in the forestland on the Congo-Nile ridge at Niuka. Apart from research in the human sciences (linguistics, social anthropology, history, physical anthropology) and the physical sciences (seismology), the centre was mainly concerned with botany. IRSAC had, beginning in 1952, three labs covering the three ield of solar radiation, ionospheric surveys, and solar noises, which made the unit a uniquely complete installation in the tropics for the study of the Sun and of the upper atmosphere. A terrestrial magnetism and gravimetry programme was created within the framework of the general geophysical study of the Great African Rift, at the centre of which the Lwiro facility was conveniently located. Also in geophysics, the centre had a seismology service for the study of microseisms, and for measuring volcanic-eruptions. In 1960, with the support of UNESCO, a survey on the teaching of science in Ruanda-Urundi was conducted (Fiasse, 1960). By that time, the total number of secondary schools in both countries were only 67. The total enrolment was 5 059 pupils. The average teaching of science subjects (e.g. biology, chemistry and physics) totalled 3 hours per week, while the time spent in teaching mathematics was around 4 hours per week. Every school had a modest laboratory, but most of the science teachers were of European origin. These igures show the weaknesses of elementary science education in the country before independence. * Corresponds to the original assigned acronyms (in French). 124 SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND SETI POLICIES FOR A NEWBORN COUNTRY After Independence, in 1962, the main scientiic activities performed in the country were conducted within INEAC and IRSAC, two research institutes started under the colonial administration. In 1963, the National University of Rwanda was created. The headquarters were established at Butare, and the irst opened Faculties were on Medicine, Science, Letters, Social Science and Secondary Education (see pages 162–171). By a special Convention between Belgium and Rwanda, in 1964, the two research institutes were transferred to Rwandan authorities. BY 1965, IRSAC was then transformed into the National Institute for Scientiic Research (INRS*) overseen by the Ministry of Education; and INEAC became the Rwanda Institute of Agricultural Sciences (ISAR*) overseen by the Ministry of Agriculture. The Institut Pédagogique National (IPN) was established in 1966 with support from UNESCO and UNDP; its mission was to train secondary school teachers and conduct research in education. In spite of its limited resources and competing priorities of an emerging nation, Rwanda was able to participate at the International Conference on the Organization of Research and Training in Africa in Relation to the Study, Conservation and Utilization of Natural Resources (Lagos, 1964), which was organized by UNESCO and UNECA. This was the irst African Conference on SETI policies. A decade later Rwanda presented the irst national report on SETI policies within the First Conference of Ministers of African Member States Responsible for the Application of Science and Technology to Development (CASTAFRICA I) held in Dakar in 1974 (UNESCO, 1974a). ZONE OF PARLIAMENT ZONE OF GOVERNMENT President of the Republic EXECUTION OF R&D Joint Committee National Institute of Scientific Research (INRS) Joint Committee Rwanda Institute of Agricultural Sciences (ISAR) Plan National Assembly Agriculture and livestock Rwanda National Education National University of Rwanda (NUR) Commerce, Mining, Industry Geological Service Others January 1973 Figure 40: Organization chart showing Rwanda’s research and innovation system in 1973. Source: UNESCO (1974a) 125 BOX 14 – HISTORICAL REMARKS: UNESCO’S FIRST SURVEY ON SETI POLICIES IN RWANDA On 14 November 1958, the General Assembly of the United Nations (13th session, 780th plenary meeting) adopted Resolution 1260 requesting the Secretary-General: … in co-operation with the United Nations Educational, Scientiic and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the other Specialized Agencies concerned with the peaceful application of science, as well as the International Atomic Energy Agency, to arrange for a survey to be made on the main trends of inquiry in the ield of the natural sciences and the dissemination and application for peaceful ends of such scientiic knowledge, and on the steps which might be taken by the United Nations, the Specialized Agencies and the International Atomic Energy Agency towards encouraging the concentration of such efforts upon the most urgent problems, having regard to the needs of the various countries… In the same resolution, the General Assembly requested that the Secretary-General ‘submit this survey to the Economic and Social Council at its thirtieth session’ in July 1960. Ultimately, this report was co-ordinated and edited by Pierre Auger, a prominent physicist and former Assistant Director-General for Science at UNESCO. The study included a description of the most inluential trends in scientiic research and a series of analyses of their potential longterm impact on humanity (Auger, 1961). The report introduced the need for states to establish national scientiic and technological policies, as well as new schemes fostering international scientiic co-operation, one example being UNESCO’s proposal in the early 1950s for the creation of the European Centre for Nuclear Research (CERN). Auger’s report broke new ground. For the irst time, the UN system proposed a standard classiication for scientiic research and experimental development and deined scientiic researchers, technicians and engineers. This preceded the OECD’s Frascati Manual (c. 1963) and even the OECD itself, founded in 1961. Using the standard classiication proposed by Auger, UNESCO conducted a regional survey in 1962 and 1963 of the scientiic and technical potential of 42 African countries25. This survey provided numerical data, for the irst time, on the scientiic and technical personnel working in different scientiic disciplines and special ields of scientiic investigation, as well as an inventory of research institutions and the number of researchers and technicians, the size of laboratories and experimental stations, number of library volumes, etc. Fifty years ago, these results were presented at an International Conference on the Organization of Research and Training in Africa in Relation to the Study, Conservation and Utilization of Natural Resources, jointly organised by UNESCO and UNECA in Lagos (Nigeria) between 28 July and 6 August 1964. Table 38 presents the main indings of UNESCO’s survey on SETI policies in Rwanda in 1963. 25 UNESCO/CORPSA/4.B; Paris, 6 July 1964 126 Table 38: Main indings of UNESCO’s survey on SETI policies in Rwanda in 1963 Institution Characteristics Rwanda Geological Service Public institution. Engaged in research. National Institute of Scientiic Research (INRS) Public institution. Engaged in research. Fundamental research Rwanda Institute of Agricultural Sciences (ISAR) National University of Rwanda (NUR) Personnel Remarks Research Topics Infrastructure Situated at Ruhengeri in the Birunga volcano region Since 1923, research has been carried out on casseterite, gold, wolfram, beryl, and so on. Published the irst 1/100 000 geological map of the country 50 of which 4 are research workers and 1 technician Two ield stations at Minueli and Uiuka Botany (herbarium of Rwanda and Burundi); zoology; geology; social anthropology; linguistics; history; demography; economics; seismology Library and Anthropological Museum. Laboratories Quasi-public institution. Engaged in research. Pure and applied research 450 of which 10 are research workers & 7 technicians Includes the Pilot Station of Karama (Kigali) and the Testing Centre of Rwerere (Ruhengeri) Animal husbandry; pasture research; agricultural chemistry; food crops; industrial plants; forests; plant pathology; peasantry and planning, entomology; climatology; crop testing Library of 2 000 volumes. Laboratories of 6 458 square feet and experimental ields of 7 410 acres Public institution, also engaged in research. Free fundamental research, oriented fundamental research and applied research. 123 of which 48 teaching staff and research workers & 3 technicians Faculties of Medicine, Science, Letters, Social Science and Secondary Education Library of 8 000 volumes. Laboratories of 9 000 square feet. Publications Rwanda ethnography; Rwanda sociology; Rwanda linguistics; Rwanda loral; Rwanda economy Source: UNESCO 127 According to the national report on SETI policies presented by Rwanda at CASTAFRICA I, by the end of 1973 the country had neither a coordinating unit on scientiic and technological policies nor any SETI activities included in the national development plan. Figure 40 presents the national SETI organizational chart for Rwanda in January 1973. In 1976, in the private sector, the Institut Africain et Mauricien de la Statistique et de l’Économie Appliquée (IAMSEA) was established in Kigali, and was closed in 1994 as a consequence of the Genocide. FIRST SPECIALIZED INSTITUTIONS FOR SETI POLICIES In 1975, a Directorate of Higher Education and Scientiic Research was created within the Ministry of Education. In 1977, UNESCO sent the irst mission to help the country to develop a national S&T policy (Kutchoukov, 1978). By 1981, the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientiic Research (MINESUPRES*) and a scientiic commission within the National Revolutionary Movement for Development (MRND*) were created. A scientiic commission was then nominated to prepare the irst national science and technology policy, which was submitted to the third National Congress of the MRND. In 1981, the Government of Rwanda identiied the following problems posed by the scientiic and technological research in the country (Morand, 1981, 1983): (i) small opportunities to train local scientists and technicians; (ii) mismatch between the effort made by the Government to inance research and the fundamental role that itwill play in the socio-economic development of the country; (ii) insuficient number of researchers and technicians; (iv) lack of an inventory of SETI potential; (v) lack of an evaluation of the existing R&D local productivity; (vi) lack of recognition and support for community of scientists. Thereafter, in accordance with the objectives of a new Five Year National Development Plan (1982–1986) of which the main priority was food self-suficiency, the identiied SETI priority areas were: (i) agriculture and animal husbandry, (ii) health (i.e. pharmacopoeia in research) and (iii) development of new alternative energy sources. The Government of Rwanda, with the support of a group of UNESCO experts (Polinière, 1975; Kutchoukov, 1978; Morand, 1981, 1982, 1984; El Hares, 1992), started working in the formulation of a new institutional framework to coordinate the SETI activities and policies in the country. In those days, they proposed the creation of the following new institutions: a) A National Council of Scientiic and Technological Research for Development (CNRSTD*) with the responsibilities to coordinate SETI activities in the country and their integration into the national quinquennial development plans26. b) A National Centre for Documentation and Scientiic Information (CNDIS*) with the purpose to improve the diffusion of endogenous scientiic research and to promote the communication among researchers at national and international level. c) A National Centre for Development and Transference of Technology (CNTDT*) with the objective to reduce the technological dependence of the country with other nations. d) Speciic guidance to secure conditions of scientiic researchers based on the world standard, as set in an instrument adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO in 1974 (UNESCO, 1974b). * Corresponds to the original assigned acronyms (in French). 26 In 1977, the Government of Rwanda prepared a draft decree (see ref. 713/2912 of 8/24/1977) to create the National Council of Scientiic and Technological Research for Development (Morand, 1983; UNESCO, 1987a). 128 By the early eighties, the national structures for science and technology policy-making consisted of: the Central Committee of the National Revolutionary Movement for Development (MRND*), which included a scientiic commission, and the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientiic Research, which included an Inter-ministerial Co-ordination Committee (CIC*). The national decrees No. 252/06 of 2 July 1981 and No.73/06 of 23 February 1984 designated the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientiic Research as the governmental institution in charge of the SETI policy in the country. The attributions were following: a) Formulate and implement the national science and technology policy; b) Prepare a SETI implementation plan, its budget and its relation to the corresponding quinquennial National Development Plans; c) Prepare the annual budgets for the scientiic and technological research programmes and research centres; d) Promote innovations and inventions, identify and foster scientiic and technological endogenous developments; e) Promote and sustain science education at all educational levels; f) Create favourable conditions, at national level, to promote scientiic and technological creativity and good working conditions for scientists, engineers and technicians; g) Promote international and regional co-operation of scientiic and technological research for the beneit of humankind; and h) At that time, the research in Rwanda remained concentrated in the same two research institutes: the Rwanda Institute of Agricultural Sciences (ISAR*) and the National Institute of Scientiic Research (INRS*). The National University of Rwanda (see pages 162–171) had a University Research Centre for Pharmacopeia and Traditional Medicine (CURPHAMETRA*), a Centre for the Study of Energy in Rwanda (CEAR*), a Centre for Fundamental Research for Teacher Training and Lifelong Education (CRAFOP*) and a Study Group on Applied Linguistic Research (GERLA*). In 1987, the Government of Rwanda sent a delegation, chaired by Charles Nyandwi, then Minister of Higher Education and Scientiic Research, to the Second Conference of Ministers Responsible for the Application of Science and Technology to Development in Africa (CASTAFRICA II). During CASTAFRICA II, Nyandwi made a presentation on the dificulties experienced by the States and peoples of Africa (famine, malnutrition, inadequate standards of hygiene and health, and the lowest per capita income of any region in the world). Nyandwi considered that the underlying reason for this situation was the level of scientiic and technological development in the countries of the region, which was at that time unacceptably low. Consequently, the African countries were relatively unsuccessful in performing essential tasks related to the rational exploitation of natural resources and to the introduction of change and innovation into their production systems (UNESCO, 1987a). The situation in Rwanda was described in the context of the Fourth National Development Plan (1987– 1991), whose basic strategy was to achieve self-suficiency in national food production. For the Government of Rwanda, the key elements were the tasks laid down under the plan, in particular: the development of appropriate technologies; the development of human resources and educational structures; the strengthening of international co-operation; and the promotion and exchange of scientiic and technical information at the national, subregional and regional levels. Priority was accorded to agriculture and stock raising, health, energy and industry. * Corresponds to the original assigned acronyms (in French). 129 With regard to the promotion of research, by then several initiatives had been set up, such as: a Fund for Developing Scientiic and Technological Research and Cottage Industry, including a prize for outstanding scientiic work in connection with the development of Rwanda; National Science Days; and Rwandese Association of Exact, Natural and Applied Sciences. In the private sector, the number of higher education institutions doubled, from three to six, with the addition of the Adventist University of Central Africa (UAAC*) in 1984, the Ecole Supérieure de Gestion et d’information (ESGI) in 1985, and the Institut Supérieur Catholique de Pédagogie Appliquée de Nkumba (ISCPA) in 1986. Despite these efforts, the scientiic and technical structures of Rwanda in the late eighties had several weaknesses, which were due mainly to the lack of top-level personnel, adequate inancial resources, appropriate national infrastructure for scientiic and technical information and instrumentation, and maintenance services. Another important issue was the absence of any machinery for upgrading research, and absence of a national policy regarding the importation of technology. The SETI policy was focused on: (i) a reform of the higher education system; (ii) a re-organization of national research structures; (iii) improvement in the standard of research personnel; (iv) improvement in research programming methods; (v) development of the scientiic and technological information sector; (vi) focusing research on the sectors of agriculture and isheries, energy and medicine; and (vii) mobilizing youth to play a full part in solving national problems (UNESCO, 1987b). These initiatives produced some visible effects, for example, the highest registered investment in R&D activities was achieved in 1985 with 0.52% of GDP (see Fig. 29, page 90). Within this quinquennial period, the R&D surveys were conducted annually (see Fig. 28 and Table 26, pages 87–88). The scientiic productivity in terms of publications in mainstream journals also showed a constant growth over this period (see Fig. 30, page 101) In spite of these observations, the funds available to the scientiic and technological units, and the number of researchers in some areas did not match the needs of the country. However, major efforts were made by the institutes to focus their research on the exploitation of the country’s potentialities (e.g. renewable energy, pharmacopoeia, problems posed by agriculture and livestock, Rwandan culture, etc.). Nevertheless, the country was not ready to deal with all its development issues. During the early nineties, a subsequent political instability, the increase of internal conlicts and the extreme deterioration of the economy eroded completely all SETI initiatives (see Fig. 29, page 90). Finally, the Genocide stopped all Academic and R&D activity and destroyed much of the infrastructure in the country. SETI AS A CROSSCUTTING TOOL FOR DEVELOPMENT The Government of Rwanda has established that, in order to develop the country, it needs to develop the human resource base in particular in the areas of science and technology. The starting point was very low as historically the SETI development has at best been marginal (Murenzi and Hughes, 2005). During 1997–1998 the Ofice of the President of the Republic of Rwanda took the initiative to organise discussion sessions on the future of Rwanda. On the basis of the ideas agreed at these discussions Rwanda Vision 2020 (Rep. or Rwanda, 2000) was born and further developed to become a high level vision of the future of the country (see pages 14–16). Rwanda Vision 2020 highlights the crucial role that SETI will play for future’s development. This policy document has been written to build on the immense work that has been done since 1994 to develop Rwanda, in order to enhance the SETI capacity, and to reinforce the development pillars, across all sectors of the Rwandan economy (see Fig. 5, page 14). 130 Vision 2020 argues that the development of SETI shall be in partnership with the growth of an innovative, modern and competitive private sector geared towards revival of industry and the service sector. In particular, SETI is meant to stimulate a steady growth in GDP, advance the quality of life for all the citizens of Rwanda, improve skills and knowledge among the population, and integrate technical education with commerce, industry and the private sector in general. The 2005 National Science, Technology and Innovation Policy was developed with the help of considerable support from international organizations and development partners27. A series of events to formulate the policy took place in Rwanda, between 2004 and 2005. Briely: September 2004. The post of Advisor Science and Technology established and incumbent appointed, with support of the World Bank. ▶ November 2004. Presentation of a concept paper: “Preparatory National Integrated Innovation Framework for Rwanda,” prepared by the Australian Commonwealth Scientiic and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO). A workshop to consider it was organized with support of UK’ Department for International Development (DFID) and UNESCO. ▶ December 2004 – April 2005. Drafting of an initial policy document with extensive consultation with key stakeholders, organized with support of UK’ Department for International Development (DFID). ▶ May 2005. National Science and Technology Conference in Butare, to review draft policy document. ▶ July 2005. National Policy on Science, Technology and Innovation (National STI Policy) approved by Rwandan Cabinet. ▶ August – October 2006. The National STI Policy published, with support from UNESCO and United Nations University. ▶ Following extensive discussion and debate on a draft policy document, during the National Science and Technology Conference in Butare (May, 2005) a drafting committee, drawn from senior members of academia, civil society and private sector was formed to ine tune the policy document using both the feedback from the conference and further consultation with key stakeholders (Rep. of Rwanda, 2006). In March 2006, Prof. Romain Murenzi28 was appointed as Minister in the President’s Ofice in Charge of Science, Technology and Scientiic Research. By July 2009, the Ministry of Science, Technology and Scientiic Research was transformed into a Directorate of Science, Technology and Research within the Ministry of Education. The Directorate of Science, Technology and Research, an agency under the Ministry of Education, oversees the National STI Policy. The Directorate aims to coordinate research, technological advancement, and innovation with Rwanda’s development goals, especially through technology transfer, capacity building, and innovation promotion. The 2005 National STI Policy outlined 13 different sectors in which research and innovation should be used to increase productivity and enhance capacity: education, energy, transport, agriculture, information and communication technologies, geo-information, water and sanitation, biotechnology, industry, private sector, tourism, environment, and health. 27 This was (is) done following the tradition established during the seventies and eighties (see previous sections), where the national SETI policies are prepared –usually– by foreign consultants. Following the formulation of the 2005 National STI Policy, DFED provided assistance to elaborate the SETI legal framework; the World Bank published a book on “Building Science, technology and Innovation Capacity in Rwanda” (Watkins and Verma, 2008), the Global Knowledge Initiative (GKI, 2012) prepared a STI policy review and help UNECA to prepared the 2014 Revised National STI Policy. UNESCO through the Nairobi and Paris ofices have also been contributing through consultants to this policy design/review process. 28 Prof. Romain Murenzi is now Executive Director of TWAS, The World Academy of Sciences for the Advancement of Science in Developing Countries. 131 For each sector, the National STI Policy emphasized the need of endogenous R&D, suggesting the creation of national guidelines, procedures, and standards, supporting entrepreneurship, and promoting new technologies. Agriculture and ICT29 appeared as the two highest priority sectors, as in Rwanda Vision 2020 (Rep. of Rwanda, 2000). The 2005 National STI Policy had a strong inluence on strategies proposed in the EDPRS I (see pages 16–17). By the time when the 2005 National STI Policy was released, the agricultural R&D priorities were based on the 2004 National Agricultural Policy developed by Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources. The policy’s objective was to convert subsistence farming to modern agriculture, while contributing to economic growth, poverty reduction, food security, and natural resource preservation. A new Strategic Plan for the Transformation of Agriculture in Rwanda (PSTA II) was proposed in 2009. The Plan elaborates sector-wide actions necessary to achieve the agriculture-based goals of Vision 2020 (Rep. of Rwanda, 2009b). It seeks to increase output of all types of agricultural products with emphasis on export products, which have high potential and create large amounts of rural employment; and to do so while seeking sustainability (in modes of production/crops). Since 2006, the government has recognized the need to consolidate extension services and closely link them with agricultural R&D. Since the colonial times the Rwanda Institute of Agricultural Sciences (ISAR) was in charge of agricultural R&D activities. Over the years, ISAR lost the capacity to conduct both research and extension, so the Government created two new agencies, Rwanda Agricultural Development Authority (RADA) and Rwanda Animal Resources Development Authority (RARDA). The 2005 National STI Policy had proposed the creation of a National Research Fund (NRF) and it was suggested that the Government should allocate 0.5% of the total national budget to it. This idea was not new, it was also originally proposed in the early eighties. The Government of Rwanda agreed to the Decision of the Assembly of the AU 8th ordinary session in 2007, which recommended allocating at least 1% of the GDP to R&D. By January 2015, the NRF is still under planning. The new structuring helped to address some of the problems of management, fragmentation, and coordination between research agencies, as well as weak linkages with extension agencies and farmers, an assessment of agricultural research and technology transfers found (Tizikara et al., 2007). The agricultural sector in Rwanda continued to grow over time, and demands for a more eficient agricultural R&D and extension system prompted the government to instigate a different strategy. As a result, in 2011 the government merged ISAR, RADA, and RARDA, to form Rwanda Agriculture Board. In spite of the fact that the merger allowed a rational management of the resources, a set of dificulties emerged. The Rwanda Agriculture Board still needs to further integrate research and extension activities at the programme level if it is to succeed in fully taking advantage of the potential synergies and eficiencies of the new structure (Rahija and Gatete, 2014). 29 This was done before the formulation of the new ICT policy (see pages 55–57) and the creation of the Ministry of ICT and Youth, which is coordinating the ICT policies over the whole nation. 132 SETTING UP NEW INSTITUTIONS FOR THE NATIONAL INNOVATION FRAMEWORK In April 2013, the Ministry of Education and its Directorate of Science, Technology, and Research initiated a review of the 2005 National Science, Technology and Innovation Policy in partnership with the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA). Rwanda Ministry of Education, though the inancial support of UNECA invited the Global Knowledge Initiative (GKI), an international non-proit organization that specializes in promoting SETI for development, with support from a local consultant, to perform the review. Speciically, the review team was asked to evaluate how the 2005 National STI Policy’s objectives have been implemented on the ground in Rwanda, identify speciic successes or gaps in implementation, and make recommendations for a possible update of the 2005 National STI Policy itself (Rep. of Rwanda, 2014e). In 2013 the Government of Rwanda introduced a series of important institutional reforms regarding SETI activities, such as: (1) the creation of the University of Rwanda (see pages 162–171); (2) the creation of the National Science and Technology Commission (see pages 151–152), (3) the creation of the National Industrial Research and Development Agency (see page 152), (4) the creation of the Rwanda Standards Board and (5) the introduction of new legislation regarding higher education. In 2013, the Government of Rwanda also introduced the second Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS II). As it was shown in previous sections (see pages 14–17), the terms science, technology and scientiic research practically disappeared form the content of this new national strategy. This represented a strong policy change relative to previous national strategies (i.e. Vision 2020, EDPRS I). Only within SME, ICT and agriculture, support for innovation remained explicit(as part of policies implemented by the Ministries of Trade and Industry; ICT and Youth and Agriculture and Animal Resources). In the context of these institutional and political changes, it was appropriate to encourage a review of the 2005 National STI Policy in order to proceed toward a 2014 Revised National Science, Technology and Innovation Policy (Rep. of Rwanda, 2014e). The text of the 2014 Revised National STI Policy will be analysed in the following sections. The GOSPIN standardized methodological approach to study of the analytic content of SETI policies will be used (see pages 140–141). 133 BOX 15 REFORMS TO STRENGTHEN AGRICULTURAL R&D CAPACITY In 2012 the Government of Rwanda established the Strategic Capacity Building Initiative (see pages 58–59) for the purpose of building human resource capacity across the public sector. Given Rwanda’s lack of local training programs, the initiative also incorporates a strategy of hiring international experts to train and mentor younger staff. By 2014, nine senior-level researchers have been recruited through the Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources, predominantly from Kenya and Uganda. Various European donors and regional organizations, such as the African Green Revolution Alliance (AGRA), the Forum for Agriculture Research in Africa (FARA), and the Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA), have supported some of Rwanda Agriculture Board’s researchers in undertaking postgraduate training overseas, mostly in South Africa, and Eastern African and European countries. Given that these training opportunities were already in place for researchers, Phase II of the Strategic Plan for Agricultural Transformation—inanced by the International Fund for Agricultural Development—focused primarily on providing MSc-level training to extension agents, 46 agents and 4 researchers took advantage of this training during 2010–2013. The lack of local postgraduate programs in agricultural sciences makes it dificult and expensive for Rwandan researchers to build their qualiications. To address this issue, all of Rwanda’s public universities were merged into the newly established University of Rwanda in September 2013 (see pages 162–171), and PhD programmes in the areas of soil management and agroforestry have been established. The government has provided substantial inancial support to the University of Rwanda both for training (such as student scholarships), as well as laboratory equipment and facilities. While these efforts indicate excellent progress, further expansion of graduate programs in agricultural sciences will be necessary if Rwanda is to maintain a pool of well-trained researchers into the future. Source: Rahija and Gatete (2014) 134 The SETI policy cycle of Rwanda The term ‘policy cycle’ refers to the recurrent pattern of processes that lead to the creation of a public policy and its renewal. The greatest advantage of the analytical model of a SETI policy cycle is that it facilitates an understanding of public policy-making by breaking down the complexity of the process into a limited number of stages and sub-stages, each of which can be investigated alone, or in terms of its relationship to any or all of the other stages of the cycle. This also allows for an examination of the role played by all actors and institutions dealing with SETI policies, rather than solely those governmental agencies formally charged with the task. The GOSPIN methodological approach divides the SETI policy cycle into ive stages. Here are the working deinitions provided for the survey: I. Agenda-setting: refers to the process by which problems involving SETI in relation to society and the economy come to the attention of the government. Agenda setting is also a socially- constructed process, in which actors and institutions, inluenced by their respective ideologies, play a fundamental role in determining which problems or issues require government action (Howlett and Ramesh, 2003). II. Policy formulation: refers to the process by which SETI policy options are formulated by the government. Policy formulation involves identifying and assessing possible solutions to policy problems, weighing the pros and cons, and deciding which should be accepted and which rejected. The relationship between the government and social actors thus exerts a signiicant inluence on the formulation of public policies. III. Decision-making: refers to the process by which governments adopt a particular course of action or non-action. IV. Policy implementation: refers to the process by which governments put SETI policies into effect. This is when a decision is carried out through the application of government directives and is confronted with reality. V. Policy evaluation: refers to the process by which the impact of SETI policies are monitored by both state and societal actors, the result of which may be a re-conceptualisation of policy problems and solutions. SETI POLICY CYCLE IN RWANDA The Government of Rwanda (2013d) prepared a Cabinet Manual to explicitly deine the different decisionmaking mechanisms and procedures concerning the establishment of new policies. Agenda setting: the National Development Agenda, which embraces SETI, is set by the government, usually under leadership of the Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning. Policy formulation: in Rwanda, SETI policy formulation is usually a consultative process led by the Directorate of Science, Technology and Research within the Ministry of Education. Owing to the crosscutting nature of research, innovation and scientiic and technological services, other line ministries contribute to the formulation of the national SETI policy, such as: the Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources; the Ministry of Health; the Ministry of Trade and Industry; Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning; the Ministry of Natural Resources, the Ministry of Youth and ICT; and the Rwanda Development Board. The National Science and Technology Commission advise the government on policies, legislation and regulations in SETI ields. Decision-making: it is normal practice for a policy to be reviewed at different levels before adoption. Responsibility falls to the government to ensure that a policy addresses the challenges faced by the population. The Ofice of the Prime Minister and Cabinet are responsible for the overall decision-making process. 136 Policy implementation: implementation covers research and innovation and the provision of scientiic and technological services by the appropriate units. Owing to the cross-cutting nature of SETI activities, the implementation plans are the responsibility of the line ministries, such as: the Ministry of Education Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources; the Ministry of Health; the Ministry of Trade and Industry; the Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning; the Ministry of Natural Resources; the Ministry of Youth and ICT; and the Rwanda Development Board. Policy evaluation: The Prime Minister’s Ofice, under the authority of the Prime Minister, is entrusted with assisting the Prime Minister in the implementation and evaluation of national policies, leading Government activities according to the guidelines given by the President of the Republic, and ensuring law enforcement. The National Science and Technology Commission has the responsibility to monitor implementation of SETI policies, their legislation; to carry out analysis of the nature and effective use of national resources and infrastructure; and to prepare and disseminate an annual report on the state of science and technology in Rwanda. Policy evaluation Agenda-setting • Prime Minister’s Ofice and National Commission for Science and Technology • Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning Policy formulation Policy implementation plans • Ministry of Education • Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources • Ministry of Health • Ministry of Trade and Industry • Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning • Ministry of Natural Resources • Ministry of Youth and ICT • Rwanda Development Board SETI POLICY CYCLE • Directorate of Science, Technology and Research within the Ministry of Education • Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources • Ministry of Health • Ministry of Trade and Industry • Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning • Ministry of Natural Resources • Ministry of Youth and ICT • Rwanda Development Board Decision-making Ofice of the Prime Minister and Cabinet National Commission for Science and Technology advise the government on policies, legislation and regulations in SETI ields Figure 41: SETI policy cycle in Rwanda (c. 2015). Source: UNESCO 137 The analytical content of Rwanda’s SETI policy This section analyses the formal content of the 2014 Revised National Science, Technology and Innovation Policy of Rwanda30, in accordance with the methodological approach of the GOSPIN survey, which has been designed to allow for international comparisons of the SETI policies adopted by different countries. All the statements in the pages that follow have been reproduced from the oficial policy document (Rep. of Rwanda, 2014d) but are organized hereafter according to the 14 standard ields proposed in the GOSPIN survey. Some of these ields may be left vacant, owing to the fact that the explicit policy does not take these particular items into account. ANALYTICAL CONTENT OF THE 2014 REVISED NATIONAL SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND INNOVATION POLICY I. Policy vision: To integrate Science, Technology, Scientiic Research and Innovation in a framework that shall include capability building, technical transfer initiatives, and the promotion of innovation, in the context of the issues facing Rwanda. Science, Technology and Scientiic Research shall be catalyst to underpin all public and private sector activities to enable Rwanda’s Vision 2020 to be realised II. Policy mission: n/a III. Policy goals: n/a IV. Policy objectives: (i) improve skills and knowledge among the population, speciically to create a “knowledge-based” economy; (ii) maintain viability and strategically choose to enhance opportunities for growth in rural areas; (iii) integrate technical education with commerce, industry and the private sector in general and (iv) capacity building for: (a) knowledge acquisition, (b) knowledge creation, (c) knowledge transfer and (d) innovation culture V. Priorities at the strategic level of the SETI policy: the 2014 Revised STI National Policy prioritized the following sectors: (i) education, (ii) health, (iii) agriculture and animal husbandry, (iv) environment, (v) water sanitation, (vi) energy, (vii) transport, (viii) ICT, (ix) tourism, (x) industry and (xi) private sector VI. Normative planning strategies of the policy: (i) to support the growth of the economy of Rwanda, speciically to support the Vision 2020 targets of a steady growth in GDP – 11.5% per year from 2014 to 2020; (ii) advance the quality of life for all the citizens of Rwanda, speciically to support the Vision 2020 target of a GDP per inhabitant of US$ 1 240 by 2020 VII. Policies related to the supply of SETI: (i) knowledge acquisition: cultivate interest in S&T within preprimary and primary schools, retain interest in S&T within secondary schools; train competent artisans at vocational training institutions, train high-level technicians at TVET; train medical practitioners, technologists, agriculturalists, scientists, engineers and PhD at higher education level; (ii) promote creation and transfer of knowledge and an innovation culture; (iii) the government implementation of STI reforms includes the following pillars (II) cultivate an innovation mind-set in all Rwandans, (III) increase supply of employable technical education and training graduates; VIII. Policies related to demand for SETI: (i) focus on technological and innovative advancements in support of the emergence of a healthy private sector that will lead economic growth in Rwanda, (ii) develop the National integrated innovation framework; (iii) government support to science, technology and innovation through the following pillars: (I) perform scans for opportunities and SETI solutions needed for Rwanda, (II) cultivate an innovation mind-set in all Rwandans, (III) increase supply of employable technical education and training graduates, (IV) support innovation in the private sector, (V) improve transfer of research results into meaningful inputs for businesses and 30 At the time the GOSPIN Country Proile was prepared, the 2014 Revised National Science, Technology and Innovation Policy, was not yet approved by the Government. For practical purposes it was decided to make the study of the content analysis using the 2014 revised version text instead of the previous one (Rep. of Rwanda, 2006). 140 communities, (VI) address structural barriers to innovation (high energy-costs/tax-rates/teachingloads), (VII) coordinate Rwanda’s SETI efforts to advance EDPRS II achievement and (VIII) position SETI to inform decision-making; (iv) promote public-private partnerships in R&D; (v) promote intellectual property rights mechanisms IX. Policies to foster networking between the SETI supply and demand sides: promotion of publicprivate partnerships in R&D; process scientiic and/or technological innovations or inventions that can lead to acquisition of Intellectual Property Ownership (IPO) X. Regional and international dimensions of SETI policies: n/a XI. Monitoring, assessment, technological forecasting and prospective scenarios: According to Art 5 of Law No 80/2013 of 11 September 2013, the 2014 Revised National STI policy delegates all these functions to the National Science and Technology Commission. XII. SETI policy start date: 2015 XIII. Timespan for SETI policy planning: 2015 onwards XIV. Link: n/a 141 BOX 16 – FURTHER ANCHORING INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS IN RWANDA’S RESEARCH AND INNOVATION POLICIES The contents of Box 11 and 12 (see pages 92–93 and 113) showed that Rwanda has room for important innovations within the health sector based on traditional medicines and indigenous knowledge. However, there is no mention of these important issues in the national STI policies. International recognition of the importance of indigenous and local knowledge was triggered by the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity and its well-known article 8(j): ‘Each [state signatory] shall, as far as possible and as appropriate…respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and promote their wider application with the approval and involvement of the holders of such knowledge, innovations and practices and encourage the equitable sharing of the beneits arising from the utilization of such knowledge innovations and practices.’ Over the past few decades, governments have addressed the issues of knowledge access and beneit sharing, including through the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Beneits Arising from their Utilization (2010). Negotiations relating speciically to intellectual property continue through WIPO’s Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore. Growing attention is also being paid to the wider application of indigenous knowledge systems, as well as to its multiple dimensions. Beyond its contribution to identifying valuable genetic resources with applications in health, agriculture or industry, indigenous knowledge has gained growing recognition in such diverse ields as renewable resources, wildlife or isheries management, natural disaster preparedness and response, environmental impact assessment and climate change assessment and adaptation. Recently, for example, the Intergovernmental Panel of Experts on Climate Change (IPCC) has encouraged authors of the Fifth Assessment Report, published in three volumes in 2013 and 2014, to consider indigenous knowledge alongside scientiic knowledge when assessing the impact of climate change and opportunities for adaptation. Similarly, the newly established Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystems Services (IPBES), which counts Rwanda among its current 118 members, has adopted, as one of its founding principles, to ‘recognize and respect the contribution of indigenous and local knowledge to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and ecosystems’. These emerging ields of relevance to indigenous knowledge might also be considered through the development of an indigenous knowledge systems policy for Rwanda’s sustainable development. Such a policy might also provide Rwanda with the opportunity to consider the multiple dimensions of indigenous knowledge systems. Indigenous knowledge, for example, has gained speciic recognition for its heritage values through UNESCO’s 2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage. Recognition of the value of indigenous knowledge systems should be accompanied by a long-term vision not only of what these can contribute to Rwanda’s sustainable development but also by a relection on what measures may be required to ensure the long-term vitality of indigenous knowledge systems themselves. This also brings to the fore the issue of the continuing transmission of such knowledge and its relationship to education systems, both non-formal and formal. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child underlines the importance of education that respects the language and culture of indigenous children. Ensuring the longevity and dynamism of indigenous knowledge systems, including through intercultural and mother tongue education, is also an investment in the long-term opportunities that these systems can bring Rwandan society. The importance of traditional knowledge is recognized by the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007), adapted to the African context through the deliberations of the African Court of Human Rights, which provides a holistic framework for an enlarged and multidimensional vision of indigenous knowledge systems that can bring long-term beneits to Rwanda. It is also recognized by the Swakopmund Protocol on the Protection of Traditional Knowledge and Expressions of Folklore. Source: UNESCO’s Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems (LINKS) programme 142 BOX 17 – UNESCO’S REVIEWS OF SETI POLICIES IN RWANDA UNESCO has been collaborating and accompanying the Government of Rwanda in its efforts in the area of SETI policies and governance over the past decades. From the sixties through the early nineties, within its Science and Technology Policy (STP) programme, UNESCO conducted a number of analytical studies, missions, consultations, surveys and inventories on SETI in Rwanda, accompanied with oficial technical reports and recommendations to the Government. These resulted in recommendations and guidance related to: the development of the Rwanda’s science and technology system, including its organizational structures, governance and inancial mechanisms (UNESCO, 1974, 1987a, 1987b; Kutchoukov, 1978; Morand, 1981); its priorities, programmes and potential (Morand, 1983, 1984); its development plan and implementation; as well as its R&D activities’ performance and evaluation (El Hares, 1992). UNESCO also undertook important surveys and analyses focused on: the science education system (Fiasse, 1960), possible educational options and strategies, as well as on the establishment of a national information system in S&T in Rwanda including assessment analysis (Polinière, 1975) and technical assistance for its development (Morand, 1983). Later in 2004, among other international and development agencies, UNESCO cooperated with the Rwandan authorities on the development of its national Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) Policy document, approved by the cabinet in 2005, and later reviewed in 2014 (Republic of Rwanda, 2006, 2014e). Over the past few years, the collaboration with Rwanda regained its momentum and has received inancial support from the One UN Fund for Rwanda and the Government of Sweden. The technical assistance was coordinated by UNESCO’s Division of Science Policy and CapacityBuilding and its Regional Ofice for Eastern Africa in Nairobi, Kenya. In 2013, at the request of the Government of Rwanda, UNESCO engaged in the formulation of the Global Observatory of STI policy Instruments (GOSPIN) project for Rwanda, which became operational in late 2014, with a irst technical mission in Kigali, in November 2014. During the mission, visits and consultations were conducted within the major STI stakeholders for the completion of the inventories needed for the development of the GO-SPIN country proile in STI policy. As one of the core objectives of the project was to strengthen capacities in data collection, assessment and evaluation of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of the research and innovation system (SWOT analysis), a training session was designed and run by UNESCO expert Guillermo Lemarchand, to engage selected national actors, including representatives of: the Ministry of Education, science-based ministries, S&T units of major universities, research institutes and the National Commission for Science and Technology. Throughout the process, UNESCO worked hand-in-hand with the Ministry of Education, and national senior consultants; the National Commission for UNESCO served as intermediary with the Government. In parallel to the exercise of mapping research and innovation in Rwanda, at the request of the Directorate of Science, Technology and Research in the Ministry of Education and with support from One UN, UNESCO provided technical assistance for the formulation of the Rwanda National Research Policy (RNRP), in 2013-2014. The RNRP, falling within the Rwanda STI Policy developed in 2005 and prescribed by Rwanda Vision 2020, was developed with the mission to ’build lasting foundations for a solid national capacity for scientiic research and innovation, increase the performance, competitiveness and equity of Rwanda’s economic, social and cultural development’. Moreover, the RNRP was developed with an ambition to address the three main problems that research in Rwanda experienced to date: i. Lack of a coordinated Research Agenda. ii. Shortage of qualiied researchers in the country. iii. Low level of funding of research activities. In order to develop the RNRP, a series of consultations were organized in Kigali and Muzanze in May 2013 and March-April 2014, which gathered more than 80 stakeholders involved in research activities including international development partners, who contributed to the draft policy 143 prepared by an international expert recruited by UNESCO. The draft framework document of the RNRP was submitted for inal validations by stakeholders in June 2014 and is today under consideration for adoption by the Cabinet. The RNRP covers the following strategic areas which underpin its actions: ▶ Structural and Organizational Framework. ▶ Establishing mechanisms or instruments for inancing R&D. ▶ Human Capital Development and training. ▶ Institutional Capacity-building of R&D, information, extension and technological innovation. ▶ Organization of the National Research and Innovation System (NRIS). ▶ Promotion of cooperation and partnership in science and technology. ▶ Promotion of a national culture of science and technology. ▶ Monitoring and evaluation of overall and sectoral implementation of RNRP. ▶ Promotion of research dissemination, utilization and maximizing the beneits of research and innovation to the ’end users’. In January 2015, the irst draft of the GOSPIN country proile was submitted to the Rwandan authorities. In late April 2015 and upon reception of the feedback from relevant stakeholders, a second technical mission was conducted in Kigali to collect missing information notably related to operational policy instruments for the promotion of innovation and science in companies. A validation workshop was held on 29 April 2015 to discuss the country proile and to collaboratively analyze and complete the missing gaps. UNESCO wishes to thank the Government of Sweden as well as all national stakeholders that took part in the GOSPIN exercise, for their commitment to the project. Kornelia Tzinova Assistant Programme Specialist Section for Science Policy and Partnerships Division of Science Policy and Capacity Building Natural Sciences Sector UNESCO Group of participants at the GOSPIN validation workshop, held in Kigali on April 29, 2015. Sitting in the irst row, from left to right are: Marie Christine Gasingirwa (Director General for Science, Technology and Research at the Ministry of Education); Eliphaz Bahiz (General Secretary for the Commission Nationale Rwandaise de l’UNESCO); Verdiana Masanja (UNESCO Local Consultant); R.H. Prof. Silas Lwakabamba (Minister of Education of Rwanda); Charles Ndagije (UNESCO Local consultant) and Guillermo A. Lemarchand (UNESCO International Consultant). 144 Analysis of the SETI organizational chart and lows in Rwanda The SETI organizational chart shows the distribution of responsibility for implementing a given policy. In the organisational chart, there are ive distinct levels: (1) the policy-planning level (policy design); (2) the promotional level (funding); (3) the performance level (scientiic research, technological development and productive innovation); (4) all science and technology services, and (5) the assessment/ evaluation level. PROMOTION LEVEL Ministry of Trade and Industry Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources Rwanda Agriculture Board Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning Rwanda Innovation Endowment Fund Rwanda Environmental Management Authority Directorate of Science, Technology and Research National Commission for Science and Technology Ministry of Education National Industrial Research and Development Agency Ministry of Natural Resources Office of the Prime Minister and Cabinet Environment and Climate Change Fund of Rwanda POLICY PLANNING LEVEL Workforce Development Authority Ministry of Health National Capacity Building Secretariat Rwanda Development Board Ministry of Youth and ICT PERFORMANCE LEVEL Universities Karisoke Research Centre (private non-profit) Public Institutions of Higher Education Institute of Policy Analysis and Research (private non-profit) Gishari Integrated Polytechnic Akhilan Institute of Women Institute of Legal Practice and Development Hospitals Carnegy Mellon University Kigali Independent University Kigali Institute of Management Mount Kenya University Catholic Institute of Kabgayi Catholic University of Rwanda Muhabura Integrated Polytechnic College Integrated Polytechnic Regional Center – Kigali Indangaburezi College of Education Nile Source Polytechnic of Applied Arts Integrated Polytechnic Regional Center – North Independent Institute of Lay Adventists of Kigali Open University of Tanzania–Rwanda Integrated Polytechnic Regional Center – South Institut Catholique de Kabgayi Institut d’Enseignement Supérieur de Ruhengeri Premier Early Childhood Development Teachers College Kavumu College of Education Institut Polytechnique de Byumba Protestant Institute of Arts and Social Sciences Kibungo School of Nursing and Midwifery Institut Supérieur Pédagogique de Gitwe Rwanda Tourism College Kitabi College of Conservation and Environmental Management Institute of Agriculture, Technology and Education of Kibungo Remera Hospitality Academy Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture Rukara College of Education National Industrial Research and Development Agency Kibogora Polytechnic Integrated Polytechnic Regional Center – East Integrated Polytechnic Regional Center – West Rwanda Agriculture Board Directorate of Research Private Institutions of Higher Education Adventist University of Central Africa University of Rwanda Rwanda Biomedical Centre Saint Joseph Integrated Technical college Sinhgad Technical Education Society–Rwanda University of Kigali SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL SERVICES LEVEL Institute of National Museums of Rwanda Institute of Legal Practice and Development Rwanda Natural Resources Authority National Agriculture Export Development Board Rwanda Standards Board National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda Figure 42: Organizational chart showing Rwanda’s research and innovation system (c. 2015). Source: UNESCO 147 Inventory of the SETI institutions in Rwanda Government Ministries and Public Agencies Establishment and promotion of SETI activities require the commitment and cooperation of line ministries, parastatals, and public as well as non-governmental, non-proit and private sector institutions. Priority activities are undertaken by publicly funded science and technology organisations, and government provides the National Commission for Science and Technology as well as the line ministries with resources to facilitate their coordinating roles and establish appropriate links with private sector. Three main implementing Units have been established to oversee the development of Science, Technology and Research in Rwanda namely: 1. National Commission for Science and Technology (NCST) established under Law Number 80/2013 of 11 September 2013. 2. Science, Technology, Innovation and Research (STIR) Unit of the Ministry of Education. 3. National Industrial Research and Development Agency (NIRDA) established under Law Number 51/2013 of 28th June 2013. NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (NCST) Address: P.O. Box: 1334 Kigali-Rwanda Telephone: +250785230769 Website: www.ncst.gov.rw Contact person: Director General, Dr Ignace Gatare Email: igatare@ncst.gov.rw Phone: +250788300083 Location: Nyarugenge District, Kigali City, Pension Plaza The National Commission for Science and Technology (NCST) has aims to advise the Government of Rwanda on all matters pertaining to National Science, Technology, Innovation and Research policy, legislation and regulations, including knowledge and skills management, with a focus on capacity building and development strategies to support the achievement of a competitive and sustainable socio-economic sector. In addition, the NCST aims to serve as a think-tank advising Government of Rwanda on crosscutting SETI strategies and programs and their relevance to national development. The main responsibilities of the NCST are as follows (Ref. Art 5 of Law No 80/2013 of 11 September 2013): 1. To advise the Government on policies, legislation and regulation in the ields of science, technology, research and innovation and monitor the implementation of such policies and legislation; 2. To collaborate with competent organs with intention to advise the Government on educating and training people in matters relating to national needs in the ields of science and technology and to make a follow up on the organization and productivity of such training; 3. To ensure that people who are educated or trained in Rwanda or abroad in the ields of science and technology are facilitated to enter the labour market in order to work professionally and stay productive for the beneit of their country; 4. To examine, identify and support new initiatives that may be useful for the country in the ields of science and technology through investment in people’s potential; 150 5. To carry out an analysis of the nature and effective use of national resources and infrastructure in order to support science and technology as well as their innovative use in a sustainable manner; 6. To establish, update and disseminate speciic database of skills available and those needed in the country in the ields of science and technology; 7. To cooperate and collaborate with other advanced regional and international institutions of excellence with similar mission; 8. To prepare and disseminate annual report on the state of science and technology. New funding mechanism for SETI: One of the responsibilities of the NCST is be to establish the National Research Fund (NRF). The Government of Rwanda agreed to the Decision of the Assembly of the AU 8th ordinary session in 2007 which recommended allocating at least 1% of GDP to R&D, and of this sum the Government shall allocate annually 0.5% of the total budget to the NRF to be managed by the NCST for R&D activities oriented towards the development goals of Rwanda (Rep. of Rwanda, 2014c). Resources for R&D shall also be generated through participation in bilateral and multilateral research projects and through participation in regional and international scientiic and technological programmes. SETI institutions shall be encouraged to generate funds by commercialising their services and outputs for the promotion and expansion of their scientiic and technological activities. The NRF shall enable the government to support and promote a well-managed and focused research programme in the public interest. The fund shall stimulate competition between researchers and research institutes. The fund shall also support scientiic and technological research by giving seed money to innovative research, to the development of state of the art technology and equipment, and other contributions to the strategic and socio-economic development of the country. Ministry of Education SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, INNOVATION AND RESEARCH UNIT (STIR) Address: P.O. Box 622, Kigali – Rwanda Telephone: +250 785068350 Email: cgasingirwa@mineduc.gov.rw Website: www.mineduc.gov.rw/ Contact Person: Director General Marie Christine Gasingirwa Location: Ministry of Education, Kigali The Science, Technology, Innovation and Research Unit (STIR) is staffed with a science and technology analysts/specialists capable of supporting Ministry of Education to handle its science and technology in education portfolio, including strengthening research and innovation within the education system. Particular attention is paid to complementarity with both the NCST and the National Industrial Research and Development Agency. The STIR shall focus on supporting Ministry of Education to smoothly implement its science, technology, innovation and research in the education programs. The main responsibilities of the STIR are as follows: 151 1. To advise the Minister of Education on policies and strategies for science and technology as they relates to programmes in the education sector. 2. To coordinate programmes in the education sector strategy which relate to science and technology knowledge acquisition, knowledge creation, and knowledge transfer, as well as the promotion of an innovation culture within the national education system. 3. To initiate and oversee the implementation of programmes that strengthen scientiic research capacity at all levels of the national education sector, including both formal and informal educations. 4. To promote the adoption of suitable and improved technologies and support the development of technological innovation and problem solving capacity within the education sector. 5. To support in coordinating and following up partnerships and collaboration between the Ministry of Education and relevant national and international organizations operating in the areas of science, technology, research and innovation. THE NATIONAL INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT AGENCY (NIRDA) Address: P.O. Box 273 Kigali, Email: nirda2015@gmail.com Phone number: +250255104465 Website: Contact person: Joseph Mungarulire Location: 13th Floor, Kigali City Tower, Nyarugenge District NIRDA shall be in charge of industrial research development, research product valorisation and commercialization. NIRDA shall support SMEs and entrepreneurs in areas of industrial product development, through capacity building as well as technology business incubation. Whenever necessary, NIRDA can also advise Government of Rwanda on matters pertaining to industrial R&D. The main responsibilities of NIRDA were determined by Art 4 of Law No 51/2013 of 28 June 2013, as follows: (1) to implement the national industrial development policy, patent inventions and traditional knowledge in relation to industrial development and promote the trade of research products; (2) to carry out industrial and technology development research through the establishment of technology incubation centres and pilot plants and rural industrialisation; (3) to contribute to establishment of trade companies of research products; (4) to train business entrepreneurs who wish to invest in new or improved industrial research products; (5) to establish and develop industrial research and development partnership with international, regional and national institutions, whether private or public; (6) to facilitate the vertical growth of small and medium enterprises for them to enter new markets and increase new improved products; (7) to advise the Government on the national industrial research and development policy if necessary; (8) to build the capacity of small and medium enterprises by providing prototype development, reverse engineering, manufacturing facilities and business incubation. The organization, functioning and responsibilities of organs of NIRDA shall be determined by a Prime Minister’s Order. 152 Other governmental units RWANDA GOVERNANCE BOARD (RGB) Address: Kigali, Rwanda - KG 178 ST – P.O Box 6819, Kigali Telephone: +250 55112023 Email: info@rgb.rw Website: www.rgb.rw Contact Person: Chief Executive Oficer Location: Remera, Gasabo, Kigali City Background: Rwanda Governance Board (RGB) was formed from the merging of Rwanda Governance Advisory Council (RGAC) and the National Decentralization Implementation Secretariat (NDIS). In due course, other services have been moved to RGB from different government ministries. These include the department in charge of registration of FBOs and NGOs (transferred from the Ministry of Local Government), the department in charge of issuing of legal personality to CSOs (transferred from Ministry of Justice), and the department of Media development, Advocacy and Reforms (transferred from the former Ministry of Information). The Rwanda Governance Board (RGB) is a public agency with legal personality, administrative and inancial autonomy, established by law No 41/2011 of 30/09/2011. It is managed in accordance with Organic law No 06/2009 of 21st December 2009 establishing general provisions governing public institutions functioning and administration. Vision: The vision of RGB is “Fostering Good Governance for Sustainable Development.” Mission: The mission of RGB is to promote the principles of good governance and decentralization ; monitor the practices of good governance in political, public and private institutions ; coordinate and support media sector development ; register, empower and monitor civil society organizations ; enhance civic participation ; conduct research and studies related to governance ; document home grown solutions and provide policy advocacy to Government for achieving good service delivery, sustainable development and prosperity. In particular, RGB has in its mission the following: (a) to promote good governance principles in political, public, corporate and nongovernmental domains; (b) to give policy related proposals and advice related to the improvement of governance with regards to domains referred to; (c) to monitor these domains in order to ensure compliance with good governance principles and activities meant for its promotion; (d) ensure coordination of activities by stakeholders of the implementation of national decentralization policy and local government’s empowerment and to ensure monitoring thereof; (f) to conduct regular research and surveys on issues pertaining to good governance and disseminate indings; (g) to develop appropriate mechanisms to increase civic participation in policy formulation and to attain observance of accountability; (h) to ensure coordination of capacity building for local administrative entities; (i) to participate in initiating and implementing policies and strategies in the ield of good governance and to advise the Government thereof; (j) to carry out a performance audit of boards of directors of government agencies; (k) to register local non-governmental and religious organizations grant them the legal status and monitor the conformity of their activities to the law; (l) to establish cooperation and collaboration relations with other national, regional and international institutions having missions that are similar to those of RGB; and (m) to implement the national policy on media which aims to develop the industry into a professional, vibrant and responsible sector, making full contribution to achieving high level governance and democracy ideals. 153 MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL RESOURCE Address: P.O. Box 621- Kigali Telephone/Fax: +250 584644; +250 585008 Email: Website: www.minagri.gov.rw Contact Person: Permanent secretary Location: Kacyiru (Kigali City) In 2015, the Minister of Agriculture and Animal Resources is Mukeshimana Gerardine and the State Minister in charge of Agriculture is Mr. Tony Roberto Nsanganira. Mission: To initiate, develop and manage suitable programs of transformation and modernization of agriculture and livestock, so to ensure food security and to contribute to the national economy. Vision: The vision is to modernize agriculture and livestock to achieve food security. One of the key pillars of this vision is the transformation of agriculture from subsistence to a productive high-value marketoriented farming that is environmentally friendly and has an impact on other sectors of the economy. The policy of the Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources is to increase animal production, modernize farming, reduce poverty, ensure food security and have surplus for the market. This will ultimately result in the increase of the standard of living of the population. The transformation of the animal resources industry can only be achieved if the constraints to animal production are reversed. The strategic thrusts have been identiied, as follows: (1) Diversiication and intensiication of plant, animal and ish production, (2) Diversiication of income and employment sources for rural populations, (3) Linking products to markets and mainstreaming the agricultural economy into the national and regional economies, (4) Sustainable management of natural resources, particularly soil and water, (5) Organization, mobilization and capacity-building for producers and their organizations, (6) Capacity-building for service providers, privatization and private-sector development, (7) Creating an enabling institutional framework for the professionalization of producers and modernization of agriculture in Rwanda, (8) Creating an enabling environment for productive investment and the development of entrepreneurship and employment in agro-industry, (9) Redeining the role of the Ministry of Agriculture and redirecting its actions towards the sector programme approach in a context of decentralization and promoting the gender approach and reducing vulnerability among disadvantaged groups. The plan of action focuses on four priority programmes: (a) Intensiication and development of sustainable production systems; (b) support for producer professionalization, (c) promotion of product chains and agro-industry development and (d) institutional development. This Ministry has the following strategies and policies: mechanisation strategy, rice policy report, Knowledge Management and Communication strategy and Ministerial instruction on public institution restructuration. RWANDA AGRICULTURE BOARD (RAB) Address: P. O Box 5016 Kigali-Rwanda Email: infos@rab.gov.rw Website: www.rab.gov.rw In 2015, the Director General of RAB is Jean Jacques Mbonigaba Muhinda. 154 Mission: RAB has the general mission of developing agriculture and animal husbandry through their reform, and using modern methods in crop and animal production, research, agricultural extension, and in education and training of farmers in new technologies. Responsibilities: In particular, RAB has the following responsibilities: (a) to implement the national policy of agriculture and animal husbandry; (b) to contribute in determining policy in agriculture, animal husbandry, agricultural and animal husbandry research and technology; (c) to provide farmers and consumers of agricultural products with information, techniques and services meant for improving their profession and supplying the internal market with increased and quality production thereby raising their agricultural and animal husbandry incomes; (d) to prevent and ight animal diseases and implement appropriate strategies meant for ensuring control, prevention, diagnosis and treatment of animal diseases, (e) to prevent and control plant diseases, insects and pests and implement appropriate strategies meant for ensuring control and prevention of plant diseases; (f) to conduct baseline survey and research aiming at development and solving problems identiied in agriculture and animal husbandry and by products; (g) to monitor and coordinate activities of persons exercising the profession of agriculture, animal husbandry and research and stakeholders; (h) to identify and provide farmers with new technologies for proper management of land, water and use of agricultural and animal husbandry mechanization; (i) to coordinate activities aiming at promoting agricultural and animal husbandry infrastructure; (j) to examine and issue certiicates of standards for agricultural and animal husbandry products meant for export; (k) to examine, verify and issue certiicates authorizing imports of domestic animals, semen, fertilized eggs, seeds, plants and cuttings and other agricultural and animal husbandry products; (l) to work closely with other institutions in charge of standards and environment while importing fertilizers, crop protection products and other agricultural and animal husbandry inputs; (m) to contribute in establishing, publicizing and enforcing laws and regulations governing agriculture, animal husbandry, research as well as related products; (n) to establish relations and collaborate with other regional and international institutions having the same mission as RAB; (o) to ensure preparation, conservation, issuance and use of veterinary and crop protection products as well as their import and export; (p) to issue licenses and control the trade of veterinary products and agriculture inputs; (q) to ensure and monitor activities of production, control and trade of selected seeds; (r) to collect national and international innovations, new and appropriate technologies and reine them for use in agriculture and animal husbandry in Rwanda; (s) to provide agricultural extension services in accordance with agricultural and animal husbandry needs; (t) to coordinate activities of agricultural extension and research plans and disseminate such agricultural and animal husbandry needs as determined by zonal branches of RAB; (u) to support and coordinate agricultural extension and research activities in administrative decentralized entities; (v) to support agricultural and animal husbandry cooperatives towards a better service delivery; (w) to ensure partnership and coordinate activities of the non-governmental organizations, private operators and organs involved in implementation of agricultural and animal husbandry programs. RWANDA AGRICULTURE BOARD DIRECTORATE OF RESEARCH Address: P. O. Box 5016 Kigali-Rwanda Telephone: Call toll free: 4676 Email: infos@rab.gov.rw Website: www.rab.gov.rw Contact Person: Deputy Director General In charge of Research in RAB Location: Remera (Kigali City) In 2015, the Deputy Director General In charge of Research in RAB is Dr Daphrose Gahakwa. 155 The RAB Directorate of Research is responsible for overall coordination of countrywide agricultural research activities and driving science-based technology generation for sustainable agriculture development. Agricultural research has been recognized as the engine driving agricultural growth in Rwanda and a critical tool in the ight against hunger and poverty. The Research focuses mainly on the following areas: (a) forestry-based research, (b) animal-based Research, (c) crop-based Program and (d) soil-based research. NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL EXPORT DEVELOPMENT BOARD (NAEB) Address: P.O. Box 104 Kigali – Rwanda Telephone: +250 0252 57 56 00 Email: info@naeb.gov.rw Website: www.naeb.gov.rw Contact person: Director General Location: Gikondo Magerwa (Kigali City) Vision: to be a world class agriculture and livestock commodity export-development promoter through innovation. Mission: to facilitate the growth of business to diversify agriculture and livestock commodity export revenues. The National Agricultural Export Development Board is registered under Ministry of Agriculture. It was created through merging Rwanda Tea Authority, Rwanda Coffee Authority and Rwanda Horticulture. NAEB is aimed to improve the balance of payment of Rwanda Economy through increased agricultural exports. The National Agricultural Export Development Board was set up by bringing together three government agencies responsible for the entire Agriculture Export and cash crop base under one management. Responsibilities: (a) to participate in elaboration of policies and strategies for developing exports of agricultural and livestock products; (b) to implement policies and strategies for promoting and developing agricultural and livestock products for export; (c) to identify and support research on agricultural extension regarding agricultural and livestock products for export; (d) to collaborate with other institutions to identify places where to install factories processing agricultural and livestock products for export and to grant them authorization; (e) to set quality standards of agriculture and livestock export commodities and make sure they are implemented; (f) to issue certiicates of origin for agricultural and livestock products for export as provided for by relevant laws; (g) to supervise facilitate and train private operators and cooperatives involved in agricultural and livestock production for export to beneit them and the country; (h) to partner with and coordinate activities of non-governmental organizations, private operators and organs involved in exporting agricultural and livestock products; (i) to contribute to increase investments in industry and infrastructure meant for adding value to agricultural and livestock products for export; (j) to collect information on local, regional and international markets and disseminate them to stakeholders for use; (k) to coordinate activities of stakeholder networks as regards agricultural and livestock products for export; (l) to participate in various international negotiations and trade fairs, (m) to establish good relations with international organizations with regard to develop agricultural and livestock products export from Rwanda. 156 RWANDA ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY (REMA) Address: B.P 7436 Kigali, Rwanda Telephone: +250252580101 Fax: +250252580017 Email: info@rema.gov.rw Website: www.rema.gov.rw Contact person: Director General Location: Kacyiru (Kigali City, Gasabo District) Under the supervision of the Ministry of Natural Resources, and based on the Law n°63/2013 of 27/08/2013 (determining its mission, organization and functioning), REMA is legally mandated for national environmental protection, conservation, promotion and overall management. It has an advisory role to the government on all matters pertinent to the environment and climate change. Mission: To promote and ensure the protection of the environment and sustainable management of natural resources through decentralized structures of governance and to deine national positions addressing emerging global issues with a view to enhancing the well-being of the Rwandan people. Vision: All sectors of the Rwandan Society value and undertake sound environmental management and rational use of natural resources in order to contribute to the national aspirations for sustainable development. Responsibilities: As stipulated in the Law N° 63/2013 of 27/08/2013, REMA has the following main responsibilities: (a) to implement Government environmental policy; (b) to advise the Government on policies, strategies and legislation related to the management of the environment as well as the implementation of environment related international conventions, whenever deemed necessary; (c) to conduct thorough inspection of environmental management in order to prepare a report on the status of environment in Rwanda that shall be published every two (2) years; (d) to put in place measures designed to prevent climate change and cope with its impacts; (e) to conduct studies, research, investigations and other relevant activities in the ield of environment and publish the indings; (f) to closely monitor and assess development programs to ensure compliance with the laws on environment during their preparation and implementation; (g) to participate in the preparation of activities strategies designed to prevent risks and other phenomena which may cause environmental degradation and propose remedial measures; (h) to provide, where it is necessary, advice and technical support to individuals or entities engaged in natural resources management and environmental conservation; (i) to prepare, publish and disseminate education materials relating to guidelines and laws relating to environmental management and protection and reduce environmental degradation risks; (j) to monitor and supervise impact assessment, environmental audit, strategic environmental assessment and any other environmental study. REMA may authorize in writing, any other person to analyse and approve these studies. RWANDA STANDARDS BOARD (RSB) Address: P.O Box 7099 Kigali-Rwanda Telephone: Tel: +250 586 1003; Fax: +250 583 305 Email: info@rbs.org.rw Website: http://www.rsb.gov.rw/ Contact Person: Director General 157 Location: Kicukiro (Kigali City) In 2015, the Director General is Dr Mark Cyubahiro Bagabe. Vision: The vision of RSB is to be a trusted party in providing internationally recognized and customersuited standardization services. Mission: To provide standards-based solutions for Consumer Protection and Trade promotion for socioeconomic growth in a safe and stable environment. Responsibilities: (a) to establish and publish national standards; (b) to disseminate information on standards, technical regulations relating to standards and conformity assessment; (c) to raise awareness and promote the importance of standards and quality; (d) to offer services and tools to improve market access technology transfer and sustainable development; (e) to carry out research in the areas of standards and metrology for the setting up of measurement standards and reference materials in the ield of chemical metrology; (f) to participate in monitoring standardization at national, regional and international level; (g) to participate in putting in place technical regulations relating to standards; (h) to provide products and quality service certiications and monitor conformity for issued certiications; (i) to provide legal, scientiic and industrial metrology services; (j) to represent the country at the regional and international standardization organizations; (k) to establish laboratories capable of conducting tests and offering testing services; (l) to act as reference laboratory in the quality domain; (m) to carry out measurement and comparison of proiciency with same level regional and international institutions; (n) to organize training programs in the area of standardization, metrology and conformity assessment; (o) to advise the Government on deining, devising and implementing the standardization policy and (p) to establish and develop relations and collaboration with other institutions at national, regional and international levels with similar mandate, whether public or private. NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STATISTICS OF RWANDA (NISR) Address: P.O. Box: 6139 Kigali, Rwanda Telephone: +250 252 571035; Fax: +250 252 570705 Email: info@statistics.gov.rw Website: http://www.statistics.gov.rw/ Contact person: Director General Location: Nyarugenge (Kigali City) The National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda (NISR) was created in October 2005 as an independent institution out of the former Department of Statistics in the Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning (MINECOFIN) and the National Service of Census. Law N° 53bis/2013 of 28/06/2013 is a new law that was adopted after reviewing the Organic Law N° 09/2005 of 14/07/2005 – the law establishing the National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda. (Source: Oficial Gazette n° 30 bis of 29/07/2013). Organic Law Nº 45/2013 of 16/06/2013 is a new law on the organisation of Statistical Activities in Rwanda. This Organic Law repealing the Organic Law Nº 01/2005 of 14/02/2005 is Nº 05/2013/OL of 16/06/2013. (Source: Oficial Gazette no Special of 16/06/2013). As the primary data producer, NISR produces mandatory statistics such as the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), Consumer Price Index (CPI), Producers Price Index (PPI), external trade igures, population statistics and other special purpose statistics from surveys such as the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS), 158 Household Living Conditions Survey (Enquete Integrale sur les Condition de vie des ménages or EICV in French), Census and others. It also conducts speciic studies such as the Agriculture Survey or the Service Provision Assessment Survey in partnership with other institutions. Mission: To assume the leading role in improving capacity to use information for evidence-based decisionmaking by coordinating the national effort to collect and archive reliable data, to analyse, document and disseminate data within an integrated and sustainable framework. Vision: To develop and sustain a culture of excellence in statistical production and the management of national development. MINISTRY OF NATURAL RESOURCES Address: Telephone: +250 252 582628; fax: +250 252 582629 Email: info@minirena.gov.rw Website: www.minirena.gov.rw Contact Person: Permanent Secretary Location: Nyarugenge – Kigali City The Ministry of Natural Resources has the mission to ensure the protection and conservation of the environment and ensure optimal and rational utilization of natural resources for sustainable national development. Speciically, the Ministry of Natural Resources is responsible for: 1. Developing and disseminating the sector policies, strategies and programs through: a) elaboration and dissemination of national policies, strategies and programs that aim at conserving the environment and ensuring optimal and rational utilization of natural resources; b) development of strategies to promote partnership and enhance capacity of private sector and attract operators to invest in activities of environment and natural resources for sustainable economic development; c) Exhaustive assessment of Rwanda’s ground and surface natural resources and establish appropriate mechanisms for their national extraction and promotion. 2. Regulating the sector and related sub-sectors through the development of development of laws and regulations to ensure rational utilization of natural resources and ensure protection of the environment and conservation of natural ecosystems. 3. Developing institutional and human resources capacities in the sector of environment and natural resources and its sub-sectors. 4. Monitoring and evaluating the implementation of sector and sub-sector policies, strategies and programs through: a) setting up and implementing appropriate mechanisms and systems for monitoring and evaluation of environment and the climate change situation in the country as well as in the region; b) Monitoring and assessing the implementation and mainstreaming of policies and laws that enhance the protection of environment and the rational utilization of natural resources in all crosscutting sectors in the country; c) Monitoring the sector’s performance indicators and consolidating the data from decentralized institutions; d) Submitting to the government periodic and annual reports on the impact of the sector policies, strategies, programs and projects on sustainable national social economic development. 159 5. Overseeing the institutions under its supervision through: a) guidance and orientations on the implementation of speciic programs to be realized by the institutions under its supervision and by local governments; b) supervision and orientations on functioning of sector public institutions and promotion of synergies between various actors intervening in the sector. 6. Mobilizing resources for the development of the sector and related programs through: a) coordination of activities of mobilizing resources and supervision of actions to ensure their rational utilization in the sector development; b) mechanisms put in place for promoting and development in the sector. RWANDA BIOMEDICAL CENTER (RBC) Address: P.O. Box 83 Kigali Telephone: Email: info@rbc.gov.rw Website: http://www.rbc.gov.rw/ Contact Person: Director General Location: Nyarugenge District (Kigali City) In 2015, the Deputy Director of the RBC is James Kamanzi. The RBC was created by the law no 54/2010 of 25th January 2011. Vision: To become a centre of excellence for the prosperity of the country, ensuring quality health service delivery, education and research. Mission: To promote quality, affordable and sustainable health care services to the population through innovative and evidence-based interventions and practices guided by ethics and professionalism. The Rwanda Biomedical Center has the following divisions: (a) the Rwanda Health Communication Center; (b) the Epidemic Surveillance and Response (ESR) Division, (c) the HIV/AIDS and STIs Diseases Division; (d) the Mental Health Division; (e) the Non Communicable Diseases Division; (f) the National Center for Blood Transfusion (NCBT), and (g) the Malaria and Other Parasitic Diseases Division. INSTITUTE OF LEGAL PRACTICE AND DEVELOPMENT (ILPD) Address: P.O .Box: 49,Boulevard de l’Umuganda Telephone: (+250)0252533238 Email: info@ilpd.ac.rw Website: http://www.ilpd.ac.rw/ Contact Person: Vice-Rector Location: Avenue des sports, Nyanza District (Southern Province) Background: The Institute of Legal Practice and Development is a public institution established by law. The ILPD aims to serve as a national, regional and continental institute for: (a) practical legal training and (b) applied legal research in three languages (English, French and Kinyarwanda). The three legal traditions (common law, civil law & customary law) meet at the Institute. In 2012, ILPD was to become the research centre of the justice sector. 160 Vision: To promote legal development and practices. It will do this through the provision of information services and products that are innovative and suficiently lexible to support the ILPD’s strategic priority of being an e-research centre for Rwanda and the region. Mission: (a) to meet the research needs of the ILPD’s students by acquiring, providing and enhancing high quality information resources and collections that are appropriate. It will develop students’ ability to access and utilize information in order to succeed at ILPD and beyond; (b) to satisfy the demands of the ILPD curriculum and facilitate the education of its student by providing access to comprehensive and upto-date information resources and services, and (c) to meet the needs of the public and to serve the legal information needs of the local community, the region and the citizens of Rwanda. INSTITUTE OF NATIONAL MUSEUMS OF RWANDA Address: P.O. Box: 630 Butare-Rwanda Telephone: +250730741093 Email: info@museum.gov.rw Website: http://www.museum.gov.rw/ Contact Person: Director General Location: Huye District (Southern Province) The Institute of National Museums of Rwanda is a government institution, which was inaugurated on September 18th, 1989 with an ethnographic museum based in Huye (Butare) Southern Province, which is oficially known as the National Museum of Rwanda. Mission: The Institute of National Museums of Rwanda’s mission is to collect, preserve, research, and present Rwandese past and present cultural and natural national heritage. Vision: to provide museums and heritage sites around the country with a platform for educating and exposing Rwandan Cultural and Natural richness. NEURO PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITAL OF NDERA – CARAES NDERA Address: P.O. Box 423 Kigali Telephone: (+250) 788827364 /788307932, +250 255113551 Email: cnkubili@yahoo.fr Website: http://caraesnderahospital.com/ Contact person: Medecin Directeur Location: Nder 161 Public Institutions of higher education UNIVERSITY OF RWANDA Location: Although it has its headquarters in Kigali city, Kicukiro District, Gikondo sector, the University of Rwanda has six colleges reaching all provinces of Rwanda. Vision: By 2020 the University of Rwanda will have educated the next generation of leaders in Rwanda who are prepared and dedicated to building a more just and sustainable world. Mission: The University of Rwanda will support the development of Rwanda by discovering and advancing knowledge; it is committed to the highest standards of academic excellence, and is a place where students are prepared for lives of service, leadership and solutions. Objectives: The University of Rwanda will (a) develop interdisciplinary, problem-based academic programmes aligned with Rwanda’s development needs, (b) integrate IT-based resources from around the world, (c) ensure students have the leadership, entrepreneurship and management skills needed to create employment, (d) prepare students for service to their communities and country through applied service learning programmes nationally and internationally, (e) create applied, evidence-driven, research centres focused on problem solving, aligned with Rwanda’s development needs, and (f) develop continuous education programs for upgrading skills and knowledge. Core Values: Its core values are (a) academic excellence; (b) honesty and integrity; (c) freedom of inquiry; (d) student-centred; (e) humanitarian perspective; (f) innovation; (g) creativity; and (h) social justice. History of the University of Rwanda: The University of Rwanda (UR) is newly created in 2013 by Rwanda Law N° 71/2013 of 10/09/2013 as appearing in the Oficial Gazette N° 38 of 23/09/2013, by the merger of seven existing public higher learning institutions, including: 1. National University of Rwanda (NUR) 2. Higher Institute of Agriculture And Animal Husbandry (ISAE French acronym) 3. Kigali Health Institute (KHI) 4. Kigali Institute of Science And Technology (KIST) 5. Kigali Institute of Education (KIE) 6. School of Finance and Banking (SFB) 7. Umutara Polytechnic (UP) History of the National University of Rwanda (NUR): The National University of Rwanda (NUR) (in French: Université Nationale du Rwanda) was established on 3rd November 1963 by the government of a newly independent country in cooperation with the Congregation of the Dominicans from the Province of Quebec, Canada. It was located in the city of Butare (now known as Huye) in the Southern Province. When it was established, the NUR had three divisions (the Faculty of Medicine, the Faculty of Social Sciences, and the Teacher Training College). The university suffered badly during the Genocide and had to close in 1994, reopening in April 1995. At that time, English was introduced as a medium of instruction alongside French. NUR was the most comprehensive, oldest and largest University in Rwanda. By September 2013, the university had nearly 12 000 students and 500 lecturers and taught all major disciplines in General Medicine, Public Health, Pharmacy, Clinical Psychology; Agricultural Sciences, Journalism and Communication; Arts, Languages, Law, Social Sciences, Natural Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Economics and Management; it conferred degrees ranging from Bachelor’s degrees to PhD degrees. NUR was the only higher education institution offering PhD degrees by the time of merger with other public higher education institution to form the University of Rwanda. Important dates and facts are: 162 ▶ November 3, 1963: Oficial opening of NUR ▶ May 12, 1964: Law establishing the NUR ▶ 1965: A journal called L’Informateur was established. ▶ 1966: The National Institute of Education was created thanks to the UNDP and UNESCO. The Institute aimed at training and improving elementary secondary school teachers’ skills. It also aimed at implementing multidisciplinary pedagogical research. ▶ 1967: Creation of the University Extension as a unit with the mission to relect NUR by its services to the people. ▶ 1972: Creation of a research centre on pharmacopoeia and traditional medicine (CUPHARMETRA) in the Faculty of medicine. This became an autonomous body since 1980. ▶ 1973: NUR, in conjunction with the Ghent Faculty of Applied Sciences put up a progressive training program for civil engineers specialized in building and set up a four-project program in electro mechanic engineering. ▶ 1973: The University of Instelling Antwerpen contributed in the opening of the Faculty of Law. ▶ 1974: A centre for study and experimentation of energy in Rwanda was created within the Faculty of Sciences. It became autonomous since 1977. ▶ 1977: The journal L’Informateur was renamed Etudes Rwandaises; it focused on publishing research works conducted in or on Rwanda. ▶ 1979: The Faculty of Agriculture, which was a department in the Faculty of Science, was created. ▶ 1981: NUR and the National Institute of Education were merged. Since then, the National University of Rwanda had two campuses: one at Ruhengeri (now Muzanze) and another at Butare (now Huye). A few years later, the Faculty of Law shifted to Mburabuturo (Kigali), and this is now known as Gikondo Campus. ▶ 1988: Celebration of the 25th anniversary of NUR. Oficial opening of the Institute of Public Administration (ISAP), born of a cooperation between NUR and the Konrad Adanauer Foundation (FKA). ▶ 1994: The university community lost a good number of its staff and students who were killed during the war and Genocide. They were victims of their ideology or ethnic identity. The University suffered a great loss: laboratory equipment, the computer equipment and academic infrastructure were destroyed or taken away. NUR was closed because of the prevailing war in the country, those who were not killed had to hide themselves, and others led in exile. ▶ 1995: The campus of Ruhengeri and the Kigali Faculty of Law became part of the campus of Butare (now Huye Campus). NUR reopened. The main change was that all the faculties and schools were regrouped in Butare Campus for security reasons irst and then for administrative reasons. The beginning was not easy but the government committed to the smooth running of NUR. A campus that was built for 1 600 students now had to lodge more than 4 500. English became a new language of teaching and research in addition to French. ▶ 1996: Creation of the School of Information Sciences and Techniques. ▶ 1997: A preliminary year of language learning (French and English) is established for all NUR beginners. ▶ 1998: Creation of a doctorate (PhD) level degree training at the Faculty of Medicine, training jointly with Belgian Universities. ▶ 1998: Creation of the Research Commission, to coordinate research, publication, and funding. The Faculty of Sciences was also merged with the Faculty of Applied Sciences (Engineering) to form the Faculty of Science and Technology. 163 ▶ 1999: Creation of the Centre for Conlict Management. The University League against Aids was created, an action research and dissemination centre. The University Centre for Arts was created, aiming to stimulate arts and culture, in order to bring their contribution to reconciliation, peace and national unity, and to promote Rwandan arts and culture internationally. ▶ 2000: The School of Public Health was created to conduct health research and Postgraduate training. The School of Information Sciences and Techniques became the School of Journalism and Communication. The programme changed to answer more eficiently the needs of the country. ▶ 2005: The oficial re-launching of post-graduate studies in the Faculty of Medicine. ‘Radio Salus’, a university radio station was oficially launched. ▶ 2007: The Research Commission was transformed into a Research Directorate with a wider mandate to coordinate research, consultancy and postgraduate Studies, including PhD research degrees. Creation of Directorate of Postgraduate Studies to handle Masters-level teaching. The irst PhD graduates of NUR pass oral examinations in Belgium and at NUR, then graduate at NUR. Enrolment of MPhil and PhD students started to be offered entirely by NUR. Establishment of the Committee of Senate; the Research Commission delegated to it the handling of some research, consultancy and technology transfer (RCTT-C) matters. ▶ 2008: establishment of standing committees of RCTT-C dealing with ethics and PhD/ MPhil matters. ▶ 2009: Etudes Rwandaises was renamed Rwanda Journal and will from this time publish in English, aiming to increase its readership and visibility. ▶ 2010, Rwanda Journal was indexed within Africa Journals Online, and it obtained a digital object identiier (DOI) in 2011. ▶ 2013: In the context of the creation of the University of Rwanda, on 19th December 2013, the Directorate of Research of the former NUR was transferred to the University of Rwanda central level to Coordinate Research and Postgraduate Studies. History of the Institute of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry (ISAE): The Institute of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry (ISAE for its French acronym – Institut Supérieur d’Agriculture et d’Elevage) was established in 1989 by the Government of Rwanda to train highly qualiied specialists, technicians, engineers as well as veterinary doctors, in various ields of agriculture and animal husbandry, so that they might serve the country and beyond. Until 2006, ISAE was offering Advanced Diploma programmes. Degree Programmes were introduced in 2007. The following are some major historical events at ISAE: ▶ 1989: ISAE was created at Busogo, Northern Province, Rwanda as an A1-awarding institution, in agriculture and animal husbandry. ▶ 1990: ISAE relocated to Kigali at the former Institute of Statistics and Applied Economics for Africa and Mauritius (IAMSEA) campus, due to the war in the North of the country. ▶ 1994: ISAE was temporarily closed due to the war and Genocide in the country. ▶ 1996: ISAE reopened and relocated to Kigali in its Rubilizi Campus. ▶ 2003: ISAE re-opened its Main Campus in Busogo. ▶ 2006: ISAE held its irst graduation and awarded Diplomas to 1274 graduates in various ields of agriculture and animal science. ▶ 2007: ISAE started degree programs in Soil and Water conservation and management, Crop protection, Rural Development and Agribusiness, Veterinary Medicine and Animal Nutrition. ▶ 2008: ISAE introduced new faculties: The Faculty of Agriculture and Rural Development, The Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Environmental Sciences, and the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine. 164 History of the Kigali Health Institute (KHI): KHI is an institute was established in June 1996 by the Ministry of Health in collaboration with the Ministry of Education to solve the problem of inadequate health personnel that was aggravated by the war. In 1996, the situation was that of one doctor per 55 705 people one nurse per 6,365 people. Before the war, there were no qualiied physiotherapists, radiology technicians, anaesthetists, laboratory technicians, dentists, hospital managers and Environmental Health Scientists in Rwanda. At its establishment, KHI started with 43 students taking diplomas and certiicates in the disciplines of Anaesthesia and Physiotherapy. By 10th of September 2013 when it was disestablished, KHI had 839 students awarding degrees, diplomas and certiicates in Nursing and Midwifery, Anaesthesia, Radiology, Laboratory techniques, Dentistry, Physiotherapy, Mental health and Environmental Health Sciences. History of the Kigali Institute of Science and Technology (KIST): KIST was created in 1997 by the Government of Rwanda with support of the GTZ and UNDP and was located at the located at the premises of the former Rwanda military academy, which was moved from the premises after the 1994 Genocide. KIST was the irst Higher Learning Institution focusing of Science and Technology. Until 2005, KIST offered Engineering, Technology and Management programmes. On 4th May 2005, the Rwanda Cabinet decided that the KIST Faculty of Management would be transferred to the School of Finance and Banking. KIST was required to introduce Natural Science disciplines: Biology, Chemistry, Mathematics, and Physics as of January 2006. After that time and until September 2013, KIST offered programmes in Engineering, Science and Technology. History of the Kigali Institute of Education (KIE): In an effort to meet the demand for adequately qualiied primary and secondary school teachers, the Government of Rwanda established KIE at the beginning of 1999 to train primary and secondary school teachers through pre-service and in-service training. KIE is located at the former Institute of Statistics and Applied Economics for Africa and Mauritius and the In-service Teacher Training Centre. Its establishment was supported by various donors to include the World Bank, the Swiss Co-operation, the Belgian Co-operation (Coopération Française de Belgique), a British Government grant, a French Government Grant and a substantial contribution of the Netherlands Government through UNDP Trust Fund and UNDP grant (TRAC). On 4th May 2005, the Rwanda Cabinet decided that the Education Faculty that was part of the University of Rwanda would be transferred to KIE. NUR stopped to enrol Education students as of 2006 and by 2009, the Education disciplines were fully transferred from NUR to KIE. History of the School of Finance and Banking (SFB): The SFB was established in June 2002 and located in Kigali at the Mburabuturo hill where the Faculty of Law of NUR was located before the Genocide. SFB took up its training mandate on January 5, 2004 offering the MBA of the Maastricht School of Management, the Netherlands with specializations in Banking, Finance, and Project Management. Later, SFB started offering training in the UK - Association of Chartered Certiied Accountants professional course. By the cabinet decision of 4th May 2005, the Management Faculty of KIST was transferred to SFB from January 2006. With this transfer, SFB started to offer the Bachelor of Business Administration programme in Accounting, Finance, Human Resources Management and Marketing specializations. History of Umutara Polytechnic: Umutara Polytechnic was founded in 2004 out of a community initiative and was located in Umutara (now known as Nayagatare) in the Eastern Province. Umutara Polytechnic started its irst academic year on 2 May 2006 with 265 students and 16 staff. It was organized into faculties of Agriculture, Commerce and Applied Economics, Information and Communication Technology, and Veterinary Science. On 28 August 2008, the Rwanda Cabinet declared Umutara Polytechnic a public higher education institution. Table 39 presents the list of undergraduate and graduates programmes, which are available at the different Colleges of the University of Rwanda. 165 166 Table 39: Undergraduate and graduate programmes at the University of Rwanda Undergraduate programmes Faculty Postgraduate programmes Advanced Diploma in water management Advanced Diploma in Irrigation and Drainage Bachelor of Science in water management Bachelor of Science in Irrigation and Drainage Bachelor of Science in Agriculture Mechanization Bachelor of Science in Forestry and Nature Conservation Bachelor of Science in Animal Production Bachelor of Science in Crop Science Bachelor of Science in Food Science and Technology Bachelor of Science in Rural Development and Agribusiness Bachelor of Science in Veterinary Medicine Bachelor of Science in Wildlife and Aquatic Resources Management • • • • Master of Science in Agribusiness Master of Science in Agro-forestry and Environmental Management Masters by Research in Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Doctor of Philosophy by Research in Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine • • • • • • • • • • • • Diploma of Higher Education in Media Studies Bachelor of Law Bachelor of Arts in Journalism Bachelor of Arts in Communication Bachelor of Arts in Political Sciences: Comparative Politics Bachelor of Arts in Political Sciences: International Politics Bachelor of Arts in Development Studies Bachelor of Arts in Public Administration Bachelor of Arts in History Bachelor of Arts in Sociology Bachelor of Arts in Social Work Bachelor of Arts in Translation and Interpretation Studies Bachelor of Arts in Linguistics and Literature Bachelor of Arts in Arts and Publishing Bachelor of Arts in Arts and Creative Industry • • • • • • • Master of Laws in Business Law Master of Arts in Development Studies Master of Arts in Peace and Conlict Studies Master of Arts in Genocide studies and Prevention Master of Social Sciences in Gender and Development Masters by Research in Arts and Social Science Doctor of Philosophy by in Research Arts and Social Science College of Arts and Social Sciences • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • College of Business and Economics • Bachelor of Business Administration • Bachelor in Business Information Technology • Bachelor of Science in Economics with specialization in either of the following; International Economics, Development Economics, Monetary Economics • Bachelor of Science in Applied Statistics • Master of Science in Economics • Master of Business Administration • Master of Science in Public Procurement Management for Sustainable Development • Masters by Research in Business and Economics • Doctor of Philosophy by Research in Business and Economics Undergraduate programmes Faculty College of Education • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Diploma in Education Bachelor of Education in English – Drama – Education Bachelor of Education in English – Literature in English – Education Bachelor of Education in French and English Bachelor of Education in Kinyarwanda and Drama Bachelor of Education in Kinyarwanda and English Bachelor of Education in Kiswahili and English Bachelor of Education in Early Childhood Education Bachelor of Education in Foundations of Education Bachelor of Education in English Bachelor of Education in French Bachelor of Education in Kinyarwanda Bachelor of Education in Entrepreneurship Bachelor of Education in Social Studies Bachelor of Education in Integrated Sciences Bachelor of Education in Mathematics Bachelor of Education in Biology – Chemistry Bachelor of Education in Biology – Physical Education and Sports Bachelor of Education in Mathematics – Biology Bachelor of Education in Mathematics – Computer Science Bachelor of Education in Mathematics – Physics Bachelor of Education in Physics – Chemistry – Education Bachelor of Education in Physics – Geography Bachelor of Education in English – History Bachelor of Education in Entrepreneurship – Economics Bachelor of Education in Geography – Economics Bachelor of Education in History – Geography Bachelor of Education in Literature in English – Geography Bachelor of Education in Literature in English – History Postgraduate programmes • Postgraduate Certiicate in Learning and Teaching in Higher Education • Postgraduate Diploma in Education • Master of Education in Curriculum and Instruction 167 168 Undergraduate programmes Faculty College of Medicine and Health Sciences • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Advanced Diploma in Mental Health Nursing; Advanced Diploma in Midwifery; Advanced Diploma in Anaesthesia; Advanced Diploma in Ophthalmology; Advanced Diploma in Medical Imaging Sciences; Advanced Diploma in Orthopaedics Technology; Bachelor of Science in General Nursing; Bachelor of Nursing Education (BNE) Bachelor of Science in Biomedical Laboratory Sciences; Bachelor of Science in Physiotherapy; Bachelor of Science in Dentistry; Bachelor in General Medicine Bachelor in Clinical Psychology Bachelor of Science in Pharmacy Bachelor of Environmental Health Bachelor of Human Nutrition and Dietetics Postgraduate programmes • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Postgraduate Diploma in Professional Counselling Postgraduate Diploma in Emergency Medicine Postgraduate Diploma in Infectious Diseases Master of Medicine in Anaesthesiology Master of Medicine in Psychiatry Master of Medicine in Paediatrics and Child Health Master of Medicine in Obstetrics and Gynaecology Master of Medicine in General Surgery, Orthopaedic Surgery, Neurosurgery and Urology Master program in Pharmacy/School of Medicine and Pharmacy Master of Medicine in Ear, Nose and Throat Master of Medicine in Internal Medicine Masters in Clinical Psychology and Therapeutics Masters in Public Health Master of Science in Epidemiology Master of Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program Master of Hospital and Healthcare Administration Masters of Science in Heath Informatics Masters by Research in Medicine Masters by Research in Pharmacy Masters by Research in Public Health Masters in Critical Care and Trauma Nursing Doctor of Philosophy by Research in Medicine Doctor of Philosophy by Research in Pharmacy Doctor of Philosophy by Research in Public Health Faculty • • • • • • • • • • College of Sciences and Technology • • • • • • • • • • Institute of Legal Practice and Development Source: University of Rwanda Undergraduate programmes Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering Bachelor of Science in Electrical Power Engineering Bachelor of Science in Electronics and Communication System Engineering Bachelor of Science in Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Bachelor of Technology in Building and Construction Technology Bachelor of Science in Building and Construction Technology Bachelor of Technology in Surveying and Geomatic Engineering Bachelor of Science in Surveying and Geomatic Engineering Bachelor of Science in Computer Science, Bachelor of Science in Information Technology Bachelor of Science in Computer Engineering Bachelor of Science in Biology Bachelor of Science in Chemistry Bachelor of Science in Geography Bachelor of Science in Mathematics Bachelor of Science in Physics Bachelor of Architecture Bachelor of Science in Construction Management Bachelor of Science in Creative Design Bachelor of Science in Estate Management and Valuation Postgraduate programmes • • • • • • • • • • Master of Science in Information Systems Master in Biodiversity Conservation Master in Information and Communication Technology Master in Water Resources and Environmental Management Master of Science in Transportation Engineering and Economics Master of Science in Highway Engineering and Management Masters by Research in Science Masters by Research in Engineering and Technology Doctor of Philosophy by Research in Science Doctor of Philosophy by Research in Engineering and Technology • Law 169 BOX 18 – UNIVERSITY OF RWANDA: STATUS OF INTRAMURAL SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH Based on various analyses and initiatives, including the 17–18 July 2014 workshop of the University of Rwanda Research and Postgraduate Studies Committee, a low level of research production was characterised by (but not limited to) the following: ▶ Limited number of lecturers holding Doctorate degrees: currently the University of Rwanda has only 19% PhD holders among its staff. In absolute numbers, this is 283 out of 1 481 academic staff. ▶ Academically qualiied staff are mostly engaged in teaching and administrative work, although the staff: student ratio of 1:19.5 is favourable. However, staff with the requisite qualiications to supervise and hold leadership positions (Senior lecturer and above) are only 12.5%, which in absolute numbers is 185 out of 1 481. Also 28.5% are Tutorial Assistants, meaning that 423 out of 1 481 cannot do teaching; they only support the lecturers and yet are on the payroll. ▶ Currently, about 19% of the staff is researching actively; the average per capita research output is 0.08 papers per year, compared to the Inter-University Council for East Africa per capita norm of one paper per year. ▶ Engaging in research and supervision of postgraduate degrees is considered optional rather than mandatory. ▶ There are few incentives to do research and supervise postgraduate degrees theses. There are very few Master’s and doctoral students; currently the proportion of postgraduate students is only about 2%. In fact, this proportion includes postgraduate certiicate and postgraduate diploma students, meaning that the proportion of those doing Masters or PhD work is even lower than 2%. ▶ There is unclear coordination of research structures and insuficient recognition of managers of Research and Postgraduate Studies. ▶ Although a legal framework for conducting research at the University of Rwanda exists, some conditions of service discourage staff from undertaking research. For example, there is no possibility of sabbatical leave for staff to join active international research institutions or to conduct research and prepare for publishing. The Research and Postgraduate Studies Committee workshop concluded that in order to institute a research culture, the University of Rwanda has to: ▶ Inculcate academic spirit in its community (staff, students and academic units). This entails luring members of the University of Rwanda community (individuals and university units) to conduct research that is driven by curiosity, to undertake initiatives to seek research opportunities, and to engage in innovations and to present their indings to different forums for critique by peers. ▶ Have a vision that promotes research culture. This includes creating ownership of collectively determined programmes among members of academic units, research projects and associated research teams, and undertaking periodical review of research activities e.g. through retreats. ▶ Invest in people to ensure there is a critical mass of researchers spread across career stages from PhD students to full professors and promote mentorship of each other without arbitrary hierarchy. For example, the senior experienced researchers could mentor the junior on research methods and content, while the junior researchers mentor the senior researchers on new technologies such as ICT or related advanced tools. ▶ Put in place structures and systems that promote and support an environment conducive to research. 170 ▶ Ensure availability of inances for carrying out research through core funding, project grants (e.g. university, research councils, foundations, Collaborations and NGO), own grant awards (e.g. setting up a University research fund) and consultancies. ▶ Internationalize research, co-publishing, and the postgraduate student body. ▶ Assist staff to improve their capacities to write successful research grants proposals. ▶ Make research productivity integral to the performance management system. It was also agreed that to promote research activeness of staff, students and academic units and publication of research in leading journals, the University of Rwanda has to: ▶ Promote discussion of research by ensuring academic units run regular seminar series, special (public) lectures, organise workshops and conferences and invite visiting academics to give seminars or research related talks (and beneit from them). ▶ Facilitate and recognize in-house publication: working paper series, own journal, book series and annual research reports. ▶ Ensure external publication of research conducted by University of Rwanda staff and students (including as credible international journal articles, books, book chapters and policy reports), and ensure the visibility of these publications, including by citation by academic peers, postgraduate students, policy makers and practitioners. ▶ Target to create impact within academia (citations, referee activities, advisory and editorial boards) and beyond academia (public relations seminars, etc. with practitioners). ▶ Introduce an incentive scheme that rewards and encourages staff to engage actively in research and in supervising research by students, besides teaching and other services. ▶ Increase staff and institutional visibility using the institutional electronic repository and system of Researcher ID. To develop postgraduate research and publications, with teaching and learning informed by research, the University of Rwanda has to: ▶ Increase the critical mass of staff with PhD qualiication and train them to supervise higher degree research students, ▶ Increase the number of research students, and introduce scholarships for higher degrees students and post-doctoral fellowships, ▶ Have in place policy instruments on publications from students’ theses and policy instruments for referencing publications by the University of Rwanda staff and students, ▶ Have in place a higher degrees policy to guarantee the smooth running of a larger number of students registered for higher degrees. ▶ To ensure that research at the University of Rwanda contributes to Rwanda development and the well-being of the Rwandan society, the university has to: ▶ Establish research units, research centres and research institutes. These will serve as a focus of scholarly activity and intellectual creativity related to teaching, research and service; provide undergraduate, postgraduate and postdoctoral students with additional research opportunities; establish a strong positive impact on the economic development of the country; and improve the visibility and outreach of the University of Rwanda locally, nationally, and internationally. ▶ Implement a research communication strategy for the dissemination of publications (e.g. Policy Reports, Annual Research Reports and Books) including improving visibility at external conferences and workshops, and through outreach activities, exhibitions and road shows; using old media (press, radio, TV, and feature articles); and using new media (e.g. websites, Twitter, Face book, blogs, Videos, photos, branding – logo, pens, and stationery). Source: University of Rwanda (2014) 171 GISHARI INTEGRATED POLYTECHNIC Vision: To become the premier centre of excellence and a hub of expansion for product-based TVET within the region. Mission: To train the Rwanda National Police and civilian personnel in appropriate technical and vocational occupations so as to provide a comprehensive in-house support for effective and eficient management of material resources in the Rwanda National Police and the entire population. Table 40 presents the list of the undergraduate programmes that are available at the Gishari Integrated Polytechnic. Table 40: Undergraduate programmes at Gishari Integrated Polytechnic Institution Gishari Integrated Polytechnic Undergraduate programmes • Advance Diploma in Construction • Advance Diploma in Plumbing & Sheet Metal • Advance Diploma in Masonry • Advance Diploma in Domestic Electrical Installation • Advance Diploma in Electrical Technology and Electronics Technology • Advance Diploma in Electrical Technology • Advance Diploma in Electronics and Telecommunication Technology Source: Gishari Integrated Polytechnic INTEGRATED POLYTECHNIC REGIONAL CENTRE – KIGALI Mission: To provide technical education and vocational training at all levels in order to empower students and to enhance their opportunities for career advancement and success in a global economy. Core Values: The values promoted by IPRC Kigali: Respect, Excellence, Integrity, Diversity, Learning for life, Responsibility, Loyalty, Patriotism. Table 41 presents the list of the undergraduate programmes that are available at the Integrated Polytechnic Regional Centre – Kigali. Table 41: Undergraduate programmes at Integrated Polytechnic Regional Centre – Kigali Institution Undergraduate programmes Integrated Polytechnic Regional Centre – Kigali • Advanced Diploma in Construction Technology • Advanced Diploma in Electronics and telecommunication Technology • Advanced Diploma in Water Technology and Sanitation Engineering • Advanced Diploma in Quantitative Surveying • Advanced Diploma in Mining Engineering • Advanced Diploma in Engineering surveying • Advanced Diploma in Biomedical Equipment Technology • Production and Manufacturing Technology • Advanced Diploma in Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology • Advanced Diploma in Automobile Technology • Advanced Diploma in Information and Communication Technology. Source: Integrated Polytechnic Regional Centre – Kigali 172 INTEGRATED POLYTECHNIC REGIONAL CENTRE – SOUTH Vision: To be a leading TVET provider in the region. Mission: Implement TVET programmes and facilitate the establishment of adequate, eficient and appropriate TVET offers in the Southern Province. Motto: Building Sustainable Self-Reliance Values promoted by IPRC South: Excellence, Dignity, Patriotism, Loyalty, Professionalism, Innovation and Integrity Core Functions of IPRC-South: (1) To organize technical train-the trainer programs for all technical and vocational schools in the South Region, (2) To organize pedagogic train-the-trainer programmers for all technical and vocational schools located in the South region, (3) To implement TVET courses at all level (up to an Advanced Diploma level) focusing on both knowledge and skills, for both school leavers and the unskilled and unemployed population; (4) To supervise and coordinate with private education providers, NGO-run TVET centres and industry-run training centres on delivery of TVET training in South region, (5) To supervise TVET centres and Polytechnics Campuses (PCs) on the delivery of TVET training in South region, (6) To provide the Competency-Based Training (CBT) curriculum as developed by the Workforce Development Authority (WDA) headquarters to all TVET centres and PCs that are delivering vocation training in South region, (7) To provide quality assurance related to TVET delivery, by ensuring that all curricula are in line with the CBT, ensuring the integrity of examinations, and ensuring that all TVET lectures and instructors are adequately trained. Table 42 presents the list of the undergraduate programmes that are available at the Integrated Polytechnic Regional Centre – South. Table 42: Undergraduate programmes at Integrated Polytechnic Regional Centre – South Institution Undergraduate programmes Integrated Polytechnic Regional Centre – South • Advance Diploma in Civil Engineering • Advance Diploma in Electrical Technology Engineering • Advance Diploma in Electronics • Advance Diploma in ICT Source: Integrated Polytechnic Regional Centre – South INTEGRATED POLYTECHNIC REGIONAL CENTRE – WEST (IPRC WEST) Vision: IPRC West aspires to be the leader in professional training that provides an innovative and excellent education for the knowledge-based economy and sustainable development. Mission: IPRC West empowers students to develop their knowledge, skills, and potential as critical thinkers. It provides high quality technological, professional and vocational training, develops creative, competitive, innovative and entrepreneurial work force with hand-on experience. Core values: IPRC West takes great pride in the quality of education that is provided to its students. The community as well as the country expect IPRC West to produce qualiied and competitive technicians able to solve technological, social and economic problems facing the community. To meet all of these, IPRC West has identiied values to guide in service delivery of every day: (a) hands-on-experience, (b) professionalism, (c) creativity, (d) competitiveness, (e) self–reliance, (f) community engagement. 173 Motto: Professional Training for knowledge-Based Economy. Table 43 presents the list of the undergraduate programmes that are available at the IPRC West. Table 43: Undergraduate programmes at Integrated Polytechnic Regional Centre – West Institution Undergraduate programmes Integrated Polytechnic Regional Centre – West • Advance Diploma in Electrical and electronics Engineering • Advance Diploma in Mechanical Engineering • ICT Source: Integrated Polytechnic Regional Centre – West INTEGRATED POLYTECHNIC REGIONAL CENTRE - EAST Mission: IPRC East’s mission is to implement technical and vocational training courses at all levels focusing on knowledge, technical and entrepreneurial skills for school leavers, unskilled and unemployed population. Vision: IPRC East aims to be a renowned institution that excels in providing technical, vocational and innovative education for sustainable development of Rwanda and region. Core Values: The guiding principles that dictate behaviour and actions of IPRC East are the following: integrity, innovative, patriotism, excellence, eficiency and functions. The core functions of IPRC East are: (1) To implement technical and vocational training courses at all levels focusing on skills for the unskilled and unemployed population as well as students who have completed nine years of basic education; (2) To supervise and coordinate with private education providers, NGO-run TVET centres and industry-run training centre on the delivery of TVET training in the region of the Eastern province; (3) To provide Competency-Based Training (CBT) curriculum developed by WDA to all TVET centres delivering vocational training in the region of Eastern province; (4) To provide quality assurance TVET delivery by ensuring that all curricula are CBT, the integrity of examination protected and all TVET lecturers and instructors are adequately trained; (5) To organize technical train-the-trainer programs for all technical and vocational schools located in the region of Eastern province; (6) To organize pedagogic train-the-trainer programs for all technical and vocational schools located in the region of Eastern province; (7) To supervise and coordinate with all public TVET centres and Polytechnics Campuses on the delivery of training in the region of Eastern Province. Table 44 presents the list of the undergraduate programmes that are available at IPRC East. Table 44: Undergraduate programmes at Integrated Polytechnic Regional Centre – East Institution Undergraduate programmes Integrated Polytechnic Regional Centre – East • Advanced Diploma in Civil Engineering • Advanced Diploma in Mechanical Engineering • Advanced Diploma in Information and Communication Technology Source: Integrated Polytechnic Regional Centre – East 174 INTEGRATED POLYTECHNIC REGIONAL CENTRE – NORTH Vision: To be a centre of excellence in Technical Education in Rwanda and Region. Mission: To produce highly qualiied technical human resources with competent hands-on skills and entrepreneurship culture. Table 45 presents the list of the undergraduate programmes that are available at the IPRC North. Table 45: Undergraduate programmes at Integrated Polytechnic Regional Centre – North Institution Undergraduate programmes Integrated Polytechnic Regional Centre – North • Advance Diploma in Alternative Energy • Advance Diploma in Electronics and Telecommunication • Advance Diploma in Information Technology Source: Integrated Polytechnic Regional Centre – North KAVUMU COLLEGE OF EDUCATION Starting period: Kavumu College of Education started in 2007. Location: The College is located in Southern Province, Muhanga District, Nyamabuye Sector. This campus opened its doors to the irst intake of about 182 students in 2008 as Kavumu College of Education. The College’s mission was to train highly skilled, competent and professional secondary school science teachers to consolidate the nine year basic education programme. In 2010, Government of Rwanda combined Kavumu and Rukara Colleges of Education to form one viable entity called Rwanda Teachers College to be based in Eastern Province, Kayonza District. The Prime Minister’s order No.53/03 of 14/07/2013 that harmonized salaries of various government departments established the Rwanda Teacher’s College (RTC), Kavumu and RTC Rukara campuses. One of the major tasks of the college has been to facilitate, support and guide students to achieve their potential to become skilled, competent, knowledgeable secondary school science teachers. RTC Kavumu has and continues to equip its students with skills and competences to make them self-reliant and employable in this dynamic world. Rwanda Teacher’s College Kavumu tries to shape its graduates to understand the problems that aflict our society and how to look for solutions to improve life for Rwandans. The other major role has been to create a conducive academic environment to catalyse the teaching and learning system at Rwanda Teacher’s College at Kavumu Campus. With support from Government, international partners and other well-wishers, the college has established academic environment that is very valuable. RTC Kavumu Campus takes pride in its well-equipped science laboratories, its connection to iber optics and well-trained science tutors. The human and non-human resources form the basis for the science teacher education at this campus. 175 Its stakeholders, in particular head-teachers of Secondary schools in Southern, Northern and Western Provinces have acknowledged the skilfulness and professionalism of its graduates. This has given the college management the impetus to work harder to maintain that reputation. That reputation has been attained due to the team spirit of RTC-Kavumu Campus fraternity. We are a community of academics determined to shape the human resources pool of this country to be change agents. The following Table 46 shows the list of undergraduate programmes available. Table 46: Undergraduate programmes at Kavumu College of Education Institution Kavumu College of Education Undergraduate programmes • Diploma in Mathematics and Physics with Education • Diploma in Mathematics and Computer sciences with Education • Diploma in Mathematics and chemistry with Education • Diploma in Mathematics and Biology with Education • Diploma in Biology and chemistry with Education • Diploma in Physics and chemistry with Education • Diploma in Physics and computer sciences with Education Source: Kavumu College of Education KIBUNGO SCHOOL OF NURSING AND NYAGATARE SCHOOL OF NURSING These two schools have programmes on General Nursing and Midwifery. Nursing and Midwifery schools provide the highest quality and evidence-based education that are making Rwanda trained nurses and midwifery locally and globally competitive utilizing available resources optimally, within a conducive environment by highly competent and motivated staff in collaboration with all stakeholders. Values: integrity, equity, learning and growth, discipline and quality. KITABI COLLEGE OF CONSERVATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT The Kitabi College of Conservation and Environmental Management (KCCEM) is located on the outskirts of Nyungwe National Park, 54km from Butare, on the main Kigali – Rusizi road. It is an academic institution, operating under the Rwanda Development Board, with the mandate to develop capacity in Conservation and Environmental Management in Rwanda and the wider Albertine Rift Region. The Kitabi College of Conservation and Environmental Management provides an Advance Diploma in Wildlife Management and an Advance Diploma in Hospitality. REMERA HOSPITALITY ACADEMY In order to strengthen the delivery of technical skills in the sector and consequently improve on the quality of service delivery, the Workforce Development Authority has established a world class Hospitality Academy in Remera, Gasabo district ideal for internationally competitive hospitality training consistent with the standards of the twenty irst century. The Academy also boasts of skilled trainers and industry experts that deliver the Workforce Development Authority demand-led and competency-based curricula. 176 The Academy started its operations on the 2nd July, 2012 with the following two-fold purpose that serve as a quick win short-term solution: To upgrade the skills of existing industry workers and to conduct training of trainers in the hospitality sector institutions. So far, 116 employees have graduated and another 138 employees are currently undergoing the same training, which lasts 240 hrs. The Hospitality Training department also carries out outreach programs, so that all hotels in the country can beneit from the Remera Hospitality Academy. General Objective: The overall objective for this program is to equip the participants with the hands-on technical skills, knowledge and attitudes for hotel operations, which will focus on the following areas: Specific Objectives: Each trainee upon completing the course will (a) have good working knowledge of the products and services offered in hotels and Restaurants; (b) acquire hands-on skills underpinning knowledge required for the quality service delivery in their respective areas; (c) be able to deal with their clients with respect, politeness and courtesy; (d) have a sense of self-respect and passion for the job; (e) know the importance of cleanliness in workplace; (f) take good care of their personal grooming and hygiene; (g) be able to communicate and interact positively with guests; (h) have a good sense of team work and organizational skills; (i) know clearly the impact of international travellers (tourists and other groups of travellers) towards the economic growth of Rwanda and (j) have a sense of going an extra mile in satisfying their guests’ needs, managing time schedules and coordinating activities in an organized manner. Private Institutions of higher education ADVENTIST UNIVERSITY OF CENTRAL AFRICA (AUCA) Location: The Adventist University of Central Africa is located in Kigali City, Gasabo District, Ndera Sector. Mission: The Adventist University of Central Africa is committed to provide Christ-centred quality-education founded on holistic approach that prepares people for the service of this life and the life to come. Vision: The Adventist University of Central Africa is to be a centre of excellence in undergraduate and graduate programmes. Quality shall be the hallmark of all its undertakings, including research and service delivery to its students, faculty, staff and the community at large. Table 47 presents the list of the undergraduate programmes that are available at the Adventist University of Central Africa. Table 47: Undergraduate programmes at the Adventist University of Central Africa Faculty Faculty of Business Administration Undergraduate programmes • Bachelor of Science in Accounting • Bachelor of Science in Management Faculty of Information Technology • Bachelor of Science in Information Management • Bachelor of Science in Networks & Communications Faculty of Education • Bachelor of Science in Educational Psychology • Bachelor of Science in English & Lang. Lit Source: Adventist University of Central Africa 177 AKILAH INSTITUTE FOR WOMEN Akilah is the irst and only higher education institute in Rwanda open exclusively to women. Akilah has graduated 94 alumnae since 2012, with an average 95% job placement rate upon graduation. The Akilah Institute for Women provides undergraduate programmes in Hospitality Management and another one on Entrepreneurship CARNEGIE MELLON UNIVERSITY – RWANDA With a century-long history that has hosted 19 Nobel Laureates, Carnegie Mellon University is renowned as one of the world’s leading engineering institutions. It has played critical roles on breakthroughs in areas such as artiicial intelligence, driverless cars and Wi-Fi. Carnegie Mellon University recently extended its global reach into Africa with its Center of Excellence in Information and Communication Technology. Focused on one of the fastest growing economic regions of the world, the Center of Excellence is creating a new generation of graduates able to take advantage of Africa’s unique opportunities. Based in Rwanda, the Center of Excellence beneits from the country’s bold ICT strategy and its own culture of innovation to provide a platform for students to become technology thought leaders in emerging markets. Masters’ degrees from Carnegie Mellon University are awarded in two comprehensive programmes, each taught by globally renowned faculty, to the same rigorous standards as at the main Pittsburgh USA campus. The Master of Science in Information Technology provides students with critical skills, focusing on practical applications in areas such as cyber security, mobile applications, wireless networking and strategic business planning. In internships and practicums, students get the opportunity to develop real-world ICT solutions with international companies like IBM, Microsoft and Visa. The Master of Science in Electrical and Computer Engineering has a more technically focused curriculum, equipping students with skills in energy systems, mobile computing and telecommunications. The programmes of Carnegie Mellon University provide a unique opportunity for students to gain a balanced international perspective with an option to spend semesters at Carnegie Mellon’s Pittsburgh and Silicon Valley campuses. Carnegie Mellon’s academic programs extend across countries and continents. They are rooted in an academic philosophy that develops its students into responsible global leaders. Now in Africa, Carnegie Mellon seeks to pioneer a culture of inspiring innovations that change the world. CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF RWANDA (CUR) Creation period: The Catholic University of Rwanda was created in 2010. Location: The Catholic University of Rwanda is located in South Province, Huye District, Ngoma sector. Vision: The Catholic University of Rwanda’s vision could be summarized in the following terms: ‘Excellence for the promotion of science, education of honest and committed professionals for the social, economic, technological transformation and religious training.’ 178 Mission: (a) to promote top quality education; (b) to install moral and social values through education of citizens free of all forms of discrimination including gender-based; (c) to promote Research-Action and to intercede with the local population in order to help them to familiarize themselves with the new technologies in order to better meet their fundamental needs and to improve their living conditions; and (d) to organize advanced training in the speciic domains of the University. Objectives: (a) to meet the real needs on the job market in the areas of science and technology, commerce, health and nutrition, social work, education and religious sciences; (b) to contribute to the achievement of the objectives of the national policy of sustainable development and notably at the level of the transversal domains of Vision 2020: the development of human resources, the promotion of Rwandans’ health, the reduction of poverty, the protection of environment, the promotion of ICT, etc.; (c) to promote the spirit of entrepreneurship while exploiting the existing potentialities at national, regional and international level; (d) to educate young scientists who are honest and animated of a spirit of creativity and innovation; (e) to provide teaching allowing various groups of graduates to acquire specialized qualiications; and (f) to attach particular importance to professional practice so as to develop the learners’ know-how eficiently. Table 48 presents the list of the undergraduate programmes that are available at the Catholic University of Rwanda. Table 48: Undergraduate programmes at the Catholic University of Rwanda Faculty Faculty of Commerce Undergraduate programmes • Bachelor of Science in Management and Accounting • Bachelor of Science in Commercial Engineering Faculty of Social Work • Bachelor of Science in Welfare and Social development • Bachelor of Science in Child and family Studies • Bachelor of Science in Public Health • Bachelor of Science in Human Nutrition Faculty of Science and Technology • Bachelor of Science in Computer Science • Bachelor of Science in Biotechnology Faculty of Education • Bachelor of Science in Didactics • Bachelor of Science in Educational Management and Administration Faculty of Catechesis and Religious Sciences • Bachelor of Science in Catechesis • Bachelor of Science in Religious Sciences Source: Catholic University of Rwanda INDANGABUREZI COLLEGE OF EDUCATION The College’s mission is to deepen the understanding about the formation and utilization of human capabilities. This mission permits to focus on teaching and learning in many different content areas and with learners of many different ages, ranging from early childhood to adults. Table 49 presents the list of the undergraduate and graduates programmes that are available at the Indangaburezi College of Education. 179 Table 49: Undergraduate a programme at the Indangaburezi College of Education Institution Indangaburezi College of Education Undergraduate programmes • Advance Diploma in Early Childhood Education • Advance Diploma in Education in English and French • Advance Diploma in Education in English and Swahili • Advance Diploma in Education in English and Kinyarwanda • Advance Diploma in Education in Computer Science and Geography • Advance Diploma in Education in Economics and Geography Source: Indangaburezi College of Education INDEPENDENT INSTITUTE OF LAY ADVENTISTS OF KIGALI (INILAK) Creation period: The INILAK was created on 3 February 1997. Location: The INILAK is located in Kigali city, Gasabo District, Remera Sector. Vision: Contribute to the national development by providing well-educated citizens capable of handling developmental challenges, with much emphasis on quality education both on moral and intellectual basis, able to develop the spirit of expertise, creativity and performance in accordance with the Vision 2020. Mission: The core mission of the INILAK is to promote education, scientiic and technological research as well as the service to the community. Table 50 presents the list of the undergraduate and graduates programmes that are available at the INILAK. Table 50: Undergraduate programmes at the Independent Institute of Lay Adventists of Kigali Faculty Undergraduate programmes Postgraduate programmes Faculty of Economic Sciences and Management • Bachelor of Business and Administration in Accounting • Bachelor of Business and Administration in Finance • Bachelor of Business and Administration in Marketing • Bachelor of Business and Administration in Management • Bachelor of Arts in Cooperative Management • Bachelor of Arts in Economics • • • • Faculty of Law • Bachelor of Law • LLM in International Environment and Land Use Law • LLM in International Criminal Law Faculty of Computing and Information Sciences • Bachelor of Information Technology • Bachelor of Software Engineering • Bachelor of Information Systems and Management • Master of Science in Information Technology • Master of Science in Management and Information Systems Faculty of Environmental Studies • Bachelor of Arts in Emergency and Disaster Management • Bachelor of Arts in Environmental Management and Conservation • Bachelor Degree in Rural Development Source: Independent Institute of Lay Adventists of Kigali 180 MBA in Accounting MBA in Entrepreneurship MBA in Finance MBA in Human Resource Management • MBA in Marketing • MBA in Project management INSTITUT CATHOLIQUE DE KABGAYI (ICK) Background: The ICK is a private Higher Learning Institution founded in 2002 by the Catholic Diocese of Kabgayi, under the name Université Catholique de Kabgayi. It was given recognition by the Ministry of Education by a convention instrument n°001/03/2003 between the Government of Rwanda and the Diocese of Kabgayi. The Université Catholique de Kabgayi became “Institut Catholique de Kabgayi” by the Ministerial Order n° 03/08.11 of 04/02/2010 (cf. O.G. n°08 of 22/02/2010) and obtained accreditation by the decision of the Cabinet, on March 24th, 2010. Vision: To be a centre of Academic and Professional Excellence. Mission: To advance and promote knowledge and development of skills in professionalism and innovativeness through quality education, research and community services for the transformation of society and sustainable development. Motto: Science – Conscience – Development Objectives: (a) to provide a scientiic and technological higher education by taking into account the needs for the development of the population; (b) to provide a formal framework of continuous training and research in the teaching learning domains which the university provides; (c) to contribute to cultural, civic, moral and Christian education of the population and (d) to promote, through teaching and research, the values of truth, justice and solidarity for the integral promotion of humankind. Table 51 presents the list of the undergraduate programmes that are available at the ICK. Table 51: Undergraduate programmes at the Institut Catholique de Kabgayi Faculty Undergraduate programmes Faculty of Social, Economic Sciences and Management • Bachelor of Science in Sociology • Bachelor of Science in Economics • Bachelor of Science in Management Faculty of Sciences of Development • Development studies • Bachelor of Science in Environmental Management Faculty of Journalism and Communication • Bachelor of Science in Journalism • Bachelor of Science in Public Relations Source: Institut Catholique de Kabgayi INSTITUT D’ENSEIGNEMENT SUPÉRIEUR DE RUHENGERI (INES–RUHENGERI) Creation period: INES–RUHENGERI was created on 17th November 2003. Location: INES–RUHENGERI is located in Northern Province, Muzanze District, Muzanze Sector. Vision: Universality in each individual; Knowledge in order to unite and better serve the world. Mission: Through the interaction of civil society, private sector and public sector, contribute to the national and regional development, by providing specialized university education enhanced by research, in order to create competitive enterprises and well-paid employment. 181 This mission and vision of INES–RUHENGERI are what made it choose to strategically be a specialized Institution in Applied Fundamental and Social Sciences. This means that INES–RUHENGERI in its learning methodology seeks to balance theories and practice in order to give to students ‘responsive competences’ i.e. competences that they can use to provide sustainable solutions to various day-to-day problems of the society. This is done using several tactics, such us: (a) the choice of departments: all programmes are oriented toward problem solving. Examples are rural economics, statistics and applied economy, biotechnology, and enterprise management which focuses on SMEs; (b) respect of the regulations from the Ministry of Education, (c) promotion of research on the market needs and possible answers to be given; (d) organisation of special programs according to speciic needs of the society; and (e) promotion of partnerships with public, private and civil society organisations. Table 52 presents the list of the undergraduate and graduates programmes that are available at the INES–RUHENGERI. Table 52: Undergraduate programmes at the Institut d’Enseignement supérieur de Ruhengeri Faculty Undergraduate programmes Postgraduate programmes Faculty of Applied Fundamental Sciences • Bachelor of Science in Statistics Applied to Economy • Bachelor of Science in Biotechnologies • Bachelor of Science in Land Survey • Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering • Bachelor of Science in Computer Science • Bachelor of Science in Land A Bachelor of Science in administration and Management • Macroeconomics Faculty of Economics, Social Sciences and Management • Bachelor of Science in Applied Economics • Bachelor of Science in Enterprises Management • Bachelor of Science in Public Administration and Good Governance Faculty of Law • Bachelor of Science in Law Faculty of Languages and Applied Linguistics • Bachelor of Science in French– English–Education Source: Institut d’Enseignement supérieur de Ruhengeri INSTITUT POLYTECHNIQUE DE BYUMBA (IPB) Creation period: The IPB was created on 26 January 2006. Location: The IPB is located in Northern Province in Gicumbi District, Byumba sector. Vision: The vision of the IPB is to become a regional centre of expertise essential to durable socioeconomic development while preserving a healthy environment for the generations present and future in the spirit of the motto Educatio, Scientia et Ministeria (Education, Science and Services). 182 Mission: IPB will provide (1) polytechnic and university higher education of quality, guaranteeing to Rwandans and to the other people of the area a competitive technology developed on the world market. The eduction privileges research for scientiic invention and technology, and by means of participative approaches that engage (rural and urban) communities and seek to ensure their development; (2) fundamental scientiic and applied research, aiming at promoting original solutions involving scientiic, technological approaches to production in rural and urban areas, and (3) multiple services to the community including by using approaches that promote gender equality,development, good governance, tolerance, the respect of the rights of the people, the good of others and the common good, the protection and the conservation of the environment, the ight against hate and against discrimination based on ethnicity, HIV-status or region, and the ight against other societal plagues like corruption. Table 53 presents the list of the undergraduate and graduates programmes that are available at the Institut Polythechnique de Byumba. Table 53: Undergraduate programmes at the Institut Polythechnique de Byumba Faculty Undergraduate programmes Postgraduate programmes Faculty of Social Sciences, Management and Development Studies • Bachelor of Science in Management and Development Studies • Bachelor of Science in Social Sciences • Master of Science in Social Sciences Faculty of Education • Bachelor of Science in Sciences • Bachelor of Science in Arts and Humanities Source: Institut Polythechnique de Byumba INSTITUT SUPERIEUR PEDAGOGIQUE DE GITWE (ISPG) Creation period: The ISPG was created in 1993. Location: The ISPG is located in Southern province, Ruhango District, Bweramana Sector. Mission: The mission of the ISPG is to offer quality education based on Seventh-day Adventist Church philosophy which is to develop the total person by developing his/her mental, spiritual, physical and social faculties. Vision: The ISPG has the vision of being a higher learning institution of reference in the sub-region, for sustainable cooperation at national, sub-regional and international levels in training competitive graduates in the job market mainly in Nursing Science, Biomedical Science and Computer Science. The institution tends to extend its programs by establishing new faculties (like Medicine, Education) as they become necessary to contribute to the development of the country. Table 54 presents the list of the undergraduate and graduates programmes that are available at the Institut Superieur Pedagogique de Gitwe. 183 Table 54: Undergraduate programmes at the Institut Superieur Pedagogique de Gitwe Faculty Undergraduate programmes Faculty of Nursing Science • Bachelor of Science in General Nursing Science Faculty of Computer Science • Bachelor of Science in Computer Science Engineering • Bachelor of Science in Computer Science Management Faculty of Medicine • Bachelor of Science in Medicine Faculty of Biomedical Science • Bachelor of Science in Biomedical Sciences Source: Institut Superieur Pedagogique de Gitwe INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE, TECHNOLOGY AND EDUCATION OF KIBUNGO Vision: The Institute of Agriculture, Technology and Education of Kibundo aims to influence the transformation of the livelihood using science and technology through an educational centre of excellence. Mission: The Institute of Agriculture, Technology and Education of Kibundo’s ultimate responsibility is to provide a quality education by ensuring teaching quality and conducting research with focus on overcoming community challenges. Thus, the following four major elements are taken into consideration: (a) ensure teaching quality by training professionals; (b) conduct research to solve problems faced by Rwanda and the region; (c) carry out direct community-oriented actions; (d) promote equal access for both men and women to education and participation, as part of promoting of a culture of tolerance. Values and principles: The motto of the Institute of Agriculture, Technology and Education of Kibundo is Scientia et Sapientia. The institute aims to provide knowledge and wisdom. We therefore seek to integrate the following values: (a) excellence, (b) integrity, (c) commitment and (d) team work. Table 55 presents the list of the undergraduate programmes that are available at the Institute of Agriculture, Technology and Education of Kibundo. Table 55: Undergraduate programmes at the Institute of Agriculture, Technology and Education of Kibundo Faculty Faculty of Education Undergraduate programmes • Bachelor of Science in Economics & Management • Bachelor of Science in Arts and Humanities • Bachelor of Science in Clinical Psychology • Bachelor of Science in Psycho Pedagogy • Bachelor of Science in Biochemistry • Bachelor of Science in Math–physics Faculty of Rural Development • Bachelor of Science in Agribusiness • Bachelor of Science in Agricultural Engineering Source: Institute of Agriculture, Technology and Education of Kibundo 184 JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology—Kigali Campus is situated along east African road next to bank of Kigali Sonatube (Kicukiro) approximately 2 kilometers from the Kigali International Airport. At the Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology—Kigali campus, academic programmes are identical with those of the main Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology Campus in Nairobi, Kenya and are highly competitive at regional and continental levels. One of the principal driving force behind the Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology –Kigali Campus is to ensure that higher quality education is available, disseminated and accessible to the population in the region. The Campus oficially started and opened its doors to the irst students in September 2013. The Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology – Kigali Campus is currently offering both undergraduate and postgraduate programmes on fulltime and part time basis. The university has the following graduate programmes: (1) Human Resource Development, (2) Information Technology, (3) Agricultural Economics & Rural Development and (4) Engineering. KIBOGORA POLYTECHNIC The founder of Kibogora Polytechnic is the Association des Parents Methodistes Libres Pour La Promotion d’Education (APMLPE) . The Polytechnic represents a unique collaboration between the Free Methodist Church in Rwanda, Kibogora Hospital and local organisations. The Polytechnic offers vocationally relevant programmes in a wide range of disciplines. Each of these programmes will prepare successful graduates for professional roles in Rwandan society. It will create the employable and enterprising graduates which will transform the Western Province and beyond. However, at the same time it aims to give every student a superlative educational experience, using tutors with practical experience of their subject, modern techniques and equipment. Because of its unique contacts with overseas universities a combination of African and Western, teachers will deliver the programmes so you can be sure they are at the cutting edge of knowledge. The institution is committed to building a reputation as the inest private university in Rwanda. Table 56 presents the list of the undergraduate and graduates programmes that are available at Kibogora Polytechnic. Table 56: Undergraduate programmes at Kibogora Polytechnic Faculty Undergraduate programmes Faculty of Health Science • Advanced Diploma in Nursing/Midwifery Faculty of Education • Bachelor of Science in Theology • Bachelor of Science in Education Faculty of Business & Development Studies • Bachelor of Science in Economics & Management • Bachelor of Science in Rural Development Source: Kibogora Polytechnic 185 KIGALI INDEPENDENT UNIVERSITY (ULK) Creation period: 1996. Location: Kigali city, Gasabo District, Gisozi sector. ULK is a higher learning institution created on 15 March 1996 and accredited by the Convention no 001/98 of 02/02/1998 with the Government of the Republic of Rwanda. ULK received its own status by the ministerial order no 001/17 of 7 June 2002. Vision: Kigali Independent University ULK is destined to stand out as a remarkable university for excellence at the heart of Africa with highly motivated students and highly qualiied personnel endowed with elevated ethical values. ULK also takes pride in its very modern infrastructure and equipment and endeavours to perfectly fulil its mission before God. Mission: to provide people with an education, which will enable them to become actors and organisers of a complete development of our nation. In this respect, research work is focused on topics of local, national and regional interests. Motto: Science and Conscience. Values: Integrity, Humility, Determination and Excellence Table 57 presents the list of the undergraduate and graduates programmes that are available at the Kigali Independent University. Table 57: Undergraduate and graduate programmes at the Kigali Independent University School Undergraduate programmes Postgraduate programmes School of Economics and Business Studies • Bachelor of Science in Accounting • Bachelor of Science in Finance • Bachelor of Science in Rural Development • Bachelor of Science in Economics • • • • School of social sciences • Bachelor of Science in International relation • Bachelor of Science in Development studies • Master of Governance • Master of Development studies School of Law • Bachelor of Science in Law • Master of Public international law • Master of International Economic law School of sciences and Technology • Bachelor of Science in Computer Science • Master of science in internet systems Source: Kigali Independent University 186 Master of Business administration Master of Business in Finance Master of Accounting Sciences in Economics KIGALI INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT (KIM) Vision: To nurture, improve, and maintain the Institute’s leadership/premiership position as Rwanda’s and the Region’s Higher Education Institute of excellence. Mission: The Institute is committed to giving its students higher learning education and training programs with special emphasis on skills and competence development. The KIM provides the following undergraduate degrees: (1) Bachelor of Business Management – Accounting, (2) Bachelor of Business Management – Finance, and (3) Bachelor of Business Management – Procurement. MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY (MKU) Creation period: MKU, Rwanda Campus has been created in 2010. Location: MUK, Rwanda Campus is located in Kigali city, Nyarugenge District, Gitega Sector. Vision: To be a centre of excellence in training, research and innovation in Science & Technology in Africa. Mission: To attain excellent standards in training and innovation for sustainable individual prosperity and social development. Table 58 presents the list of the undergraduate and graduates programmes that are available at the Mount Kenya University. Table 58: Undergraduate programmes at the Mount Kenya University School Undergraduate programmes Postgraduates programmes School of Health and Welfare • • • • • Public Health School of education • Education • Information service School of Science • Communication and Mass Media • Social Works and social Administration School of Social Sciences, Business and Law • Business Management Pharmacy Medical Laboratory sciences Science in Nursing Public Health • Education • Information service • Business Administration • Arts in Governance and ethics • Arts in International Relations and diplomacy • Arts in Development Source: Mount Kenya University 187 MUHABURA INTEGRATED POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE Vision: To Create a new generation of well-educated Christian entrepreneurial technicians and leaders in Rwanda and beyond. Mission: The owners of Muhabura Integrated Polytechnic College are dedicated to making the College an institution of higher learning committed to excellence and practical innovation for a generation united by their continent, and the world. Muhabura Integrated Polytechnic College has the following undergraduate programmes: Advanced Diploma in Engineering and Technology; Advanced Diploma in Hospitality and Tourism and an Advanced Diploma in Business and Economics. NILE SOURCE POLYTECHNIC OF APPLIED ARTS (NSPA) Mission: to generate and disseminate high quality scientiic, technical and artistic knowledge and promote effective arts skills and information technology for production in applied arts. Vision is to be dynamic and innovative in teaching programs and methods oriented to jobs creation and professionalism. Motto: ‘Knowledge for Life-Strive for Perfection’ Undergraduate programmes: (1) Bachelor of Science in Public Relations and Ofice Management; (2) Bachelor of Science in Architectural Technology and Design, and (3) Bachelor of Science in Film Production and Digital Media. OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA (OUT) Starting period: The OUT in Rwanda started in October 2012. Location: The University is located in Eastern Province, Ngoma District. Vision: To be a leading university in the delivery of affordable quality education through Open distance learning, dynamic knowledge generation and application. Mission: To continuously provide quality open and distance education, research and public services for sustainable and equitable socio-economic development, of Tanzania in particular and rest of Africa. Core values: Commitment to quality outputs, integrity and pursuit for the provision of quality education for all. Functions: As provided in the Universities Act No.7 of 2005 and the OUT charter 2007 the functions of the OUT are: (1) to preserve and transmit knowledge by teaching through various means including the use of modern technological means, tuition, residential courses and services; (2) to conduct research and consultancy by addressing social, economic and development problems of the community; (3) to promote the educational wellbeing of the Tanzania community by offering demand driven courses; (4) to provide opportunities for higher Education to a broad segment of the population predominantly trough Open and distance education; (5) to conduct examinations for and to grant degrees, diplomas, certiicates and other awards of the University; (6) to promote collaboration and partnership in acquisition provision and application of higher education at institutional regional and international levels; (7) to promote equity and widen access to education to marginalized and disadvantaged groups; (8) to promote gender equity and mainstreaming in the acquisition, provision and application of higher education; (9) to address the HIV/ AIDS pandemic in the course of offering higher education. 188 Table 59 presents the list of the undergraduate and graduates programmes that are available at the Open University of Tanzania. Table 59: Undergraduate programmes at the Open University of Tanzania Faculty Undergraduate programmes Faculty of Education • Bachelor of Science in Adult and Distance Education • Bachelor of Science in Curriculum and Instruction • Bachelor of Science in Education Foundation • Bachelor of Science in Planning and Administration • Bachelor of Science in Psychology and Special Education Faculty of law • Bachelor of Science in criminal law • Bachelor of Science in Economic law Faculty of Business and Management • Bachelor of Science in Leadership and Governance • Bachelor of Science in Accounting and Finance • Bachelor of Science in Marketing and Entrepreneurship Source: Open University of Tanzania PREMIER ECDE TEACHERS COLLEGE Vision: A model institution providing quality early childhood teacher education for Africa and beyond and beyond. Mission: To attain world-class standard in early childhood teacher education training, research and innovation. Their programme is giving their students the unique experience of two on-site inclusive child-care facilities for children Two to six years of age and an Early Childhood Education (ECE) Resource Centre illed with educational materials, books and equipment to be used for in-class assignments or ield placement experiences. This College provides an Advanced Diploma in Early Childhood Education. PROTESTANT INSTITUTE OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES (PIASS) Creation period: The Faculty of Theology started in 1970 and PIASS started other faculties in 2010. Location: The PIASS is located in South Province, Huye District, N Goma Sector. Vision: The PIASS is a reference university, fostering knowledge development and innovative research that are relevant for the society and inspired by Christian ethics and values. Mission: The PIASS provides to Rwandan Society and Churches well-trained personnel who are inquisitive, solution-oriented, committed and equipped with intellectual tools, knowhow and ethical values that enable them to meeting speciic needs of societies that are on a reconciliation path and moving towards a global, modern and pluralistic world. The PIASS provides undergraduate programmes in (1) Theology, (2) Common courses, (3) Educational Planning and Management, (4) School Psychology, (5) Rural and Community Development and (6) Peace building and development. 189 RWANDA TOURISM UNIVERSITY COLLEGE Rwanda Tourism University College aims at providing all-round quality education, developing a highly qualiied human resource, enhancing professionalism and improving standards in the ield of hospitality and tourism through training, research and services to the community. Vision: Rwanda Tourism University College is committed to spearhead the advancement of education through quality teaching, learning, research, consultancy and service to the community by preparing graduates to meet the needs of Rwanda, the sub region and the global community, professional growth in a conducive environment that value cultural diversity and cultivates awareness of ethical issues, gender, fairness, competitiveness and social responsibility. Mission: To become a centre of excellence in the region for the quality of academic programs, and to be a solution provider in training professionals in the areas of Hospitality, Tourism and Business Information Technology. Table 60 presents the list of the undergraduate and graduates programmes that are available at the Rwanda Tourism University College. Table 60: Undergraduate a programme at the Rwanda Tourism University College Institution Rwanda Tourism University College Undergraduate programmes • Bachelor of Science in Hotel and Restaurant Management • Bachelor of Science in Travel and Tourism Management • Business Information Technology • Advanced Diploma in Airline courses • Bachelor of Science in hotel courses • Bachelor of Science in IT • Bachelor of Science in Travel courses Source: Rwanda Tourism University College SAINT JOSPEH INTEGRATED TECHNICAL COLLEGE Background: Saint–Joseph Integrated Technical College formerly known as Nyamirambo School of Crafts came into existence as a Training Centre in 1970 and started with 15 students. Its establishment was made possible by the efforts of the Josephite Brothers Congregation whose objective was a practical training in order to respond to growing needs of both the capital and the countryside, as the country needed average but fast technical progress. It was urgent to train qualiied workers according to modern technical methods instead of following the traditional on-the-job training method. In 1993, the School –then called Institut Léon Paul Classe – adopted the A3 level in its program. The 1994 Genocide left the School ransacked but it reopened on 27 June 1997. On 25 June 1999 it was oficially inaugurated by the then Minister of Education, Emmanuel MUDIDI and was recognized as a private School on 3 September 2000. The Ninth General Chapter of the Josephite Brothers Institute held in September 2001 decided that all Schools sponsored/managed by this Congregation must have Saint Joseph as patron saint; thus, Nyamirambo School of Crafts became the SaintJoseph Technical School and adopted an A2 level program in Public Works and Construction in 2002. 190 Despite many challenges, Saint Joseph Integrated Technical College has made a signiicant progress and is today an essential partner of the Ministry of Education regarding technical options. Vision and Mission: (1) to equip students with advanced skills with a view to increasing human resources and capacity for national development, (2) to provide consultancy services to the Government, industry, private sector and the community at large, (3) to collaborate with other academic, professional, technical, and research institutions in and outside of Rwanda for educational and technological development, (4) to make provision for the advancement, transmission and preservation of knowledge and to sustain intellectual life in Rwanda, (5) to contribute to the cultural, civic and moral training of its students and to participate actively in the economic and socio cultural development of the country, (6) to develop and promote close collaboration with the private sector and the community, (7) to award diplomas of the categories of the courses it offers and (8) to award certiicates concluding short period courses. Saint–Joseph Integrated Technical College provides an undergraduate programme in Civil Engineering. SINHGAD TECHNICAL EDUCATION SOCIETY OF RWANDA (STES-RWANDA) Vision: The mission of STES Rwanda is to be the premier provider of an affordable quality education nationally and internationally. Mission: Our mission is to do what it takes to foster, sustain and upgrade the quality of education by way of harnessing talent, potential and optimizing meaningful learning facilities. STES–Rwanda endeavours to provide the best learning, conducive environment & equip the students with effective learning strategies. Objectives: (a) to develop and advance knowledge through education and research, in engineering and also exploring the potential of interdisciplinary studies, (b) to serve all people, community and the human race through the use of their resources both intellectual and material, (c) to promote intellectual excellence and creativity and foster an unfettered spirit of exploration, rationality and enterprise. Table 61 presents the list of the undergraduate and graduates programmes that are available at the STES–Rwanda. Table 61: Undergraduate and graduate programme at the Sinhgad Technical Education Society of Rwanda Institution Undergraduate Programmes Postgraduate programmes Sinhgad Technical Education Society of Rwanda. • Bachelor of science in Computer Engineering • Bachelor of science in Civil Engineering • Bachelor of science in Mechanical Engineering • Bachelor of science in Electrical • Bachelor of science in Electronics and Telecommunication • • • • • • MBA in Accounting MBA in Finance MBA in Marketing MBA in Banking MBA in Operations Management MBA in Human Resources Management • MBA in Project Management • MBA in Logistics and Procurement • MBA in International Business Management Source: Sinhgad Technical Education Society of Rwanda 191 UNIVERSITY OF KIGALI Vision: To be a pole of radiance and excellence nationally and internationally, with its quality education, research and provision of innovative services to the community. Mission: To provide quality higher education programmes that match the labour market and development needs of Rwanda for graduates who are capable of contributing to national economic and social needs and who can compete on the international labour market. Table 62 presents the list of the undergraduate programmes that are available at the University of Kigali. Table 62: Undergraduate programmes at the University of Kigali Faculty Undergraduate programmes Faculty of commerce and Business • Bachelor of commerce • Bachelor of Accounting • Bachelor of Finance Faculty of Economics • Bachelor of Economics Faculty of Information Technology • Bachelor of Business in Information Technology • Bachelor of Information Technology • Bachelor of Computer Science Faculty of Management Sciences • Bachelor of Procurement • Bachelor of Science with Honours in Marketing Faculty of Law • Bachelor of science in Law Source: University of Kigali GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND STARTING DATES OF THE HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM IN RWANDA The following Table 63 presents a summary of the higher education institutions in Rwanda showing the geographical distribution (province, district, sector and cell) and the institutions’ starting-dates. Table 63: Geographical distribution and starting dates of the higher education institutions in Rwanda Higher Education Institutions 192 Province District University of Rwanda Kigali City Kicukiro College of Medicine and Health Sciences* Kigali City Nyarugenge College of Education** Kigali City College of Sciences and Technology*** Sector Cell Gikondo Kinunga Remera Kimironko Nyagatovu Kigali City Nyarugenge Nyarugenge Kiyovu College of Arts and Social Sciences# South Huye Ngoma Mamba College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine## North Muzanze Starting dates 2013 Higher Education Institutions Province District Sector Cell Starting dates Kigali City Kicukiro Gikondo Kinunga Adventist University of Central Kigali City Africa Gasabo Ndera Masoro 1984 Akhilan Institute of Women Kigali City Gasabo Kimironko Kibagabaga 2010 Byumba School of Nursing and Midwifery North Gicumbi Byumba Nyarutarama 2007 Carnegy Mellon University Kigali City Gasabo Kacyiru Kacyiru 2011 Catholic Institute of Kabgayi South Muhanga Nyamabuye Gahogo 2002 Catholic University of Rwanda South Huye Ngoma Butare 2010 Community Integrated Polytechnic East Kayonza Mukarange Kayonza 2012 Gishari Integrated Polytechnic East Rwamagana Gishari Gishari 2013 Grand Séminaire de Nyakibanda South Huye Gishamvu Nyakibanda 1936 Indangaburezi College of Education South Ruhango Independent Institute of Lay Adventists of Kigali Kigali City Gasabo Remera Rukili 1997 Institut d’Enseignement Supérieur de Ruhengeri North Muzanze Muzanze Rwambogo 2003 Institut Polytechnique de Byumba North Gicumbi District Byumba Nyamabuye 2006 Institut Supérieur Pédagogique de Gitwe South Ruhango Bweramana Murama 1993 Institute of Agriculture, Technology and Education of Kibungo East Ngoma Kibungo Karenge 2003 Integrated Polytechnic Regional Center – Kigali Kigali City Kicukiro Niboye Gatare 2008 Integrated Polytechnic Regional Center – North North Rulindo Bushoki Kayenzi 2008 Integrated Polytechnic Regional Center – South South Huye Ngoma Butare 2013 Integrated Polytechnic Regional Center – East East Ngoma Kibungo Karenge 2012 Integrated Polytechnic Regional Center – West West Karongi Bwishyura Kiniha 2013 Institute of Legal Practice and Development South Nyanza Busasamana Nyanza 1996 Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture Kigali City Kicukiro Kicukiro Sovu 2013 Muhanga Nyamabuye Gahogo 2007 College of Business and Economics### Kabgayi School of Nursing and South Midwifery 2013 193 Higher Education Institutions Province District Sector Cell Starting dates Kavumu College of Education South Muhanga Nyamabuye Gahogo 2007 Kibogora Polytechnic West Nyamasheke Kanjongo Kibogora 2012 Kibungo School of Nursing and Midwifery East Ngoma Kibungo Karenge 2007 Kigali Independent University Kigali City Gasabo Gisozi Ruhango 1996 Kigali Institute of Management Kigali City Kicukiro Nyarugunga Rwimbogo 2005 Kitabi College of Conservation South and Environmental Management Nyamagabe Kitabi Kintobo 2006 Mount Kenya University Kigali City Nyarugenge Gitenga Kiyovu 2010 Nile Source Polytechnic of Applied Arts South Huye Ngoma Butare 2013 Nyagatare School of Nursing and Midwifery East Nyagatare Nyagatare Open University of Tanzania– Rwanda East Ngoma Kibungo Cyasemakamba 2012 Premier Early Childhood Development Teachers College Kigali City Gasabo Kacyiru Kamutwa 2014 Huye Ngoma Butare Protestant Institute of Arts and South Social Sciences 2007 1970 Faculty of Theology dedication 2010 The other faculties dedication Remera Hospitality Academy Kigali City Gasabo Kimironko Nyagatovu 2013 Rukara College of Education East Kayonza Gahini Urugarama 2008 Ruli Higher Institute of Health North Gakenke Ruli Ruli 2013 Rwamagana School of Nursing East And Midwifery Rwamagana Kigabiro Nyagasenyi 2007 Rwanda Tourism College Kigali City Kicukiro Niboye Niboye 2007 Sinhgad Technical Education Society–Rwanda Kigali City Kicukiro Gatenga St Joseph Integrated Technical Kigali City college Nyarugenge Rwezamenyo University of Kigali Gasabo Rukiri I Kigali City 2013 Rwezamenyo 2013 2013 NOTES: * Former Kigali Health Institute, starting date 1999. ** Former Kigali Institute of education, starting date 1999. Former Kigali Institute of Science and Technology, starting date 1997. # Former National University of Rwanda, starting date 1963. ## Former Higher Institute of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, starting date 1989. ### Former School of Finance and Banking, starting date 2002. *** Source: Higher Education Council, Rwanda 194 Private non-proit research institutions KARISOKE RESEARCH CENTRE The Karisoke Research Center is located within Rwanda’s Volcanoes National Park. It was founded by Dian Fossey on 24 September 1967, to study endangered mountain gorillas. Fossey located the camp in Rwanda’s Virunga volcanic mountain range, between Mount Karisimbi and Mount Bisoke, and named it by combining the names of the two mountains. Karisoke continued to function under the auspices of the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International, even after Fossey’s murder in December 1985.. A mountain gorilla census published in 1981 found that the population had fallen to 242 individuals, from a 1960 estimate of 400–500. Now, 45 years later, some 480 mountain gorillas are known to inhabit the Virunga mountains (according to a 2010 census), a signiicant increase. Karisoke survived Fossey’s murder as well as years of civil strife, and even expanded tremendously over the past few decades. Karisoke has generated a body of scientiic literature on mountain gorillas, and served as training station for many currently active conservationists and primatologists who had their irst ield experiences there. Many of the Rwandan staff have more than 30 years of experience, and now participate heavily in scientiic data collection. The centre has developed a 45-yearrecord of data collection and analysis because of the staff’s continued dedication and expertise, particularly during Rwanda’s devastating civil war and Genocide, when they were the only ones capable of monitoring the mountain gorillas. Karisoke operates with a staff of more than 65 personnel. It maintains an ofice building, a housing complex for its ield workers and trackers, two residences for its scientiic staff, and a residence that houses student researchers from the University of Rwanda. INSTITUTE OF POLICY ANALYSIS AND RESEARCH (IPAR) The IPAR is a non-proit, independent think-tank in Rwanda guided by a fundamental concern for the wellbeing of all Rwandans. It is dedicated to the promotion of three fundamental values: Prosperity: beliein a Rwanda that promotes the well-being of its people to improve quality of lives and to create wealth and employment opportunities. Opportunity: belief that every Rwandan should have the opportunity to succeed and have their talents nurtured and their hard work rewarded. Inclusiveness: belief that all Rwandans deserve the chance to share in the fruits of its growing prosperity. IPAR considers that economic growth and development is impossible without sound policy and responsive governance; it seeks to strengthen the evidence base available to government, civil society and development partners about the pressing social, economic and political issues facing Rwanda, and to provide real-time solutions to the everyday challenges of Rwanda’s people. IPAR conducts rigorous, thought-provoking research, disseminates ideas through workshops and conferences, maintains an accessible information and resource centre, and trains young Rwandan professionals in the skills of policy analysis. 195 Mission: To contribute to the evidence base available to policy-makers by conducting and commissioning timely, relevant, high-quality and policy-oriented analysis and research, and by building a documentation centre to manage the knowledge that already exists but is often hard to ind. To develop the skills of the policy community by offering targeted capacity development and training in policy analysis and research to external institutions, including ministries, Universities and development partners. To promote a culture of debate and dialogue by hosting public events, workshops, seminars, conferences and other discussion forums. Governance: IPAR is governed by a General Assembly and a Board of Directors. The General assembly is the supreme decision-making body of the Institute. It approves the statutes and overall policy direction of the Institute. The Board of Directors oversees the implementation of the programs and activities of the Institute, and monitors the utilization of resources. Its members represent a diversity of interests including the government, civil society, private sector, development partners and academic institutions. NGOS RELATED TO SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL SERVICES Table 64 presents a selection of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in Rwanda whose domain of interventions are related to scientiic and technological services. Table 64: Selection of NGO in Rwanda related with scientiic and technological services 196 Non-Governmental Organization Domain of Intervention Field of Knowledge Action for the Promotion of Professional Extension Services Agriculture Agricultural Sciences Action pour le Développement SocioEconomique, la Promotion de L’Education et la Protection de L’Environnent Socio-Economic Social sciences Agribusiness Focussed Partnership Organization Agriculture Modernization Agricultural Sciences Association for Research and Assistance Mission for Africa (ARAMA) Empower Commission for Development Social sciences Association Ibakwe Rural Innovation and Development Centre of Rwanda Economic Development Social sciences Association pour la promotion des foyers améliores et la protection de L’Environnent au Rwanda Environment Natural sciences Association Rwandaise des Ecologistes Environment Natural Sciences Association Rwandaise pour le Développement Endogène Socio-Economic Development Social sciences Centre d’Etude et de Coopération International Gender equality Social sciences International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) Agriculture Agricultural Sciences Non-Governmental Organization Domain of Intervention Field of Knowledge GVEP International Energy/infrastructure Engineering and Technology Health and Environment Protection Initiative Health / Environment Natural Sciences Imyumvire Mishya Irrigation scheme Agricultural Sciences Les Compagnons Fontainiers du Rwanda Infrastructure Engineering and Technology NetAfrica ICT & Network promotion Engineering and Technology Organization for support to the Environment Protection and Climate Change Adaption Environment Natural Sciences Programme Régional de Formation et D’Echanges pour le Développent Cooperatives Capacity Building Social sciences Rwanda Development Organization (RDO) Socio-Economic Social sciences Rwanda Health Environment Project Initiative Environment Natural sciences Rwanda Initiative Action Environment Protection & Social Welfare Natural Sciences Sabynyo Community Livelihood Association Protection Natural Sciences Sustain Rwanda Environmental conservation Natural Sciences Tubyiteho-Ruvubu irrigation scheme Agricultural Sciences Venture Strategies innovation (VSI) Maternal Health Medical and Health sciences Wildlife conservation society Environmental conservation Natural Sciences Women Investment Fund Socio-Economic Social sciences 197 Inventory of Rwanda’s legal framework for SETI A country’s legal framework represents a collection of legal processes and legal instruments, which embody a given policy, or parts of it, in the form of a law, decree or policy regulating an area of activity. Formal agreements, contracts and international SETI co-operation treaties may also be included in this category. A legal instrument elaborates a policy by stipulating obligations, rights, rewards and penalties connected with its observance. The SETI legal framework of the Republic of Rwanda is presented hereafter. NATIONAL LAWS AND ACTS Acts and laws pertaining to research and innovation LAW OF ESTABLISHING THE NATIONAL COMMISSION OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY AND DETERMINING ITS MISSION, ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING Date Enacted: 11 September 2013 (N°80/2013, Gazette No. 42 bis of 21 October 2013) Description: This Law establishes the National Commission of Science and Technology and it determines its responsibilities, organization and functioning. It provides that the National Commission of Science and Technology has a legal personality, administrative and inancial autonomy, and that it will be governed in accordance with legal provisions governing public institutions. The Law stipulates the missions of the National Commission of Science and Technologyare: (i) to advise the Government on policies, legislation and regulation in the ields of science, technology, research and innovation and monitor the implementation of such policies and legislation; (ii) to collaborate with competent organs with intention to advise the Government on educating and training people in matters relating to national needs in the ields of science and technology and to make a follow up on the organization and productivity of such training; to ensure that people who are educated or trained in Rwanda or abroad in the ields of science and technology are facilitated to enter the labour market in order to work professionally and stay productive for the beneit of their country; (iv) to examine, identify and support new initiatives that may be useful for the country in the ields of science and technology through investment in people’s potential; (v) to carry out an analysis of the nature and effective use of national resources and infrastructure in order to support science and technology as well as their innovative use in a sustainable manner; (vi) to establish, update and disseminate speciic database of skills available and those needed in the country in the ields of science and technology; (vii) to cooperate and collaborate with other advanced regional and international institutions of excellence with similar mission; and (viii) to prepare and disseminate annual report on the state of science and technology. LAW OF ESTABLISHING THE NATIONAL INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT AGENCY (NIRDA) AND DETERMINING ITS MISSION, ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING Date Enacted: 10 September 2013 (Law No. 51/2013, Gazette No. 38 of 23 September 2013, and repealed Law n° 06/1989 of 15 March 1989, repealed Law No. 42/2007 of 10 September 2007). Having reviewed Law No. 06/1989 of 15 March 1989 establishing and organizing the Institute of Scientiic and Technological Research and Law No. 42/2007 of 10 September 2007 determining the attributions, organization and functioning of the Institute of Scientiic and Technological Research. Description: This Law establishes the National Industrial Research and Development Agency and it determines its responsibilities, organization and functioning. It provides that the National Industrial Research and Development Agency has a legal personality, administrative and inancial autonomy that it will be governed in accordance with legal provisions governing public institutions. The Law stipulates the missions of the National Industrial Research and Development Agency are: (i) to implement the national industrial development policy, patent inventions and traditional knowledge in relation to industrial development and promote the trade of research products; (ii) to carry out industrial and technology development research through the establishment of technology incubation centres and pilot plants and 200 rural industrialisation; (iii) to contribute to establishment of trade companies of research products; (iv) to train business entrepreneurs who wish to invest in new or improved industrial research products; (v) to establish and develop industrial research and development partnership with international, regional and national institutions, whether private or public; (vi) to facilitate the vertical growth of small and medium enterprises for them to enter new markets and increase new improved products; (vii) to advise the Government on the national industrial research and development policy if necessary; and (viii) to build the capacity of small and medium enterprises by providing prototype development, reverse engineering, manufacturing facilities and business incubation. LAW ESTABLISHING RWANDA STANDARDS BOARD (RSB) AND DETERMINING ITS MISSION, ORGANISATION AND FUNCTIONING Date Enacted: 10 September 2013 (Law No. 72/03, Gazette No. 38 of 23 September 2013, having reviewed Law No. 23/2006 of 28 April 2006 governing the organisation and functioning of the National Council of Higher Education) Description: This Law establishes the Rwanda Standards Board and it determines its responsibilities, organization and functioning. It provides that the Rwanda Standards Board has a legal personality, administrative and inancial autonomy that is governed in accordance with legal provisions governing public institutions. The Law stipulates the missions of the Rwanda Standards Board are: (i) to establish and publish national standards; (ii) to disseminate information on standards, technical regulations relating to standards and conformity assessment; (iii) to raise awareness and promote the importance of standards and quality service as tools to improve market access, technology transfer and sustainable development; (iv) to carry out research in the areas of standards and metrology for the setting up of measurement standards and reference materials in the ield of chemical metrology; (v) to participate in monitoring standardization at national, regional and international level; (vi) to participate in putting in place technical regulations relating to standards; (vii) to provide products and quality service certiications and monitor conformity for issued certiications; (viii) to provide legal, scientiic and industrial metrology services; (ix) to represent the country at the regional and international standardisation organizations; (x) to establish laboratories capable of conducting tests and offering testing services; (xi) to act as reference laboratory in the quality domain; (xii) to carry out measurement and comparison of proiciency with same level regional and international institutions; (xiii) to organize training programs in the area of standardization, metrology and conformity assessment; (xiv) to advise the Government on deining, devising and implementing the standardization policy; and (xv) to establish and develop relations and collaboration with other institutions at national, regional and international levels with similar mandate, whether public or private. Acts and laws pertaining to higher education LAW GOVERNING ORGANISATION AND FUNCTIONING OF HIGHER EDUCATION Date of Enactment: 24 May 2013 (Law N°27/2013 of 24 May 2013, repeals Law n° 20/2005 of 20 October 2005, Gazette No. Special of 29 May 2013) Description: This Law governs the organisation and functioning of higher education in Rwanda. It stipulates the types of higher education institutions; their powers, autonomy and responsibilities, form and internal organization; higher education institutions; and the property and inance of each institution. The Law provides for the following three types of institutions of higher learning with distinct forms of management: (i) Public institutions of higher learning: these will be established by law, and the Government shall be responsible for their organisation, functioning and management. Furthermore, public institutions of higher learning shall have a supervising public authority speciied by the law establishing it. (ii) Governmentsubsidized institutions of higher learning: these shall be established in accordance with the agreement 201 between the Government and its private partner and shall be given legal personality by an Order of the Minister in charge of higher education and they shall be managed in accordance with the agreement between the Government and its private partners. (iii) Private institutions of higher learning: these are established by an individual or a private legal entity. The legal status of each private institution of higher learning shall be determined by its owner in accordance with relevant laws. An accreditation to a private institution of higher learning shall be granted by an Order of the Minister in charge of higher education basing upon the report by the Rwanda Higher Education council. LAW ESTABLISHING HIGHER EDUCATION COUNCIL AND DETERMINING ITS RESPONSIBILITIES, ORGANISATION AND FUNCTIONING Date Enacted: 10 September 2013 (Law No. 72/03, Gazette No. 38 of 23 September 2013, having reviewed Law No. 23/2006 of 28 September 2006 governing the organisation and functioning of the National Council of Higher Education) Description: The Law establishes the Higher Education Council and it determines its responsibilities, organization and functioning. It provides that the Higher Education Council has a legal personality, administrative and inancial autonomy that is governed in accordance with legal provisions governing public institutions. The Law stipulates the missions of the Higher Education Council to be: (i) to enhance education and research in the higher learning institutions; (ii) to improve the organization and functioning of higher learning institutions; (iii) to advise the Government in all matters related to higher education policy and strategies; (iv) to set norms and standards for accrediting private higher learning institutions; (v) to monitor the adherence of norms and standards in higher learning institutions; (vi) to compare, evaluate and give equivalence to degrees and certiicates of higher education level delivered by foreign institutions and those delivered in Rwanda that need authentication including those awarded through distance learning; and (vii) to coordinate and follow up all activities. LAW ESTABLISHING THE UNIVERSITY OF RWANDA (UR) AND DETERMINING ITS MISSION, POWERS, ORGANISATION AND FUNCTIONING Date of Enactment: 10 September 2013 (Law Nº 71/2013, Gazette No. 38 of 23 September 2013) repealed the following laws: Law of 12 May 1964 establishing and organizing the National University of Rwanda (NUR); Law n° 22/2008 of 21 July 2008 determining the structure, organisation and functioning of NUR; Law n° 48/2001 of 26 December 2001 establishing and organizing the Kigali Institute of Science, Technology and Management; Law n° 23/2008 of 22 July 2008 determining the structure, organisation and the functioning of Kigali Institute of Science and Technology (KIST); Law n° 49/2001 of 27 December 2001 establishing and determining the functioning of Kigali Institute of Education; Law n° 20/2008 of 18 July 2008 determining the structure, organisation and functioning of Kigali Institute of Education (KIE); Law n° 26/2003 of 16 August 2003 establishing and organizing the Higher Institute of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry (ISAE); Law n° 49/2008 of 09 September 2008 governing the structure, organisation and functioning of the Higher Institute of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry(ISAE); Law n° 21/2002 of 28 June 2002 establishing and organising the School of Finance and Banking; Law n° 24/2009 of 08 September 2009 determining the organisation and functioning of the School of Finance and Banking (SFB); Law n° 21 bis/2009 of 29 July 2009 establishing “Umutara Polytechnic (UP)” Higher Institute and determining its structure, organisation and functioning; Law n° 07/2002 of 22 February 2002 establishing and organizing the Kigali Health Institute (KHI); Law n° 54/2010 of 25 January 2011 establishing Rwanda Biomedical Centre (RBC) and determining its mission, organization and functioning as modiied and complemented to date especially in Articles 3 and 13. 202 Description: The Law establishes the University of Rwanda, abbreviated as “UR” which is created from seven Rwandan public Institutions of Higher Learning: NUR, KIST, KIE, ISAE, SFB, UP and KHI. It also determines its mission, powers, organization and functioning. UR shall be a special organ, which shall have legal personality, administrative, teaching, research and inancial autonomy and shall be governed in accordance with the Law governing organisation and functioning of higher education. Also the Law stipulates that UR shall be comprised of the following colleges: (i) College of Education; (ii) College of Science and Technology; (iii) College of Arts and Social Sciences; (iv) College of Business and Economics; (v) College of Agriculture, Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine; and (vi) College of Medicine and Health Sciences. The Law de-establishes the seven former institutions. Acts and laws pertaining to intellectual property rights RWANDA INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS LAW Date of Enactment: 26 October 2009 (Law N° 31/2009, Gazette n°50 bis of 14 December 2009), Modiied the 2004 on code of civil, administrative and commercial procedures of Rwanda; reviewed Law of 25 February 1963 on Patents; reviewed Law of 25 February 1963 on Factory or Trademarks; reviewed Law of 25 February 1963 on Industrial Designs; reviewed Law no 27/1983 of 15 November 1983 governing the Copyrights; reviewed Decree Law no 41/63 of 24 February 1950 on the elimination of unfair competition. Description: This Law protects inventors; innovators; creators of industrial designs; creators of layout designs of integrated circuits; creators of distinctive signs used in trade; authors of literary, artistic and scientiic works, performers, phonogram producers; and any other author of an original intellectual creation. It also protects owners of distinctive signs used in trade; and broadcasting organisations. The Law provides the protection of all matters affecting the availability, acquisition, scope, maintenance and use of the intellectual property rights. It stipulates penalties to be applied in cases of infringement and any other procedures for the protection of intellectual property rights. Other IPR-related Laws enacted by the Legislature ▶ Law No. 51/2010 of 10 January 2010: Establishing the Kigali International Arbitration Centre and Determining its Organisation, Functioning and Competence (2011) ▶ Law No. 19/2010 of 9 June 2010 on the Organization of the Craft Sector (2010) ▶ Law No. 18/2010 of 12 May 2010 Relating to Electronic Messages, Electronic Signatures and Electronic Transactions (2010) ▶ Law No. 07/2009 of 27 April 2009 relating to companies (2009) ▶ Organic Law establishing the commercial courts and determining their organisation, functioning and jurisdiction (2007) ▶ Law No. 21/2006 of 28 April 2006 Establishing the Customs System (2006) ▶ Law No. 12/99 of 12 June 1999 relating to the Pharmaceutical Art (1999) ▶ Decree-Law No. 26/78 on the Creation of the Ofice for Tea (1978) ▶ Decree-Law No. 27/78 on the Creation of the Ofice for Coffee (1978) ▶ Penal Code of Rwanda (1977) 203 Acts and Laws Pertaining to Environmental Management and Protection ORGANIC LAW DETERMINING THE MODALITIES OF PROTECTION, CONSERVATION AND PROMOTION OF ENVIRONMENT IN RWANDA Date of Enactment: 8 April 2005 (Organic Law N° 04/2005 OF 8 April 2005, Gazette year 44 No. 9 of 1 May 2005). Description: This Organic Law determines the modalities of protecting, conserving and promoting the environment in Rwanda with the aim of conserving the environment, people and their habitats. It provides fundamental principles related to protection of environment, with the intention of promoting natural resources, and to discourage any hazardous and destructive activity that may degrade the environment. In addition, the Law provides ways of promoting the social welfare of the population considering equal distribution of the existing wealth; considering the durability of the resources with an emphasis especially on equal rights of present and future generations; and a guarantee to all Rwandans of sustainable development that does not harm the environment and the citizens’ social welfare. Furthermore, the Law provides for the setting up of strategies for protecting and reducing negative effects on the environment and for restoring the degraded environment. Other related Laws & Regulations: Prime Minister’s Instructions preventing air pollution (N°005/03OF27/12/2013, Oficial Gazette No. 3 of 20 January 2014); Law determining the mission, organization and functioning of Rwanda Environment Management Authority (REMA) (Law N°63/2013 of 27 August 2013), Law n°16/2006 of 3 April 2006 and other prior legal provisions inconsistent with this law are repealed; Law relating to the prohibition of manufacturing, importation, use and sale of polythene bags in Rwanda; Law governing biodiversity in Rwanda (Law No. 70/2013 OF 2 September 2013, Gazette No. 38 of 23 September 2013); Law determining the use and management of land in Rwanda (Organic Law No. 08/2005 of 14 July 2005, Gazette Year 44 No. 18 of 15 September 2005); Law determining the organisation, functioning and responsibilities of National Forests Authority (2006); Law establishing Rwanda Natural Resources Authority (RNRA) and determining its mission, organisation and functioning (Law No. 53/2010 of 25 January 2011, Gazette No. 10 of 7 March 2011); Ministerial Order relating to the requirements and procedure for Environmental Impact Assessment; Ministerial Order establishing modalities of inspecting companies or activities that pollute the Environment; Ministerial Order determining the length of land on shores of lakes and rivers transferred to public property; Ministerial Order regulating the importation and exportation of ozone layer depleting substances products and equipment containing such substances; Ministerial Order establishing the list of protected animal and plant species; Ministerial Order preventing activities that pollute the atmosphere; Ministerial Order determining the list of chemicals and other prohibited pollutants; Ministerial Order on the establishment of the National Man and Biosphere Committee. Law No 10/2010 of 20 April 2010 authorising the ratiication of the grant Agreement Nº TF94928-RW signed in Kigali, Rwanda, on 8 February 2010, between the Republic of Rwanda and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) acting as an Implementing Agency of the Global Environment Facility (GEF) relating to the grant. Law No 50/2011 of 5 December 2011 authorising the ratiication of the inancing agreement nº 4973-RW signed in Kigali, Rwanda, on 2 September 2011, between the Republic of Rwanda and the International Development Association (IDA) relating to the credit of nine million three hundred thousand Special Drawing Rights (SDR 9 300 000) for the Lake. 204 LAW DETERMINING THE ORGANIZATION, FUNCTIONING AND MISSION OF THE NATIONAL FUND FOR ENVIRONMENT (FONERWA) Date of Enactment: 22 May 2012 (Law Nº 16/2012, Gazette No. 26 of 25 May 2012, (Having reviewed Law, Nº 47/1988 of 05 December 1988, Law n° 62/2008 of 10 September 2008). Description: This Law provides for mobilization and management of (i) resources used in activities aiming at protecting environment and natural resources and (ii) funds to be used in the ight against the climate changes and its impacts. The Law also sets out to support public institutions, associations and individuals to carry put activities to protect the environment, conduct research and manage climate change. LAW OF GOVERNING BIODIVERSITY IN RWANDA Date of Enactment: 02 September 2013 (Law Nº 70/2013, Gazette No. 38 of 23 September 2013) Description: This Law determines modalities for management and conservation of biological diversity within Rwanda. In order to promote biodiversity, the law stipulates that competent authority shall conduct research on the protection and conservation of biodiversity and its sustainable use. LAW RELATING TO THE PROHIBITION OF MANUFACTURING, IMPORTATION, USE AND SALE OF POLYTHENE BAGS IN RWANDA Date Enacted: 10 September 2008 (Law No. 57/2008) Description: This Law prohibits the manufacturing, using, importing and selling of polythene bags in Rwanda. An Order of the Prime Minister shall establish a list of polythene bags necessary to be used in exceptional cases in Rwanda. The list shall be up dated at any time where it is deemed necessary. Any person who requires to manufacture, to use, to import and to sell polythene bags shall apply for a written authorisation from Rwanda Environment Management Authority, indicating the reasons for the request and the ways through which he or she will manage the polythene waste. Institutions in charge of controlling the use of polythene bags are Judicial Police, Custom oficers, Rwanda Environment Management Authority staff, Rwanda Bureau of Standards staff, Security Organs, Local Authorities and other necessary personnel authorized by an Order of the Minister in charge of justice. The Law provides a heavy penalty for any person or company that contravenes its terms. Acts and laws pertaining to energy LAW GOVERNING ELECTRICITY IN RWANDA Date of Enactment: 23 June 2011 (Law No. 21/2011, Gazette n° Special of 12 July 2011) Short Description: This Law governs all activities of electric power production, transmission, distribution and trading within or outside the national territory of the Republic of Rwanda. It speciies the activities in electricity sector that are subject to license, and provides the requirements and procedures for granting licenses, as well as the rights and responsibilities of the license holders provisioning the electricity market. The Law also governs the determination of tariffs and illustrates rights and responsibilities of electricity customers. Link: http://www.mininfra.gov.rw/uploads/media/Electricity_Law.pdf 205 LAW ESTABLISHING RWANDA ENERGY, WATER AND SANITATION AUTHORITY Date of Enactment: 7 December 2010 (Law No 43/2010, Oficial Gazette No. 4 bis of 24 January 2011). Short Description: This Law establishes the Rwanda Energy, Water and Sanitation Authority (EWSA) and determines its responsibilities, organization and functioning. Link: http://itegeko.com/en/ STATUTE ESTABLISHING THE INTERNATIONAL RENEWABLE ENERGY AGENCY Date of Enactment: 27 July 2011 (Law No 28/2011, Oficial Gazette nº 34 of 22 August 2011) Short Description: This Statute ratiied the Convention establishing the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) signed in Bonn on January 26th, 2009. STATUTE ESTABLISHING THE INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY Date of Enactment: 27/7/2011 (Law No 29/2011, Oficial Gazette nº 34 of 22 August 2011) Short Description: This Statute ratiied the Convention establishing the International Atomic Energy Agency signed in New York on 23 October 1956. AGREEMENT Nº TF94928-RW Date of Enactment: 20 April 2010 (Law No 10/2010) Short Description: This Statute ratiied the grant Agreement Nº TF94928-RW signed in Kigali, Rwanda, on 8 February 2010, between the Republic of Rwanda and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) acting as an Implementing Agency of the Global Environment Facility (GEF) relating to the grant. AGREEMENT Nº TF95444 Date of Enactment: 20 April 2010 (Law No 9/2010, Oficial Gazette nº 18 of 03 May 2010) Short Description: The Statute ratiied the grant Agreement Nº TF95444 signed in Kigali, Rwanda, on 8 February 2010, between the Republic of Rwanda and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the International Development Association (IDA) acting as an administrator of the Africa Renewable Energy Access Trust Fund (AFREATF) relating to the grant of three million eight hundred thousand American Dollars (USD 3,800,000) for the Sustainable Energy Development Project. 206 Acts and laws pertaining to public health TRUST FUND FOR HEALTH RESULTS INNOVATION Date of Enactment: 22 December 2010 (Law N˚48/2010) Description: The Law authorises the ratiication of the Grant Agreement Nº TF096936 signed in Kigali, Rwanda, on 25 June 2010, between the Republic of Rwanda and the International Development Association (IDA) acting as Administrator of the Multi-Donor Trust Fund for Health Results Innovation, Relating to the Grant of Four Million American Dollars (USD 4 000 000) for the Co-Financing of the Second Community Living Standards Grant. NATIONAL REGULATIONS AND POLICIES THE REPUBLIC OF RWANDA POLICY ON SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND INNOVATION Date Enacted: July 2005 Description: This Law provides guidance for the development of Science and Technology in partnership with the growth of an innovative, modern and competitive Private Sector geared towards revival of industry and the service sector. It sets out the development of Science and Technology sector which shall (i) Stimulate a steady growth in GDP, (ii) advance the quality of life for all the citizens of Rwanda, (iii) improve skills and knowledge among the population, and (iv) integrate technical education with commerce, industry and the private sector in general. The policy it represents focuses on the following challenges of Vision 2020: (1) the reconstruction of the nation; (2) an eficient State, capable of uniting and mobilizing its population; (3) human Resources development; (4) urban and rural planning and development; (5) basic infrastructures; (6) development of entrepreneurship and the private sector; and (7) modernization of agriculture and animal husbandry. RWANDA NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORK FOR HIGHER EDUCATION Date of Enactment: 2007, approved by Cabinet 2010 — Rwanda Higher Education Council Description: The Framework sets out the requirement for the awards of the higher education institutions in Rwanda. Rwanda Higher education institutions’ are running the Credit Accumulation and Modular Scheme (CAMS) System. The Framework enables awards to be benchmarked to internationally recognised standards. The Framework provides academic quality assurance systems to be put in place to ensure that all programmes are developed and delivered in conformity with this Framework. Two measures are used to locate qualiications within the Qualiications Framework: the level of learning outcomes to be achieved, and the volume of the programmes in terms of student credit. The Framework has seven levels. Changes in level are marked by changes in descriptors such as: knowledge and understanding (complexity and depth); professional practice (the range and sophistication of applied knowledge and understanding and the extent to which it can be applied in unfamiliar circumstances); generic cognitive skills (e.g. analysis, evaluation and critical skills); communication, numeracy and IT skills; and autonomy, self-reliance, the ability to take responsibility, the ability to work with others and the ability to judge and take action to satisfy one’s further learning needs. Level 1 corresponds to the irst year of a full-time undergraduate course; Level 2 to the second year; Levels 3 and 4 cover the third year; Level 5 corresponds to the fourth and inal year of a full-time undergraduate course; Level 6 is Masters-level work; and Level 7 is doctoral level. 207 NATIONAL POLICY ON ACADEMIC WORKLOAD PLANNING Date of Enactment: 2007, approved by Cabinet 2010 — Rwanda Higher Education Council Description: This Policy regulates the academic staff workload in relation to all academic activities that are related to professional duties and responsibilities. The areas of regulation include: contact time and notional time for preparation for lecture delivery; lectures & tutorials, assessments (coursework, inal exams, deliberations of exams); supervising laboratory classes/excursions/practical; distance education- face-toface sessions; school or clinical practice/internship/supervision of placements; module writing/programmes development/short courses; research project supervision; research; service activities (professional consultancy, delivery of workshops/seminars and conferences, participation on various institute standing and ad hoc committees, leadership in professional and civic organizations etc.); guidance and counselling and partaking in Leadership/administrative responsibilities/academic administration. In addition, the Policy allows time for personal and professional maintenance – answering emails and correspondence, talking to colleagues, iling, talking to students, professional reading and web browsing. CODE OF PRACTICE: THE CONDUCT OF EXAMINATIONS Date of Enactment: 2007, approved by Cabinet 2010 — Rwanda Higher Education Council Description: The Code outlines minimum standards for the handling of examination papers and the conduct of examinations. The Code is implemented together with the Higher Education Council’s Assessment and Conduct of Examinations Section’s General Academic Regulations. CODE OF PRACTICE: CROSS-BORDER/TRANSNATIONAL PROVISION Date of Enactment: 2007, approved by Cabinet 2010 — Rwanda Higher Education Council Description: Foreign institutions offering higher education programmes in Rwanda must fulil requirements of the Rwanda Higher Education Council. Rwandan higher education institutions operating outside Rwanda must fulil the Rwanda Higher Education Council requirements and requirements of the countries in which they are operating. This Code of Practice is designed to: (i) encourage international co-operation in the provision of higher education in Rwanda; (ii) protect students and other stakeholders in Rwanda from low-quality and ensure that qualiications awarded in Rwanda are benchmarked to the Rwandan national qualiications framework for higher education; (iii) facilitate the recognition of qualiications awarded through transnational arrangements in Rwanda; (iv) ensure that all higher education delivered in Rwanda is subject to Higher Education Council requirements; (v) ensure that higher education delivered in Rwanda meets the social, economic and cultural needs of Rwanda; (vi) ensure that Rwandan higher education institutions who deliver award bearing qualiications abroad meet the requirements of the quality assurance agency of the country in which they operate as well as the requirements of Higher Education Council; and (vii) protect the reputation of Rwandan higher education and the standing of its awards. 208 CODE OF PRACTICE FOR OPERATING PRIVATE HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS Date of Enactment: 2007, approved by cabinet 2010 — Rwanda Higher Education Council Description: The Code provides clear guidance to private higher education institutions as to the expectations of the Government about how they should operate in order to ensure they conform to the law of Rwanda, the requirements of the Ministry of Education and the Rwanda Higher Education Council, and provide clear and honest information to potential and actual students. This Code forms part of the Code of Practice for Higher Education in Rwanda and unless otherwise indicated the precepts are mandatory. This Code does not cover the requirements for cross border higher education, which is presented in a separate code. This Code incorporates statutory requirements as set out in Law No 20/2005 of the 10 October 2005 governing the Organisation and Functioning of Higher Education and Law No 23/2006 of 28 April 2006 governing the Higher Education Council. It should be read in conjunction with these laws and (i) the Qualifications Framework for Higher Education, (ii) the Code of Practice for Higher Education, (iii) the Handbook for Academic Quality Assurance and Enhancement, and (iv) the maintenance of standards in higher education. HIGHER EDUCATION POLICY Date of Enactment: 2008, Ministry of Education Description: The Higher Education Policy guides the transformation of higher education so as to establish a higher education sector that meets development needs of Rwanda for an educated and trained workforce, research and knowledge transfer to support social and economic development and which is internationally competitive. The Policy points in the direction of establishing a stable, underlying structure that will enable institutions to develop their strategies for supporting the realization of Rwanda ambitions for higher education. HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONAL INFRASTRUCTURE AND ACADEMIC STANDARDS Date of Enactment: 2007, approved by cabinet 2010– Rwanda Higher Education Council Description: These Standards are designed to provide guidance to institutions on what is likely to be judged acceptable by the Higher Education Council for the granting of provisional and deinitive operating licences to private providers in terms of physical and institutional resources. It also provides a guide to the minimum expected quality and standard of academic delivery. The Standards also provide broad guidelines on the level of infrastructure likely to be necessary to meet the requirements of institutional audit and subject reviews for all providers. The Standards should be read in conjunction with the Institutional Audit and Subject Review Handbooks. 209 NATIONAL EQUALITY AND DIVERSITY POLICY FOR HIGHER EDUCATION Date of Enactment: 2007, approved by cabinet 2010– Rwanda Higher Education Council Description: The Policy seeks to eradicate unfair and discriminatory practices whenever they occur, and to actively promote a culture of equality and diversity, where all staff and students may contribute as fully as possible. This olicy has a role in shaping and informing all activities, and as such should not be viewed as a stand-alone policy. NATIONAL LEARNING, TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT POLICY Date of Enactment: 2010 Rwanda Higher Education Council Description: The Policy provides a broad framework within which all Rwandan higher education institutions can guide the support and continued enhancement of the learning experience they provide. It aims to ensure support and enhancement of student learning across Rwandan higher education institutions. It provides broad strategies in Learning, Teaching and Assessment (LTA), which will work to inform individual institutional strategies according to their priorities. It covers the support and development of staff that are involved in teaching, the support of students learning and the development of student skills. Central to the Policy are the principles of the relationship between research and teaching and the promotion of equality through the development of an inclusive learning culture. NATIONAL STAFF DEVELOPMENT POLICY FOR HIGHER EDUCATION Date of Enactment: 2007, approved by cabinet 2010– Rwanda Higher Education Council Description: The Policy commits Rwandan higher education institutions to support the development of their entire staff and to ensure continuous staff training. The higher education institutions have to give their staff the opportunity to participate in staff development that will enable them to improve the skills and competencies necessary to carry out their role and, as agreed with their line manager, to develop themselves for promotion. Staff training and staff development include all activities aimed at the improvement of skills and knowledge to enhance the institution’s capacity to be a centre of excellence. The policy recognizes that staff development can be offered and undertaken in a number of ways, including but not limited to taking academic qualiications, attending seminars, conferences and workshops, learning in post (work-based learning), by ‘acting up’ and by role swap. There is a need in all higher education systems for staff development. This paper sets out the Staff Development Policy for Public Sector Higher Education Institutions. The Policy stipulates four types of staff development: (i) opportunities for academic and other staff to take accredited higher education programmes; (ii) early career academic staff development for teaching and learning and research and, continuing professional development for academic staff; (iii) management training for senior staff; and (iv) generic development to build staff capacity to enable them to improve performance and build capacity. The policy provides for funding mechanisms for postgraduate training of staff to attain PhDs and Masters Degrees. 210 RECRUITMENT, SELECTION AND APPOINTMENT POLICY AND PROCEDURES Date of Enactment: 2007, approved by cabinet 2010– Rwanda Higher Education Council Description: The Policy regulates recruitment and selection activities so that they are carried out in a fair, effective, consistent and professional manner. The policy aims to provide managers and employees with information on procedural requirements. The policy stipulates how the operation of the procedure will provide a fair, systematic and effective process for recruitment and selection; it (i) ensures the appointment of the best candidate for the post on the basis of objective criteria which include qualiications, competencies, skills, knowledge and experience; (ii) enables the illing of vacancies within agreed timescales in a costeffective manner; (iii) eliminates discrimination and (iv) recognises internal redeployment requirements. EDUCATION SECTOR STRATEGIC PLAN 2013/14 – 2017/18 Date of Enactment: October 2013, Ministry of Education Description: The Education Sector Strategic Plan (ESSP) 2013 – 2018 is an update of the ESSP 2010–2015 and alignment of plans for Rwanda’s education sector in line with the 2013 – 2018 Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS II). The Plan is focusing on expanding access to education at all levels, improving the quality of education and training, and strengthening the relevance of education and training to meet labour market demands. The planned ten outcomes include increased equitable access to (i) nine years of basic education for all children, (ii) education for students with special educational needs, (iii) relevant, high-quality, demand-driven TVET programmes, and (iv) affordable, relevant, academically excellent higher education that also delivers quality research outputs. Others are (v) expanding access to 12 years of basic education, (vi) improved quality and learning outcomes across primary and secondary education, (vii) qualiied, suitably-skilled and motivated teachers and trainers to meet the demands of expanding education access, and (vii) expanded access to three-years of early learning for four-to-six-year olds. (viii) strengthened performance in science, technology and innovation at all levels of education, and application of science, technology and innovation in relevant sectors of the economy, (ix) increased access to Adult Basic Education to improve adult literacy and numeracy, and (x) improved administrative and management support services, including the management of policy, information, inances, and human resources across the education sector. FRAMEWORK AND REGULATIONS FOR HIGHER DEGREES BY RESEARCH AND REGULATIONS ON CHEATING AND PLAGIARISM IN RESEARCH DEGREES Date of Enactment: 28 October 2014 (repealed the 2008 one) Description: The Framework regulates the Awards of Doctor of Philosophy and Masters by research; conditions for registration for higher degrees by research, examinations, ethics issues, transfer of registration from Masters to PhD and from PhD to Master of Philosophy (MPhil). The Framework also regulates the supervision, procedures for examinations, and the types and formats of theses. Furthermore, the framework includes rules and regulations on plagiarism and cheating in research degrees as well as preparation and conduct of a formal hearing. 211 GENERAL ACADEMIC REGULATIONS FOR UNDERGRADUATE PROGRAMMES Date of Enactment: 20 October 2014 Description: The General Academic Regulations and Programmes provide rules for the following: application procedures, general admission criteria, midway admissions and transfer of credits, procedures for registration, documents required for registration, change of names, withdrawal/cancellation of registration, and suspension of registration. The regulations also stipulate rules and conditions for Academic Programmes, modules, module credits, module coding, and delivery of modules. They also provide for assessment, continuous assessment, inal examination, internal and external moderation, conlict of interest, registration for examinations, and conduct of examinations. The regulations have rules or the use of unauthorized materials in an examination room, cheating and other examination irregularities, failure to sit for an examination, and the management of special examinations. GENERAL ACADEMIC REGULATIONS FOR OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING PROGRAMMES Date of Enactment: 20 October 2014 Description: The General Academic Regulations for open and distance learning Programmes provide rules for the following: application procedures, general admission criteria, midway admissions and transfer of credits, procedures for registration, documents required for registration, change of names, withdrawal/cancellation of registration, and suspension of registration. The regulations also stipulate rules and conditions for Academic Programmes, modules, module credits, module coding, and delivery of modules. They also provide for assessment, continuous assessment, inal examination, internal and external moderation, conlict of interest, registration for examinations, and conduct of examinations. The regulations have rules or the use of unauthorized materials in an examination room, cheating and other examination irregularities, failure to sit for an examination, and the management of special examinations. UNIVERSITY OF RWANDA (UR) FRAMEWORK AND REGULATIONS FOR HIGHER DEGREES BY RESEARCH AND REGULATIONS ON CHEATING AND PLAGIARISM IN RESEARCH DEGREES Description: This Framework is a modiication, to suit the UR context, of the national Framework and Regulations for Higher Degrees by Research and the national Regulations on Cheating and Plagiarism in Research Degrees. The Framework regulates the Awards of Doctor of Philosophy and Masters by research; conditions for registration for higher degrees by research, examinations, ethics issues, transfer of registration from Masters to PhD and from PhD to Master of Philosophy (MPhil). In addition, the Framework regulates the supervision, procedures for examinations, and types and formats of theses. Furthermore, the Framework includes rules and regulations on plagiarism and cheating in research degrees as well as on the preparation and conduct of a formal hearing. 212 RWANDA ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY Date of Enactment: 2003 Description: This Policy governs improved management of the environment, at central and local government’s level. It sets out institutional and legal reforms for coordination of sector and cross-cutting environmental policies. The Policy gives a provision for the establishment of a Rwanda Environment Management Authority and setting-up of committees responsible for environmental protection at the decentralized levels – province, district, and town. Furthermore, the Policy previews the enactment of a legal framework for improved management of the environment, and the principles for citizens’ participation in environmental protection. Included in this Policy are policy statements and strategic options with regard to population and land-use management, management and utilization of natural resources, and management of other socio-economic matters, as well as the necessary arrangements for the implementation of the Policy itself. In addition, while ensuring quality of life and environment the Policy aligns with poverty reduction policies; it provides a framework for reconciling environmental, social, and economic aspects of issues. IPR IMPLEMENTING RULES AND REGULATIONS ▶ Ministerial Order No. 05/10/Minicom of 25/08/2010 Determining the Timeframe provided for Granting of Unilateral Licence, a Compulsory Licence and Opposition to Registration of Intellectual Property (2010) ▶ Ministerial Order No. 06/10/Minicom of 25/08/2010 determining the fees payable for registration services of an intellectual property (2010) ▶ Ministerial Order No. 07/10/Minicom of 25/08/2010 determining the structure and functioning of the Council of Appeal in charge of settling disputes related to intellectual property (2010) ▶ Ministerial Order No. 01/10/MINISPOC of 20/08/2010 determining the content of the application for suspension of procedures of clearing goods suspected to have been pirated (2010) ▶ Ministerial Orders on Companies (2009) ▶ Presidential Decree No. 277/14 on the Establishment of the Commission for collection and distribution of copyright. (1985) ▶ Presidential Decree No. 275/14. Tariff of copyright on the lucrative use of works of folklore. (1985) ▶ Presidential Decree No. 276/14. Price and conditions of the resale right (1985) ▶ Ministerial Decree No. 5/10/67 on the Measures implementing the Law on Patents (1967) ▶ Ministerial Decree No. 3/10/67 on the Measures implementing the Law on Trademarks (1967) ▶ Ministerial Decree No. 4/10/67. Measures implementing the Law on Industrial Designs (1967) 213 214 INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS ON SETI MATTERS Table 65 presents an inventory of international agreements, memoranda of understanding, protocols and minutes on SETI matters. Table 65: Inventory of international agreements, MoUs*, protocols and minutes on SETI issues No. Code Collaborators Type Ministry Agreement Dates Project Title Country 1. COM/5 13 01 MoU* between Ministry of Education and INTEL MoU* Ministry of Education 03/03/2009 INTEL Republic of South Africa 2. COM/5 13 02 MoU* between Ministry of Education and ESRI Geoinformatik GmbH MoU* Ministry of Education 14/05/2009 ESRI Geo-informatik GmbH Germany 3. COM/5 13 03 Amendment to the supply agreement signed between the Government of Rwanda and the OLPC Association Inc. on the 27th January 2009 Protocol Ministry of Education 01/03/2011 One Laptop per Child United States of America 4. GOV/6 13 01 Procès-verbal des travaux de la 4è commission mixte RwandaGabon tenue à Kigali les 18 et 19 Mai 2011 JPC Minutes Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation 19/05/2011 Republic of Gabon Gabon 5. GOV/6 13 02 MoU* between Ministry of Education and Economic Development and Employment Promotion Programme supported by GTZ, DED and CIM, co-funded by Germany Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation (BMZ) and Royal Netherlands Embassy MoU* Ministry of Education 09/12/2010 GTZ/GIZ, Economic Develop-ment and Employ-ment Promotion Germany 6. GOV/6 13 03 MoU* between the Government of Rwanda and the Government of India for solar electriication of 35 schools in rural Rwanda MoU* Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation 15/02/2012 Republic of India 7. GOV/6 13 04 Agreement between the Government of Rwanda and the G o Republic of South Africa on Cooperation in the ield of higher Education and Training Agreement Ministry of Education 15/08/2011 Republic of South Africa Republic of South Africa 8. GOV/6 13 05 The implementation of the Uganda- Rwanda 8th Joint Permanent commission Kigali 21st March 2011 JPC Minutes Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation 21/03/2011 Republic of Uganda Republic of Uganda 9. GOV/6 13 06 Memorandum of Agreement on Exchange Programme in Education between the Government of Rwanda represented by Ministry of Education and the Government of Djibouti represented by the Ministry of National Education and Higher Education MoU* Ministry of Education 18/08/2007 Republic of Djibouti Republic of Djibouti 215 10. GOV/6 13 07 MoU* between the Government of the Republic of Haiti and the Government of Rwanda and Haiti-Rwanda Commission relative to the Haitians studying in Rwanda MoU* Ministry of Education 17/01/2011 Republic of Haiti Republic of Haiti 11. GOV/6 13 08 Agreement between the Government of Rwanda and the Republic of South Africa on Cooperation in Education Agreement Ministry of Education 19/10/2000 Republic of South Africa Republic of South Africa 12. GOV/6 13 09 Agreement between the Government of Rwanda and the Government of the Republic of Korea on the Korea Overseas Volunteers Program Agreement Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation 26/10/2005 Republic of Korea Republic of Korea 13. GOV/6 13 10 Agreement between the Government of Rwanda and the Government of the Republic of Korea on Economic, Scientiic and Technical Cooperation Agreement Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation 26/10/2005 Republic of Korea Republic of Korea 14. GOV/6 13 11 MoU* between the Government of Rwanda represented by Ministry of Education and the Government of Kenya represented by Ministry of Education, Science and Technology MoU* Ministry of Education 18/04/2006 Republic of Kenya Republic of Kenya 15. GOV/6 13 12 Exchange Programme of Cooperation in Education Area between the Government of Rwanda and the Government of the Republic of India Agreement Ministry of Education 25/07/2006 Republic of India Republic of India 16. GOV/6 13 13 MoU* between the Government of Rwanda and the Government of the Republic of India MoU* Rwanda Embassy in India 05/04/2007 Republic of India Republic of India 17. GOV/6 13 14 Minutes of the meeting regarding SIDA (Sweden) support to University of Rwanda Other Cooperation documents Ministry of Education 19/11/2010 SIDA (Sweden) Sweden 18. HLI/7 13 01 MoU* on cooperation between the Ministry of Education, Rwanda and the University of Scotland MoU* Ministry of Education 01/10/2009 University of Scotland United Kingdom 19. HLI/7 13 02 Cooperation Letter on exploring possibilities on admission of Rwandan student from Rwanda in Pandit Deendayal Petroleum University on mutual understanding subject to terms and conditions of national statutory bodies Agreement MININFRA 13/01/2011 Pandit Deendayal Petroleum University Republic of India 20. HLI/7 13 03 Conirmation of scholarships for nationals of Rwanda: Proposal for HE President Paul Kagame Scholarship Awards for Rwandan Nationals Agreement 25/02/2011 Jain University Republic of India 21. HLI/7 13 04 MoU* between the Ministry of Education, Rwanda and the University of Virginia MoU* Ministry of Education 02/04/2012 University of Virginia United States of America 22. HLI/7 13 05 MoU* on support to enhance quality Education in Higher Education Institutions in Rwanda through the Exchange of Academic Programme between Des Moines University and higher education institutions in Rwanda MoU* Ministry of Education 09/09/2011 Des Moines University (DMU) United States of America 216 23. HLI/7 13 06 Cooperation agreement between the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. (Wits) and the Government of Rwanda on cooperation in the training and development of Higher level graduates in the ield of Education, Health, Engineering, Commerce, Law and Management Agreement Ministry of Education 27/08/2009 University of Witwaters-rand Republic of South Africa 24. HLI/7 13 07 Addendum to Rwanda-CBU Presidential Education Scholarship Protocol Ministry of Education 19/05/2011 California Baptist University (CBU) United States of America 25. HLI/7 13 08 MoU* between the University of Liverpool and the Government of Rwanda represented by the Ministry of Education on behalf of Private and Public Higher Learning Institutions MoU* Ministry of Education 27/06/2012 University of Liverpool United Kingdom 26. HLI/7 13 09 Agreement between CMU and the Government of Rwanda to establish and operate the Carnegie Mellon University in Rwanda Agreement Rwanda Development Board 01/09/2011 Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) United States of America 27. HLI/7 13 10 Rwanda - California Baptist University Agreement Ministry of Education 18/12/2007 California Baptist University (CBU) United States of America 28. HLI/7 13 11 Partnership Contract on Higher Education with Technical University of Kaiserslautern Contract Ministry of Education 07/02/2012 Technical University of Kaiserslautern Germany 29. HLI/7 13 12 MoU* between Ministry of Education and Cambridge Commonwealth Trust (CCT) on the establishment of the Rwanda Cambridge Scholarship MoU* Ministry of Education 15/02/2011 Cambridge Commonwealth Trust (CCT) United Kingdom 30. HLI/7 13 13 Rwanda - Oklahoma Christian University Education Agreement on Rwanda Presidential Scholarship Agreement Ministry of Education 01/01/2006 Oklahoma Christian University United States of America 31. HLI/7 13 14 Amendment No1 MoU* between the Ministry of Education, Rwanda and William Penn University dated September 2011 Protocol Ministry of Education 29/10/2012 William Penn University United States of America 32. HLI/7 13 15 MoU* between UKTA and the Government of Rwanda for the Transfer of Knowledge from United Kingdom to Rwanda MoU* Ministry of Education 13/09/2011 United Kingdom Telecommunication Academy (UKTA) United Kingdom 33. HLI/7 13 16 MoU* between the Government of Rwanda represented by Ministry of Education and Tulane University operating in Rwanda as Tulane International LLC Ministry of Education 29/09/2010 Tulane University United States of America 34. HLI/7 13 17 MoU* on grant of scholarship by William Penn University MoU* Ministry of Education 26/09/2011 William Penn University United States of America 35. HLI/7 13 18 Collaboration agreement between Maastricht School of Management (MSM) and School of Finance and Banking on Master of Business Administration Program Agreement School of Finance and Banking 04/06/2007 Maastricht School of Manage-ment Netherlands 36. HLI/7 13 19 Memorandum of Understanding between Henrix College of Conway, Arkansas and the Ministry of Education, Rwanda MoU* 37. HLI/7 13 20 Agreement for professional services between the William Davidson Institute at the University of Michigan and the School of Finance and Banking Agreement 38. INT/8 13 01 Convention portant statut du Conseil Africain et Margache pour l’Enseignement Superieur (CAMES) Convention 39. INT/8 13 02 Contribution Agreement between UNICEF-Child Friendly Schools Project (CFS), Commonwealth of Learning (COL) and Ministry of Education 40. INT/8 13 03 41. 30/04/2007 Hendix College of Conway, Arkansas United States of America 18/06/2006 William Davidson Institute United States of America Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation 07/02/1987 CAMES (Conseil Africain et Malgache pour l’Enseignement Supérieur) Madagascar Agreement Ministry of Education 18/06/2010 Common-wealth of Learning MoU* to support the establishment of Rwanda Innovative Endowment Fund MoU* Ministry of Education 07/07/2011 UNECA INT/8 13 04 The Inter University Council for East Africa Act, 2008 Convention Government of Rwanda 12/2/2012 Inter University Council for East Africa (IUCEA) 42. INT/8 13 05 MoU* between the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) e-Africa Commission and the Government of the Republic of Rwanda and Sysco Systems International MoU* 26/08/2005 NEPAD E-AFRICA COMMISSION 43. NGO/9 13 01 MoU* between Ministry of Education and ESTHER’s AID and ABANDONED CHILDREN Inc. MoU* Ministry of Education 08/09/2011 ESTHER’S AID 44. NGO/9 13 02 Memorandum of Understanding between the Ministry of Education and Rwanda Girls Initiative MoU* Ministry of Education 29/04/2010 RWANDA GIRLS’ UNITIATIVE United States of America MoU* Between the Government of Rwanda and the Dassault Systèmes SolidWorks Corporation MoU* Ministry of Education 2014 Support the teaching of Graphic Design at both Secondary and Higher education Levels United States of America 45. *Memorandum of Understanding. Source: Ministry of Education Ministry of Education East Africa Countries 217 IIPR TREATY APPROVALS ▶ Presidential Order No. 16/01 of 16/02/2011 Ratifying the Patent Cooperation Treaty done at Washington, United States of America on 19 June 1970 (2011) ▶ Presidential Order No. 17/01 of 16/02/2011 ratifying the Additional Protocol on the Agreement of Lusaka, Zambia of 09 December 1976 on the Creation of the African Regional Intellectual Property Organization (ARIPO) on Patents and Industrial Designs within the Framework of the African Regional Intellectual Property Organization (ARIPO) Adopted on 10 December 1982 at Harare, Zimbabwe (2011) ▶ Law No. 27/2009 of 07/09/2009 Authorising Ratiication of the Madrid Agreement relating to the International Registration of Trade Marks Adopted in Madrid, Spain on 27 June 1989 (2009) WIPO–ADMINISTERED TREATIES ▶ Protocol Relating to the Madrid Agreement Concerning the International Registration of Marks (August 17, 2013) ▶ Hague Agreement Concerning the International Registration of Industrial Designs (August 31, 2011) ▶ Patent Cooperation Treaty (August 31, 2011) ▶ Brussels Convention Relating to the Distribution of Programme-Carrying Signals Transmitted by Satellite (July 25, 2001) ▶ Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (March 1, 1984) ▶ Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property (March 1, 1984) ▶ Convention Establishing the World Intellectual Property Organization (February 3, 1984) IPR–RELATED MULTILATERAL TREATIES ▶ Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Beneits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity ▶ United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ... ▶ Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (April 21, 2013) ▶ Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions 2005 (October 16, 2012) ▶ International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (January 12, 2011) ▶ Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (January 14, 2009) ▶ Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (January 14, 2009) ▶ International Plant Protection Convention (August 26, 2008) ▶ Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons (January 2, 2007) ▶ WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (January 17, 2006) ▶ Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (February 16, 2005) ▶ Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity (October 20, 2004) 218 ▶ Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (May 17, 2004) ▶ Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property (December 25, 2001) ▶ Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (March 28, 2001) ▶ Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conlict (March 28, 2001) ▶ United Nations Convention to Combat Desertiication in Those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertiication, Particularly in Africa (January 20, 1999) ▶ United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (November 16, 1998) ▶ Convention on Biological Diversity (August 27, 1996) ▶ Agreement establishing the World Trade Organization (WTO) (May 22, 1996) ▶ World Trade Organization (WTO) – Agreement on Trade–Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Agreement) (1994) (May 22, 1996) ▶ Universal Copyright Convention as revised on 24 July 1971, with Appendix Declaration relating to Article XVII and Resolution concerning Article XI (November 10, 1989) ▶ Universal Copyright Convention of 6 September 1952, with Appendix Declaration relating to Article XVII and Resolution concerning Article XI (November 10, 1989) ▶ Protocol 1 annexed for Universal Copyright Convention as revised at Paris on 24 July 1971 concerning the application of that Convention to works of Stateless persons and refugees (August 10, 1989) ▶ Protocol 1 annexed to the Universal Copyright Convention as signed at Geneva on 6 September 1952 concerning the application of that Convention to works of stateless persons and refugees (August 10, 1989) ▶ Protocol 2 annexed for Universal Copyright Convention as revised at Paris on 24 July 1971 concerning the application of that Convention to works of certain international organizations (August 10, 1989) ▶ Protocol 2 annexed to the Universal Copyright Convention as signed at Geneva on 6 September 1952 concerning the application of that Convention the works of certain international organizations (August 10, 1989) ▶ Protocol 3 annexed to the Universal Copyright Convention as signed at Geneva on 6 September 1952 concerning the effective date of instruments of ratiication or acceptance of or accession to that Convention (August 10, 1989) ▶ Protocol (I) Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the protection of victims of international armed conlicts (May 19, 1985) ▶ Protocol (II) Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conlicts (May 19, 1985) ▶ International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (January 3, 1976) ▶ Convention on Transit Trade of Land-locked States (September 12, 1968) ▶ Convention on International Civil Aviation (March 4, 1964) ▶ Agreement on the Importation of Educational, Scientiic and Cultural Materials (July 1, 1962) ▶ Convention and Statute on Freedom of Transit (July 1, 1962) ▶ Convention (I) for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field (July 1, 1962) 219 ▶ Convention (II) for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea (July 1, 1962) ▶ Convention (IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (July 1, 1962) IPR REGIONAL TREATIES ▶ Harare Protocol on Patents and Industrial Designs within the Framework of the African Regional Industrial Property Organization (ARIPO) (September 24, 2011) ▶ Lusaka Agreement on the Creation of the African Regional Intellectual Property Organization (ARIPO) (June 24, 2011) ▶ Cultural Charter for Africa (September 19, 1990) ▶ Regional Economic Integration Treaties (Entry into force of the Treaty for the Contracting Party) ▶ Treaty for the Establishment of the East African Community (July 1, 2007) ▶ Constitutive Act of the African Union (May 26, 2001) ▶ Treaty Establishing the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (December 8, 1994) ▶ Abuja Treaty Establishing the African Economic Community (AEC) (May 12, 1994) ▶ The Georgetown Agreement (formally establishing the African, Caribbean and Paciic Group of States, the “ACP Group”), since 1975 (ACP) (February 12, 1976) 220 Inventory of SETI operational policy instruments in Rwanda By January 2015, Rwanda the authorities had identiied only three SETI operational policy instruments31. These are presented in the tables overleaf. In general, each individual SETI operational policy instruments has either one or several speciic objectives and goals, which correspond to the standard categories adopted within the GOSPIN methodological approach. Figure 43 shows the distribution of SETI operational policy instruments by strategic objectives and goals in Rwanda which are now in operation. a 5 b l 4 3 k 2 c 2 2 3 1 1 j 1 0 d 1 1 1 e i f h g Figure 43: Distribution of SETI operational policy instruments in Rwanda, according to the GOSPIN categories of objective and goal. Source: UNESCO Key a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. Strengthening the production of new endogenous scientiic knowledge Strengthening the infrastructure of research laboratories in the public and private sectors Human resources for research, innovation and strategic planning. Capacity building, education and training of specialized human capital for (1) the production of new scientiic knowledge, (2) development of new technologies, (3) promotion of innovation within the productive and services systems and (4) management of the knowledge society Strengthening gender equality for research and innovation Strengthening the social appropriation of scientiic knowledge and new technologies Development of strategic technological areas and new niche products and services with high-added value. Promotion and development of innovation in the production of goods and services. Promotion of start-ups in areas of high technology Strengthening programmes on science education at all levels (from primary school to postgraduate) Promotion of the development of green technologies and social-inclusion technologies. Promotion of indigenous knowledge systems Research and innovation eco-system: strengthening co-ordination, networking and integration processes which promote synergies among the different actors of the national scientiic technological and productive innovation system (i.e. government, university and productive sectors) Strengthening the quality of technology foresight studies to: assess the potential of high-value markets; develop business plans for high-tech companies; construct and analyse long-term scenarios and; provide consulting services and strategic intelligence Strengthening regional and international co-operation, networking and promotion of SETI activities. 31 NOTE OF THE EDITOR: there should be some other operational policy instruments which were not identiied (e.g. within the Ministry of Trade and Industry, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of ICT and Youth, etc.). 222 SETI OPERATIONAL POLICY INSTRUMENT I Title of the SETI operational policy instrument: FONERWA – Environment and Climate Change Fund of Rwanda ▶ Keywords: Environment, climate change, conservation, natural resources management, energy, environmental impact assessment ▶ Overview: The Environment and Climate Change Fund is a cross-sectoral inancing mechanism through which environment and climate change inance is channelled, programmed, disbursed and monitored. It is a national basket fund inanced through external aid and domestic inance. Access to the fund is open to line ministries and districts, charitable and private entities, including businesses, civil society and research institutions. ▶ Objective: The Environment and Climate Change Fund has the overarching objective of contributing to sustainable wealth creation and poverty reduction in Rwanda, through sustainable management of natural resources, climate resilient and green economic growth ▶ Specific objectives: a. Strengthening the production of new endogenous scientiic knowledge; b. Strengthening the infrastructure of research laboratories in the public and private sectors; c. Human resources for research, innovation and strategic planning, Capacity building, education and training of specialized human capital for (1) the production of new scientiic knowledge, (2) development of new technologies, (3) promotion of innovation within the productive and services systems and (4) management of the knowledge society; h. Promotion of the development of green technologies and social-inclusion technologies. ▶ Sectoral or horizontal approach of the instrument: Sectoral ▶ Mode of support/Type of mechanism: Funding mechanism consists of the four Thematic Financing Windows and priority investment areas: Window 1: conservation a sustainable natural resources management: (a) ecosystem rehabilitation; (b) sustainable land management; (c) integrated water resource management; (d) sustainable forestry management; (e) sustainable mines and quarries; (f) promotion and protection of biodiversity Window 2: (a) energy, R&D and technology transfer and implementation; (b) renewable energy and energy eficiency technology; (c) pollution management; (d) water storage, conservation and irrigation technologies; (e) applied and adaptive research (agroforestry, waste, urban planning); (f) disaster risk reduction; (h) data collection, monitoring and management information system Window 3: (a) environment and climate change mainstreaming; (b) strategic environment and climate assessments; (c) sector-speciic adaptation and mitigation; (d) support to implementation of cross-sectoral integrated planning Window 4: (a) environmental impact assessment monitoring and enforcement; (b) monitoring implementation of environment management plans for capital projects; (c) environmental auditing ▶ Conditions for applying for the instrument: n/a ▶ Target groups/Beneficiaries: Targeted beneiciaries are line ministries, government agencies, districts, civil society organisations, academic institutions and the private sector. ▶ Eligibility/Selection criteria: The fund can be accessed by line ministries, government agencies, Districts, civil society organisations, academic institutions and the private sector, as long as the proposed activities are in compliance with Fund eligibility criteria, and the project/ programmes are screened through various steps. 223 ▶ Eligible costs: At least 20% of total resources will be earmarked for the private sector for use across Thematic Financing Windows, and at least 10% of fund resources will be earmarked for districts. ▶ Source of funding: ▶ Domestic capitalisation sources include: (1) Environmental ines and fees, (2) EIA fees (mentioned above), (3) Proceeds from Forestry and Water Funds, (4) Other environmental revenue and (5) Seed inancing from domestic stakeholders (line ministries). In fact, FONERWA is the only fund in Rwanda that mobilises resources from the Government of Rwanda’s own revenue sources, making it less vulnerable to external aid shocks. a) External capitalisation sources include bilateral and multilateral development partners’ contributions and access to international environment and climate funds. b) Private sector contributions will be considered in the form of grants and project co-inancing in the short-term (0–1 years), and investment (e.g. equity) in the long-term (> 5 years), among others. ▶ Mode of disbursement of financial resources: In the short-term (0–1 years), public and private beneiciaries will be given (i) technical assistance for proposal development and (ii) performance-based grants. In the medium-term (2–5 years) beneiciaries will be given low interest and/or concessional loans. While in the long-term (> 5 years) inancial instruments such as equity investments are expected to be introduced. ▶ Annual budget: n/a ▶ Geographical coverage: national ▶ Results, outcome and evidence of success of a given measure: The outcome of the Environment and Climate Change Fund is to sustainably and equitably inance and further strengthen national programmes and private sector initiatives in the areas of current and future environment and climate change, and development related challenges and opportunities. FONERWA will deliver the following results: (a) conservation and management of natural resources strengthened and sustained; (b) R&D and technology transfer and implementation facilitated and utilized; and (c) environment and climate change issues mainstreamed into policies, programmes, plans, budgets and activities for public and non-public agencies. ▶ Relevant Link: www.fonerwa.org SETI OPERATIONAL POLICY INSTRUMENT II Title of the SETI operational policy instrument: Rwanda Innovation Endowment Fund ▶ Keywords: entrepreneurship and innovation, R&D and innovation, innovation and business, innovation and marketing ▶ Overview: The Rwanda Innovation Endowment Fund supports teams of young graduates and academic researchers who demonstrate entrepreneurship inspiration to start innovative businesses. The emphasis is on the application of knowledge to the innovation being-proposed. ▶ Objective: The objective of this Fund is to stimulate economic transformation through R&D in innovative market-oriented products and processes in priority areas of the economy, thereby increasing prosperity and the competitiveness of the Rwandan economy. The orientation can be for economic growth, social development or combination of the two. 224 ▶ Specific objectives: a. Strengthening the production of new endogenous scientiic knowledge; b. Strengthening the infrastructure of research laboratories in the public and private sectors; c. Human resources for research, innovation and strategic planning, capacity building, education and training of specialized human capital for (1) the production of new scientiic knowledge, (2) development of new technologies, (3) promotion of innovation within the productive and services systems and (4) management of the knowledge society; e. Strengthening the social appropriation of scientiic knowledge and new technologies; f. Development of strategic technological areas and new niche products and services with high-added value, promotion and development of innovation in the production of goods and services, promotion of start-ups in areas of high technology. ▶ Sectoral or horizontal approach of the instrument: Sectoral ▶ Mode of support/Type of mechanism: the fund focused on four priority areas: Agriculture, Manufacturing, ICT and Energy ▶ Conditions for applying for the instrument: (i) application led by a young graduate (as a guide, someone who graduated in the past ive years) possibly leading a team whose member skills will include entrepreneurship/innovation, R&D, and business/marketing. (ii) the application can be made by an academic researcher possibly from a higher education Institution or a research and development institution possibly leading a team whose member skills include entrepreneurship/ innovation, R&D, and business/marketing. ▶ Target groups/Beneficiaries: all Rwandans, however priority is put on young graduates and academic researchers ▶ Eligibility/Selection criteria: an individual or a group of individuals whose skills include entrepreneurship/innovation, R&D, and business/marketing. ▶ Eligible costs: n/a ▶ Source of funding: Government of Rwanda, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (on behalf of One United Nations), ▶ Mode of disbursement of financial resources: The irst phase was planned to be a proof of concept involving 300 000 000 RWF seed funding from the Government of Rwanda and 75 000 000 RWF counterparts funding from UNECA in 2012. The Government of Rwanda added 150 000 000 RWF in 2013 and plans to add 50 000 000 RWF in 2014 for the implementation of the second phase of the grant. The total amount available on Account is 525 000 000 RWF. The Award for successful project ranges between 10 000 US$ and 50 000 US$. ▶ Annual budget: varies ▶ Geographical coverage: national ▶ Results, outcome and evidence of success of a given measure: (i) Phase 1: 370 applications were received from 29 (out of 30) districts; 8 projects were awarded follows: 3 in Manufacturing (1 male, 2 female); 3 in Agriculture (1 male, 2 female), 2 in ICT (2 male, 0 female). Out of the eight recipients, six innovations are being implemented successfully. Four of them have already produced prototypes. One project has been delayed while another has been abandoned. (ii) Phase 2: A National Awareness and Sensitization campaigns was held and Phase 2 received 299 applications from 29 districts, 46 promising applications were selected, applicants got trained on how to write a fundable innovation business plan. Twenty best innovations were selected from the 46 projects. Preparations for Final Oral Interviews are ongoing. It is expected that the second phase will fund 10 innovation projects at an estimated budget of 300 000 000 RWF. ▶ Relevant Link: http://mineduc.gov.rw/rief/ 225 SETI OPERATIONAL POLICY INSTRUMENT III Title of the SETI operational policy instrument: Skills Development Facility ▶ Keywords: human resources, skills ▶ Overview: The Skills Development Facility plans to inance training providers with the aim to rapidly reduce skills gaps and promote employment in the following 8 priority areas of training 1) Hospitality and Tourism sector such as culinary art, Food and beverage service, housekeeping service, tour agency operation, tour guide training retail sales 2) ICT sector such as programmes, networking and cabling, web designing, database management and IT security 3) Construction and building services sector such as electrical installation, plumbing, air conditioning and refrigeration, masonry, painting, carpentry 4) Agricultural sector such as food processing, irrigation, commercial cultivation 5) Technical servicing sector such as Electronics Servicing, Automotive Technology (Light and heavy Vehicle) 6) Clean and sustainable energy sector such as Bio-mass technology and solar technology 7) Water resources sector such as recycling and treatment 8) Arts and Crafts such as basket weaving, handicraft and tailoring About 100 sub-grants will be awarded during this project phase, beneitting approximately 10 000 – 12 000 trainees. The sub-grants will range from a minimum of US$ 10 000 to a maximum of US$ 100 000. ▶ Objective: The objective of the Skills Development Facility is to minimize skills gaps by rapidly increasing the supply of skills in high demand in the labour market. To achieve this objective, the SDF will aim to expand the number of individuals with the relevant skills in critical sectors and improve the quality of individual’s skill sets in key occupations and sectors, The Skills Development Facility plan is to inance about 100 sub-grants during this project, beneitting approximately 10000–12000 trainees. Other objectives: stimulate competition and delivery of innovative programme offerings; promote collaboration between enterprises and training centres and institutions; increase skills acquisition among disadvantaged groups; and improve the eficiency of training provision. ▶ Specific objectives: c. human resources for research, innovation and strategic planning, capacity building, education and training of specialized human capital for (1) the production of new scientiic knowledge, (2) development of new technologies, (3) promotion of innovation within the productive and services systems and (4) management of the knowledge society; g. Strengthening programmes on science education at all levels (from primary school to postgraduate); j. Research and innovation ecosystem: strengthening co-ordination, networking and integration processes which promote synergies among the different actors of the national scientiic technological and productive innovation system (i.e. government, university and productive sectors); k. Strengthening the quality of technology foresight studies to: assess the potential of high-value markets; develop business plans for high-tech companies; construct and analyse long-term scenarios and; provide consulting services and strategic intelligence. ▶ Sectoral or horizontal approach of the instrument: horizontal ▶ Mode of support/Type of mechanism: n/a ▶ Conditions for applying for the instrument: Priority will be given to proposals that focus on the occupations identiied by the Workforce Development Authority. Other occupations could be considered based on compelling evidence from the labour market. The eligible programmes include: (i) Short-term programmes ranging from 1 to 3 months maximum. (ii) Training programmes that are directed at meeting urgent skills requirements in the labour market, either improvements of existing programmes, expansion of existing programmes or development and delivery of new programmes. 226 ▶ Target groups/Beneficiaries: (a) Young adults (not enrolled and not gainfully employed) to receive job entry training in critical skills. Target groups will include young adults who have completed either primary or lower secondary education or graduates from vocational centres who may need to upgrade their skills; (b) Public and private technical and vocational training centres and institutions to upgrade their technical and operational capacity to deliver relevant t and quality training programmes; and (c) Trade associations, Cooperatives, Non-Governmental Organisation and enterprises to expand their capacity to deliver industry relevant training programmes for current and prospective workers. ▶ Eligibility/Selection criteria: a) Public education/training providers (to add or expand short-term training offerings) – Government-aided education/training institutions – Private education/training providers (for-proit) – Private education/training providers (not-for-proit) b) Other entities that would act as providers by adding or expanding – Associations and Cooperatives – National and international Non-Government Organisations – Enterprises Sectors/Areas that are not eligible for inancing include the following: (a) Literacy training; (b) General education; (c) Higher education; (d) Health occupations; and (e) Public administration. Also Cross sector skills such as ICT and English language communication are not eligible as stand-alone training programmes. They will only be considered when proiciency of these skills is part of a curricula and a requirement for successful performance in priority occupations. ▶ Eligible costs: ▶ Services: consulting services (national and international); master trainers to upgrade trainers to deliver programmes; trainers to deliver training programme; insurance for trainees; local labour market studies and tracer studies; ▶ Goods: training materials, workshop materials; workshop consumables; and equipment, Infrastructure: minor refurbishing of immediate training facilities (ceiling for minor rehabilitation is 10% of the subgrant), ▶ Operational: administrative overhead (5% of the Sub-Grant), vehicle rental and repair, rental of training premises, Internal travel for training purposes (e.g. enterprise visits) staff and students, training abroad only in exceptional circumstances (where costs are lower than organizing domestic training); ▶ Source of funding: n/a ▶ Mode of disbursement of financial resources: Disbursements will be made on three instalments, following a 30%, 40%, and 30% schedule. The irst instalment of 30% will be advanced upon contract signature. The second instalment of 40% will be advanced upon the completion of a third of the envisaged activities to the satisfaction of the Skills Development Fund Secretariat. The request for second disbursement will be accompanied by an implementation status report and documentation of expenditures from the irst instalment. The inal instalment of 30% will be advanced upon the successful completion of activities, submission of inal report and documentation of expenditures from the second instalment. ▶ Annual budget: n/a ▶ Geographical coverage: national ▶ Results, outcome and evidence of success of a given measure: n/a ▶ Relevant Link: www.wda.gov.rw 227 BOX 19 – IMPLICIT OPERATIONAL POLICY INSTRUMENTS: PROCUREMENT LAW ACTING AS A RESEARCH DISINCENTIVE Sometimes there are existing policies (intended to regulate other domains) the implementation of which, through their operational policy instruments, produces negative or positive effects for scientiic and technological productivity. These may be called ‘implicit policies’ that regulate the research and innovation system. As an example of one such implicit policy, here we present the case of national procurement laws as implemented in the context of university research. Procurement laws aim to ensure that: 1. the procurement of all goods and services is conducted in an honest, competitive, fair and transparent manner; 2. the procured goods and services deliver the best value for money outcome whilst at the same time protecting the reputation of the university; and 3. the procurement takes into account the required: (i) speciications, (ii) quality, (iii) service, (iv) delivery, (v) reliability, (vi) environmental and social issues, and (vii) the total cost of ownership. However, in its application, the Rwanda Public Procurement Law has created a disincentive in research and postgraduate training. Below are examples of challenges reported at the former National University of Rwanda especially in collaborative projects dealing with research, publication and staff capacity building (PhD training): a) Tendering raises costs of conducting research: As an example, the procurement law requires that a researcher use vehicles hired from companies selected via tender, despite that such researcher may have access to a private car. By putting fuel in own car he or she would use RWF 10 000 RWF; it would cost 66 500 to hire an equivalent car for the same use, a cost that is 6.5 times more. For projects in which a central activity is data collection in the ield, this requirement alone is a strong disincentive for researchers. They may respond by restricting sample size; but this can seriously affect the study’s quality. b) Increased costs for services or equipment procured through the tendering system: Due to advertisement costs and perhaps other reasons, equipment and services procured through tendering system are priced much higher than the market. For example an air ticket to a given destination, which costs US$ 400 on the market, it costs US$ 900 when supplied by the company that won the tender. In one report, a laptop whose cost is US$ 300 costs US$ 771 440 when supplied by the intermediary which won the tender. Conference services e.g. catering, rooms and accommodation cost about 3 times more than market prices. For grants with a budget ceiling which include travelling, workshops, retreats, equipment purchase e.g. PhD studies or postdoctoral and other research, inlated prices force researchers to cut down research activities. In addition, the entire funding programme cuts down the number of grants to be offered and must increase budget ceilings for the individual grants, so as to ensure the quality of the researches. c) Lack of lexibility in speciications: The providers that won tenders are appointed to supply items with precise speciications for ixed prices for a ixed period. It is not possible for someone requiring an item with speciications different from those to obtain the nonconforming item. This has resulted in big problems for research. There was a project on Geographical information systems and remote sensing that required two laptops of certain speciications for long-term data collection, capable of handling certain gadgets. The laptops were supposed to collect continuous data for two years. The researchers were forced to purchase laptops with speciications approved in the tender, not the best adapted to the task. They attached the gadgets, started data collection and after a few months the laptops crashed; data were lost and the project was abandoned. 228 d) Poor quality: Despite that procurement laws seek to ensure quality, standards etc., items procured through tender systems are reported to have inferior quality. In most cases, these suppliers deliver a poorer quality of goods with a higher cost compared with goods that could be purchased directly from market suppliers. e) Delay in deliveries: The process of awarding tenders and delivery of procured items takes time. There are many cases reported in which ordered goods were delivered after the research projects have expired or even when the research has ended, and this has negatively affected the planning of research activities. Another big challenge has to do with suppliers who sign contracts with the University but at the end they fail to deliver as per contract. It is believed that they use the contract to get a loan, then use the money to carry out other projects, hoping to use the proit of such other activities to eventually buy the items to be delivered to the University. This concerns the big tenders to procure ICT infrastructure (cabling, networks, software, etc.) and library books. Verdiana Grace Masanja. University Level Research and Postgraduate Studies Unit, University of Rwanda 229 SWOT analysis of Rwanda’s research and innovation system This section focuses on the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) which characterize Rwanda’s research and innovation system. These characteristics are summarised in Table 66 on page 239. The analysis which follows is based on the information and data in preceding sections. Strengths ▶ Strong improvements of governance indicators: During the post-Genocide period, an explicit political will and efforts for reconciliation were established to improve the governability of the country. Several social innovations were implemented, such as: the incorporation of indigenous values and systems to solve conlicts (see Box 2), policy dialogues and interuniversity debates (see Box 3) and the consolidation of Rwanda Vision 2020 through EDPRS I and EDPRS II (see pages 16–17). Having positive values for the indicators of political stability and government effectiveness (see Figure 10, page 28) are prerequisites for effective implementation of SETI policies, or any other public policy for that matter. On the contrary, negative values (see Figures 11 and 12, pages 29 and 32) for both governance indicators promote incoherence and poor co-ordination among the various stakeholders, laxity in law enforcement, discourage foreign direct investment and private long-term investment, create lengthy procedures for investment registration and limit negotiating skills on contracts (i.e. mining, international conventions, agreements with international companies). This in turn diminishes national productivity and augments the risk of failure in attaining policy goals. During the post-Genocide period, the political stability and the government effectiveness indicators have evolved favourably, particularly over the past decade (see Figure 11), but the indicators still show negative values for the last entire period. The Corruption Perception Index places Rwanda more than 55th worldwide over the same period (see Figure 13, page 32). ▶ Positive long-term trends in human development indicators since 1994: life expectancy at birth has increased from 26.7 years in 1993 to 63.5 years in 2012 (see Figure 4, page 10). The Human Development Index has progressed in a quasi-parabolic fashion over decades increasing their value from 0.23 (1995) to 0.506 (2013) (see Figure 3, page 10). Enrolment in primary and secondary education has risen almost exponentially (see Tables 14 and 15 pages 63–64). Primary school has a net enrolment rate of 96.6% (2013) and the secondary school of 41.1% (2013). The secondary school enrolment was almost doubled between 2008 and 2013.The proportion of students enrolled in science and technology ields in the upper secondary level reached 59% in 2013/2014. The public expenditure in education is 4.8% of the GDP. ▶ Good environment for doing business: the country has made the big strides in becoming very business-friendly by introducing reforms in seven out of the 10 categories (see page 42). In 2008 the Government established the Ofice of the Registrar General under the Rwanda Development Board, and mandated it to maintain an eficient business register and promote a competitive business environment. The Ofice has the responsibility for the implementation of applicable commercial laws, such as the Companies Act, and the registration and deregistration of businesses. In 2009, it had set up a one-stop shop, streamlining company name checking, payment of incorporation fees, and tax and company registration procedures. During that year alone, 3 028 new limited liability companies were formed —almost equivalent to the total for the previous ive years, when 3 374 new limited liability companies had been registered. By year 2012 the number reached 6 655 new companies. In 2015, Rwanda was included within the top-3 countries in Africa where it is easy for doing business (see Table 11). It has also implemented some speciic policy instruments to promote credit for SMEs (see Table 12). 232 ▶ SETI as a cross-cutting pillar for sustainable development: In 2000, through Rwanda Vision 2020 SETI became a cross-cutting pillar to achieve a knowledge economy by 2020. When the Poverty Reduction Strategy Plan (2002–2005) was in place, the Government formulated the 2005 National STI Policy. In the period 2006–2009 the Ministry of Science, Technology and Scientiic Research was in operation under the Ofice of the President. In 2008, Rwanda embarked on the implementation of the second-generation poverty reduction strategy termed the Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS). The text of EDPRS I (2008–2013) included a great variety of speciic policy interventions on scientiic and technological research, science education, promotion of innovation and transference of technology to the private sector (see pages 16–17). ▶ Boost to research and innovation: In 2013, by introducing a series of regulatory and institutional reforms, the Government gave a new boost to research and innovation activities in Rwanda. Among these measures taken are: (i) the introduction of EDPRS II (see page 17); (ii) ICT SMART Rwanda Master Plan (see page 55–56); (iii) the revision of the National STI Policy (see pages 140–141); (iv) the creation of the University of Rwanda by merging a group of higher education institutions (see page 69); (v) the creation of the National Science and Technology Commission as a SETI think tank; (vi) the creation of the National Industrial Research Agency to focus on the promotion of innovation in the private sector (see page 152); (vii) the creation of the National Standards Board (see page 201); (viii) the implementation of the Innovation Endowment Fund (see pages 157–158) and (ix) the implementation of the Environmental and Climate Change Fund (see pages 224–225). ▶ Expansion of the tertiary education: After three decades of almost zero growth, the enrolment in tertiary education is passing through an exponential expansion, both as a fraction of gross and as a percentage of the whole population (see Figures 24 and 25). Rwanda is reaching a value of 8% of the gross and a rate of 913 higher education students per 100 000 inhabitants (see footnote 14, page 69). These values are comparable with those in Zimbabwe (UNESCO, 2014a). In 2013, 32% of the university graduates were in science and engineering (see Table 19). A large amount of Rwandan students are also having undergraduate and postgraduate studies abroad (see Tables 21 – 24). ▶ Expansion of ICT infrastructure: Rwanda began to relentlessly develop its ICT in 2000 after it adopted the National Information Communications Infrastructure policy and created a long-term plan to achieve full digitization in four ive-year stages. In the last years, Rwanda registered one of the highest internet user growth rates in Africa (8.9%) compared with the continent’s growth rate of 2.4%. Another relevant element is the One Laptop per Child programme—an ambitious plan launched in 2008 to distribute laptops and electronic tablets in primary schools. By late 2012, about 115,000 laptops had been distributed to primary school children across the country. Since 2011, the national ibre-optic backbone network, which connects to an undersea network, already has links to all 30 districts of the country and nine border posts. The Government also negotiated with three ibre-optic submarine cable companies SEACOM, TEAMS and the Eastern Africa Submarine Cable System (EASSy) to inance the extension of ibre-optic cables to every part of the country and to increase ibre bandwidth capacity to beneit schools, health centres and other institutions. The Rwanda Information Society Agency (RISA) is the proposed new structure for the governance, management and delivery of the goals and objectives of the new national ICT Strategy, the SMART Rwanda Master Plan 2015–2020 (see pages 55–57). ▶ Trilingual: In 2008, the Rwandan government ordered education to be provided in English. In 2009, Rwanda joined the Commonwealth of Nations and opened itself not only to Western Anglophone economies but also to economically stable geographic neighbours like Tanzania and Uganda. 233 Weaknesses ▶ Small economy and inequality: Taking into consideration all the countries in the world with populations around +/-10% the population of Rwanda (10.5 million in 2012), Rwanda and Guinea have the smallest real GDP within this group of countries. For example, the GDP of Chad is 2 times higher, that of Bolivia 4 times, Tunisia 6 times, Cuba 11 times, Czech Republic 28 times, Greece 33 times and Belgium 70 times higher. On average, a country with a similar population size will have a GDP 16 times bigger. Real GDP per capita in constant 2012 US$ has remained almost constant between 1960 and 1995 (see Figure 7, page 19), then it started to increase smoothly. However, the gap with the rest of sub-Saharan Africa remained constant over the past two decades. The Gini coeficient is an indicator of the distribution of income in a given society. A Gini coeficient of zero expresses perfect equality, where all values are the same, for example, where everyone has the same income. A Gini coeficient of one expresses maximal inequality among values, for example, where only one person has all the income or consumption of nation and all others have none. In 1985, the Gini coeficient of Rwanda was 0.29 (see Table 3, page 13). Two decades later (c. 2006) the value was 0.53 (presenting Rwanda as one of the most uneven societies in the world). The last measurement taken in 2011 showed a Gini coeficient of 0.5. ▶ SETI policy coordination and implementation: The fact that in 2009 the Ministry of Science, Technology and Scientiic Research was dissolved and its mandate transferred to the Directorate of Science, Technology and Research within the Ministry of Education, diminished the power for policy coordination among different line ministries that perform R&D and scientiic and technological services (e.g. Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Trade and Industry, etc.) This fact had direct consequences on the SETI policy implementation. For example had a direct effect within the implementation policies included at EDPRS II (2013–2018) where no reference to science or scientiic research was included in the document (see pages 15–17). The only policy interventions which remained are those related to innovation within SMEs (Ministry of Trade and Industry), innovation and extension services in agriculture (Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources); and policy interventions in the ICT and health sectors (Min. of Health and Min. of ICT & Youth). The GOSPIN analysis of the 2014 Revised National STI Policy (see pages 140–141) also showed the absence of important items than any SETI policy should include. The Policy contains no policy mission, no policy goals, no normative planning strategies (there are no explicit SETI goals to be achieve in any speciic time in the future), no policy-interventions to address the SETI supply side (there is neither a funding plan nor a human resources plan for R&D), no policy interventions to create incentives for R&D within the private sector; no gender policy, and no policy for international and regional cooperation. ▶ A small pool of researchers: Rwanda has an estimated 35 FTE researchers per million population (see Figure 28, page 87). In other to achieve the Vision 2020 goal of transforming the country into a knowledge-based economy, it should be a priority to drastically increase this number. From a global perspective, the critical mass, which triggers innovation on a national scale, is at least 1200 FTE researchers per million population (i.e. Brazil, China, Malaysia, etc.). For Rwanda, this critical value is 35 times the present one. Developed countries have between 130 and 150 times more FTE researchers per million inhabitants than Rwanda. No formal system of government scholarships is in place for completing PhDs in science and engineering, nor any other incentive or policy instrument guaranteeing the career promotion by performing research and innovation activities. No explicit SETI human resources policy is mentioned in the 2005 National STI Policy, nor in its 2014 Revised text. ▶ Absence of a SETI gender policy: Despite the fact that only around 20% of researchers are women today, there is no single mention to any gender issue neither within the 2005 National STI Policy nor within its 2014 Revised text. With the exception of some attempts made at the University of Rwanda (see Box 8, pages 74–76) no policy intervention had been explicitly planned to change this situation. There is no single operational policy instrument to promote gender equality within scientiic and technological research activities nor speciic incentives (i.e. scholarships). In 2013, the female tertiary enrolment at public universities was only 34% (see Table 17, page 70), while within the private 234 universities (see Table 18, page 71) it was 53%. Among 2013 university graduates, women as a share of the total graduates, by ield of knowledge, (see Table 19, page 72) were the following: natural sciences 27%; engineering and technology 21%; medical and health sciences 57%; agriculture sciences 29%; social sciences 36% and humanities 41%. The share of female teachers within tertiary education is around 18%, a number even below the value obtained in 1974 (see Figure 27, page 74). ▶ Absence of any explicit human resources policy for science and engineering: There are no speciic targets for increasing the number of scientists and engineers to achieve the Vision 2020 goals, nor any targets concerning the stafing requirements of industry and other productive sectors. Research and innovation are dependent on having the requisite stock of human capital, deined as the knowledge, skills, competencies and attributes that facilitate the creation of personal, social and economic wellbeing. Policy measures can be designed to ensure a healthy supply of human resources to SETI, such as through incentives like fellowships for poor students to increase student enrolment in scientiic, technological and engineering disciplines at undergraduate and postgraduate levels. ▶ Low research and innovation productivity: Although Rwandan researchers published 210 scientiic articles in mainstream journals in 2013, this represents just one scientiic article per FTE researcher every 3.4 years, or 0.29 scientiic articles per FTE researcher annually. The number of articles per million population has been increasing in a constant way since 2004 (when Vision 2020 and EDPRS I were already in operation), reaching 16 in 2013, but the starting point was very low. This is 243 times smaller than the productivity of Switzerland, 90 times smaller than the Czech Republic, 27 times smaller than that of Tunisia, nine times smaller than that of Botswana and two times smaller than that of Kenya or Ghana, to cite just a few examples. The past decade has seen a positive trend: an extraordinary increase in the number of co-publications with foreign countries, which now represent 75−90% of all Rwandan scientiic articles listed at the Web of Science (see Figure 33). In the past two decades, 49% of publications have been in medical sciences, 16% in natural sciences, 17% in agricultural sciences, 14% in social sciences and just 8% in engineering, even though the latter is a major driver of innovation. In comparison, in emerging economies like China or the Republic of Korea, where there are linkages between research and innovation, 80% of all publications are in natural sciences and/or engineering. As for patents, during the past ive decades the number of applications by residents (and non-residents) was extremely low (see Figures 36 and 37) even compared to other sub-Saharan countries (UNESCO, 2013, 2014a, 2014b). ▶ A small SETI demand pull: Macro-economic conditions today hamper research and innovation demand in the business and industry sector. In developed and emerging economies, the business sector provides between 50% and 70% of GERD. In other words, the SETI demand-side tracks the type of research done by governmental research centres and higher education institutions (SETI supply side). Businesses also typically need to adapt technologies and innovate in order to meet needs of the customers at local and international levels and to remain competitive; this implies that businesses will address irm-level constraints by investing in human resources, technology and R&D. In spite of that the 2005 National STI Policy, the 2014 Revised version, EDPRS I and EDPRS II sought to promote public−private partnerships, there is no operational policy instrument in place to foster networking among the business, government and university sectors. ▶ Low participation of the business/enterprise sector in R&D: Within the historical R&D surveys conducted by UNESCO (see pages 86–88) it was never possible to detect any R&D activity performed by the business/enterprise sector. In emerging economies such as China or the Republic of Korea, the business sector employs more than 60% of national researchers. Linkages between universities, R&D centres and the business/enterprise sector in Rwanda are very weak. New policy instruments are in place to promote innovation (i.e. Rwanda Innovation Endowment Fund and some incentives to promote FDI are in place) but there is an absence of appropriate policy instruments to stimulate strong interaction between the SETI supply and demand sides. In spite of what it is explicitly said in EDPRS II, there is a need for capacity-building and a stronger human capital policy to support innovation and entrepreneurship in the business sector. 235 ▶ Inadequate set of SETI operational policy instruments and funding mechanisms: The GOSPIN survey has identiied only three operational policy instruments in Rwanda (see pages 222–227). A country the size of Rwanda should have between 10 and 20 times more, of a diverse nature and adequately funded. The absence of some policy instruments impinges on research and innovation. There are no policy instruments in place promoting linkages between the SETI demand and supply, nor any funding mechanism addressing the research priorities set by the 2014 Revised National STI Policy (see pages 140–141). Only the Innovation Endowment Fund is in place (see Box 6 and pages 48–49). The National Research Fund, a proposal originally formulated in the eighties, was included in the 2005 National STI Policy, but unfortunately was never implemented (see pages 130–132). ▶ Indigenous knowledge remains largely disregarded: Knowledge is the key input to innovation (see Boxes 11, 12 and 15). It can come from a formal process, such as R&D, but also in the form of indigenous knowledge developed over centuries of learning from the environment. Indigenous knowledge can play a central role in transforming and modifying technologies to suit local conditions and the local context, as well as in developing indigenous home-grown technologies. To play these roles, indigenous knowledge needs to be documented, protected and eficiently managed. Rwanda needs to incorporate indigenous knowledge in the formulation of R&D strategies. There is scant input from indigenous knowledge in the present SETI policies and within research programmes. ▶ Erratic energy supply is derailing progress in SETI: A small fraction of the population has access to electricity. Power cuts which occur in the middle of a scientiic experiment or new technological development, or when a critical innovation is being implemented in a factory, can disrupt activity and erode the morale of scientists and entrepreneurs. Opportunities ▶ Improve synergism and policy coherence through new institutional framework: The new set of SETI institutions created in recent years (i.e. NSTC, NIRDA, UR, RAB, RSB, etc.) have the opportunity to coordinate its activities and policies in order to promote coherence among the different research and innovation policies proposed at different Ministries, such as Ministry of Education, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources, Ministry of Trade and Industry, Ministry of ICT and Youth, and Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning (see page 133). NSCT will work as a think tank, having an advising role is planning to create some sort of inter-ministerial council to consolidate the different approaches on research and innovation activities taken by the different ministries. At present, this coordination role is missing. On the other hand, the University of Rwanda is planning to implement a series of incentives and operational policy instruments to promote research, scientiic publications and the transfer of technologies (embodied and disembodied) to the public and private sector. Likewise, NIRDA is planning to implement a series of mechanisms to boost innovation within the private sector. New institutions like RAB are also coordinating R&D with extension services, in the agriculture and agribusiness sector. These new institutions have the opportunity to develop a coherent set of operational policy instruments to achieve the Vision 2020 and EDPRS II goals. ▶ Human capital development in science and engineering: Rwanda’s population is dominated by youth (43% of the population is less than 14 years old) who are eager to study and develop their potential (see Figure 1, page 7). Following the guidance of Rwanda Vision 2020 and the policies taken by the Ministry of Education to improve the education of science and mathematics at all levels, there is an opportunity to expand the training of young people in science and engineering. An explicit human resources policy to expand the number of scientists and engineers for promoting research and innovation is indispensable. For doing so, adequate SETI policy instruments to provide incentives 236 are required, for examples: scholarship programmes to encourage students to embark on PhDs and a system of competitive grants for young researchers in ields that national policies prioritize. SETI research programmes designed to develop human capital should be associated with the portfolio of strategic areas identiied by EPDRS II and by the Ministry of Public Services and Labour. SETI human capital development should be tailored to the country’s strategic development projects deined in the 2014 Revised National STI Policy (i.e. education; health; agriculture; environment; water and sanitation; energy; transport, ICT; tourism; industry and private sector). ▶ Improve gender equality in science and engineering: Gender equality is one of the eight United Nations Millennium Development Goals. It will be possible to improve the participation of women in science and engineering by introducing appropriate SETI policy instruments and incentives in both the education system (from primary school to postgraduate studies) and in the terms of reference of advertised posts or calls for research and innovation proposals. A speciic policy for gender equality within the higher education sector and the research and innovation system, setting speciic targets and activities should be formulated. Speciic operational policy instruments must be in place to guarantee the implementation of these strategies. ▶ National Research Fund: The 2005 National STI Policy proposed the creation of a National Research Fund (NRF) and it was suggested that the Government should allocate 0.5% of the total national budget to the NRF. This idea was not new, it was originally proposed in the early eighties (see pages 128–130). The Government of Rwanda agreed to the Decision of the Assembly of the African Union 8th ordinary session in 2007, which recommended allocating at least 1% of the national GDP to R&D activities. The fund still lacks an operational manual, as well as an adequate set of operational policy instruments to determine, strategically, towards which missions the fund will be oriented. ▶ Availability of special external funding mechanisms for environmental R&D: EPDRS II deined environment and climate change as a cross cutting priority issue. In addition, EPDRS II proposed the creation of a Centre of Excellence on Green Urbanisation to support research and skills development and another Centre for Environment and Climate Change Innovation (Rep. of Rwanda, 2013a). Rwanda has already put into operation the Environment and Climate Change Fund (see pages 223–224). The country has also access to external funding in support of environmental projects. One such source is the Global Environment Facility (GEF), which is a partnership for international co-operation whereby 183 countries work together with international institutions, civil society organizations and the private sector to address global environmental issues. Several NGOs and research groups in Rwanda are promoting a series of projects on environmental management, waste recycling and value addition to waste; combined with appropriate expertise generated by the academic sector, these projects can promote the emergence of new green technologies and environmental best practices for Rwanda (see page 54). The country has a long tradition developing bio-digestion energy plants (see Box 7 and Tigabu et al., 2015). ▶ Networking at national, regional and international levels: Rwanda has a long tradition of successful international scientiic collaboration (mainly in the health and agriculture sectors) and at business level (mainly with ICT). Based on this experience, appropriate policy instruments and special mechanisms can be designed to promote synergies and networking among national laboratories, universities and the manufacture sector. Other policy instruments should improve the participation of the diaspora (see Tables 21–24) in strategic research and innovation projects in Rwanda, in tandem with an amelioration of national networking between public and private research institutions and enterprises. There are many Rwandan PhD holders working in Rwanda and abroad in leading research institutions. Collaboration and networking in research and innovation oriented to national development projects (i.e. ICT, mining, health, environment, energy, agribusiness, etc.) among those both within and outside Rwanda can lead to a better higher education system, greater scientiic productivity and stronger linkages between the SETI supply and demand. 237 ▶ Interconnectivity initiatives for educational institutions: Opportunities may be created by linking the National ICT and youth policies (see pages 55–57), or by linking strategies applied by the Ministry of Education to improve ICT facilities at all education levels and recent national and regional initiatives to expand the diffusion of endogenous R&D and regional co-operation. Examples are the Africa Connect project, which aims to establish a high-capacity Internet network for research and education in Southern and Eastern Africa, and UbuntuNet, the regional backbone network that interconnects National Research and Education Networks (NRENs). These projects can be linked with ICT innovation and entrepreneurship strategies, where Rwanda is taking the regional leadership. ▶ R&D and value-addition: Besides the portfolio of strategic areas identiied to promote FDI in Rwanda (see page 26), value-addition across all sectors in Rwanda remains low. Rwanda is still a net exporter of raw materials. There is a wide margin of manoeuvre for using SETI to add value across sectors and for using innovation to add value to Rwanda’s agribusiness, tourism, and other natural resources. ▶ Legal instruments to protect indigenous knowledge: Neither the 2005 National STI Policy nor the 2014 Revised version addressed indigenous knowledge systems and their need for protection. The indigenous knowledge basis for traditional medicine, for example, needs to be understood, preserved, further developed and protected for the country’s beneit. As it was shown (see Boxes 11 and 12), a large group of traditional medicines, based on natural local lora, can be an important source of innovation. Intellectual property rights law, which adequately covers the body of knowledge that may generally be classiied as ‘Western’ today in Rwanda is weak when it comes to protecting indigenous knowledge, in part because the latter is owned collectively (by extended families, clans and communities) and because substantial parts of indigenous knowledge are transmitted orally. Rwanda can follow the example of Botswana (UNESCO, 2013), which already has a legislative instrument to protect traditional knowledge and handicrafts. In Botswana, the IP law has been changed. Under this law, traditional knowledge may give rise to intellectual property that can be owned by a group of people or by a community. This is not possible with other forms of intellectual property or intellectual property rights. The terms of protection in Botswana expire only when the traditional knowledge has lost its value as: (a) an element of cultural identiication; (b) a result of wilful and expressed abandonment by its owner or owners; or (c) as a result of non-use or use in a distorted manner by third parties of which the owner or owners are aware. This type of good practice can be easily implemented in Rwanda. Threats ▶ Limited human carrying capacity: The annual average population growth rate in Rwanda over the past ive decades has been around 3% (see Figure 2) and total fertility (4.6 children per woman c. 2013) remain high, constraining poverty reduction efforts. This fact combined with a population of around 11.8 million in a least developed country of only 26 338 km2, introduce a serious limitation to the human carrying capacity (see pages 6–8). The strategic options for reducing population growth proposed by Vision 2020 have so far failed to slow the growth rate. Unless this trend can be reversed, rapid population growth will sap Rwanda’s efforts to reach long-term sustainability. There are policy interventions successfully applied in other countries (Ruxin and Habinshuti, 2011) that can be taken to avoid this dangerous situation in Rwanda. SETI policies should address this problematic in an interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary way, and should suggest speciic policy interventions as well as appropriate technologies (embodied and disembodied). 238 ▶ Adverse effects of climate change: A recent study analysed Rwanda’s vulnerability to climate change (Patta et al. 2010). This study took into account both potential changes in African counties’ exposure to climatic extreme events and trends in socio-economic development that inluence a country’s adaptive capacity. The results suggest that Rwanda’s vulnerability will increase most rapidly between now and 2050 but that socio-economic development may begin to offset the country’s growing exposure to climate change in the second quarter of the century. This implies an urgent need for international assistance to inance adaptation. Policy interventions are needed to mitigate potential disasters by building SETI capacity and promoting the use of appropriate technologies. ▶ Overdependence on foreign consultants to design domestic SETI policies: Since the early seventies all domestic SETI policies were designed systematically by a series of foreign consultants (see pages 128–132) sponsored by international organizations and foreign development organizations. The results were not always positive, promoting the lack of internal coherence within the proposed policies. The agendas of international organizations and other donor organizations introduce themes in the consultancies, which are not necessary the most appropriate for the country. The experience of new emerging economies indicates that they were able to transform the reality of their countries only when strategies and paths were designed by their own people. It is time for Rwanda to initiate this process. ▶ The plethora of SETI strategic priorities dilutes policy effectiveness: The 2014 Revised National STI Policy proposes four policy objectives. An analysis of their content (see pages 140–141) reveals that there are, in fact, eleven different sectoral strategic priorities and several associated policies (i.e. ICT, IPR, Agriculture, Health, SMEs, etc.). Combined with a lack of common strategies with new foreign investment policies and funding mechanisms (i.e. Rwanda Innovation Endowment Fund), the absence of adequate operational policy instruments, the scarce funding allocation, and the multiplication of sectoral priorities may endanger the smooth implementation and effectiveness of the proposed policy interventions. There is a need to improve co-ordination among the institutions responsible for the different tasks associated with the SETI policy cycle (see pages 136–137). ▶ Regional competition: The East African region has been leading the charge in collaborative regional infrastructure planning and execution. One of the outcomes of the joint cooperative strategies is access to a bigger market. Larger populations offer potentially bigger markets. Countries like Nigeria and Ethiopia have 175 and 99 million inhabitants respectively, unlike smaller countries like Rwanda or Burundi. To compete, smaller nations such as Rwanda are compelled to negotiate with neighbours like Kenya and Uganda, in order to harmonise immigration and infrastructure plans so as to help investors view the East African region as an economic hub of some 100 million people. However, there still are major infrastructure deicits and geographical disadvantages. Access to the ocean gives Kenya and Tanzania a big trade advantages over landlocked countries like Uganda and Rwanda, which have recently openly spoken about their frustration with the ports and the high cost of transporting goods across the region’s borders. Rwanda’s lack of an explicit policy to supply new generations of engineers who could solve these logistic and infrastructure problems put the country in a weak position for regional negotiations. At regional level, Kenya and Tanzania have been implementing very strong policies to support entrepreneurship and innovation in comparison with Rwanda (see page 39). 239 Table 66: SWOT analysis of Rwanda’s research and innovation system Strengths Weaknesses • Strong improvements of governance indicators • Small economy and inequality • Positive long-term trends in human development indicators since 1994 • SETI policy coordination and implementation • Good environment for doing business • Absence of a SETI gender policy • SETI as a cross-cutting pillar for sustainable development • Absence of any explicit human resources policy for science and engineering • Boost to research and innovation • Low research and innovation productivity • Expansion of the tertiary education • A small SETI demand pull • Expansion of ICT infrastructure • Low participation of the business/ enterprise sector in R&D • Trilingual • A small pool of researchers • Inadequate set of SETI operational policy instruments and funding mechanisms • Indigenous knowledge remains largely disregarded • Erratic energy supply is derailing progress in SETI Opportunities Threats • Improve synergism and policy coherence through new institutional framework • Limited human carrying capacity • Human capital development in science and engineering • Overdependence on foreign consultants to design domestic SETI policies • Improve gender equality in science and engineering • The plethora of SETI strategic priorities dilutes policy effectiveness • National Research Fund • Availability of special external funding mechanisms for environmental R&D • Networking at national, regional and international levels • Interconnectivity initiatives for educational institutions • R&D and value-addition • Legal instrument to protect indigenous knowledge 240 • Adverse effects of climate change • Regional competition References Abbott, P.; Malunda, D. and Festo, N. 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Glossary of main terms used in R&D surveys Sectors covered by R&D surveys Business enterprise sector: (a) all irms, organisations and institutions whose primary activity is the market production of goods or services (other than higher education) for sale to the general public at an economically signiicant price, including both public and private enterprises; (b) the private non-proit institutions mainly serving them. Government sector: (a) all departments, ofices and other bodies which furnish, but normally do not sell to, the community, those common services, other than higher education, which cannot otherwise be conveniently and economically provided, as well as those that administer the state and the community’s economic and social policy; (b) public enterprises mainly engaged in market production and the sale of goods and services are included in the business enterprise sector; (c) non-proit institutions controlled and mainly inanced by government, not administered by the higher education sector. Higher education sector: (a) all universities, colleges of technology and other institutions providing tertiary education (see below for details), whatever their source of inance or legal status; (b) all research institutes, experimental stations and clinics operating under the direct control of, or administered by, or associated with, higher education institutions. Private non-proit sector: (a) Non-market, private non-proit institutions serving households (i.e. the general public) and (b) private individuals or households. Deinition of research and experimental development Research and experimental development (R&D): comprises creative work undertaken on a systematic basis, in order to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of humanity, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications. The term R&D covers three activities: basic research, applied research and experimental development. Basic (or fundamental) research: is experimental or theoretical work undertaken primarily to acquire new knowledge of the underlying foundation of phenomena and observable facts, without any particular application or use in view. Applied research: is also original investigation undertaken in order to acquire new knowledge. It is, however, directed primarily towards a speciic practical aim or objective. 251 Experimental development: is systematic work, drawing on existing knowledge gained from research and/or practical experience, which is directed towards producing new materials, products or devices, towards installing new processes, systems and services, or towards improving substantially those already produced or installed. R&D covers both formal R&D in R&D units and informal or occasional R&D in other units. Deinition of personnel R&D personnel: all persons employed directly in R&D, as well as those providing direct services such as R&D managers, administrators and clerical staff. Persons providing an indirect service, such as canteen and security staff, should be excluded. Head count: data relect the total number of persons employed in R&D, independently of the focus of their work. These data allow links to be made with other data series, such as education and employment data, or the results of population censuses. They also serve as the foundation for calculating indicators which analyse the characteristics of the R&D labour force, with respect to age, gender or national origin. Full-time equivalent (FTE): may be thought of as one person-year. Thus, a person who normally spends 30% of his/her time on R&D and the rest on other activities (such as teaching, university administration and student counselling) should be considered as 0.3 FTE. Similarly, if a fulltime R&D worker is employed at an R&D unit for only six months, this results in an FTE of 0.5. However, for reporting purposes, the total sum of FTEs should be rounded to the next integer to avoid the reporting of decimals. Researchers: are professionals engaged in the conception or creation of new knowledge, products, processes, methods and systems and also in managing the projects concerned. Postgraduate students at the PhD level engaged in R&D should be considered as researchers. Technicians: and equivalent staff are persons whose main tasks require technical knowledge and experience in one or more ields of engineering, physical and life sciences (technicians) or social sciences and humanities (equivalent staff). They participate in R&D by performing scientiic and technical tasks involving the application of concepts and operational methods, normally under the supervision of researchers. Support staff: includes skilled and unskilled craftsmen, secretarial and clerical staff participating in R&D projects or directly associated with such projects (or providing services to researchers involved therein). International Standard Classiication of Education (ISCED) levels UNESCO developed the International Standard Classiication of Education (ISCED) to facilitate comparisons of education statistics and indicators across countries on the basis of uniform and internationally agreed deinitions. The ISCED levels that were in use at the time of the Government of Malawi’s 2013 National Survey of Research and Innovation were those from the 1997 revision of ISCED levels, namely: ISCED 6 programmes: tertiary programmes leading to the award of an advanced research qualiication. The programmes are therefore devoted to advanced study and original research and are not based on coursework only. They typically require the submission of a thesis or dissertation of publishable quality which is the product of original research and represents a signiicant contribution to knowledge. They usually prepare graduates for faculty posts in institutions offering ISCED 5A programmes, as well as research posts in government, industry, etc. 252 ISCED 5A programmes: tertiary programmes that are largely theoretically based and are intended to provide suficient qualiications for gaining entry into advanced research programmes and professions with high skills requirements. They must satisfy a suficient number of the following criteria: (a) a minimum cumulative theoretical duration (at tertiary) of three years’ full-time equivalent, although typically they are of four or more years; (b) faculty with advanced research credentials; (c) may involve completion of a research project or thesis; (d) provide the level of education required for entry into a highly skilled profession (theoretically based/research preparatory, such as history, philosophy, mathematics, etc., or giving access to highly skilled professions, e.g. medicine, dentistry, architecture, etc.) or an advanced research programme. This level includes all the research programmes which are not part of a doctorate, such as any type of master’s degree. ISCED 5B programmes: are tertiary programmes which are typically shorter than those in 5A and focus on giving participants occupational skills and a relevant qualiication for the labour market, although some theoretical foundations may be covered. The content of ISCED level 5B programmes is mainly designed to give participants the practical skills and know-how needed for employment in a particular occupation or trade, or class of occupations or trades. ISCED 4 programmes: are post-secondary, non-tertiary education programmes that straddle the boundary between upper-secondary and post-secondary education from an international point of view, even though they might clearly be considered as upper-secondary or post-secondary programmes in a national context. ISCED 4 programmes cannot, considering their content, be regarded as tertiary programmes. They are often not signiicantly more advanced than programmes at ISCED 3 level but they serve to broaden the knowledge of participants who have already completed a programme at level 3. Typical examples are programmes designed to prepare students for studies at level 5 who have completed ISCED 3 but did not follow a curriculum which would allow entry to level 5, i.e. pre-degree foundation courses or short vocational programmes. Second-cycle programmes can be included as well. ISCED 3 programmes: are (upper) secondary education programmes typically beginning at the end of full-time compulsory education for those countries that have a system of compulsory education. The entrance age to this level is typically 15 or 16 years. The educational programmes included at this level typically require the completion of some nine years of full-time education (since the beginning of level 1) for admission, or a combination of education and vocational or technical experience, with, as minimum entrance requirements, the completion of level 2 or a demonstrable ability to handle programmes at this level. The new International Standard Classiication of Education In 2011, UNESCO member states formally adopted a revision of ISCED. The product of extensive international and regional consultations among education and statistical experts, ISCED 2011 takes into account signiicant changes in education systems worldwide since the last ISCED revision of 1997. ISCED 2011 counts four levels of tertiary education, as compared to two in the current version. The aim of the revision is to relect the tertiary education structure found around the world better (bachelor’s, master’s and doctorate). This structure has been generalised across Europe since the Bologna Process got under way in 1999. The irst data collection based on the new classiication began in 2014. The UNESCO Institute for Statistics is working closely with Member States and partner organisations (such as OECD and Eurostat) to map education systems using the new classiication and revise statistic-gathering instruments. The four new levels of tertiary education (effective as of 2014) are: ISCED level 5 – Short-cycle tertiary education; 253 ISCED level 6 – Bachelor’s degree or equivalent level; ISCED level 7 – Master’s degree or equivalent level; ISCED level 8 – Doctoral or equivalent level. Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) - UIS/RD/2012M For details of ISCED 2011, see: www.uis.unesco.org/Education/Documents/isced-2011-en.pdf II. Glossary on intellectual property rights Applicant: An individual or other legal entity that iles an application for a patent, utility model, trademark or industrial design. There may be more than one applicant in an application. For the statistics presented in the present publication, the name of the irst-named applicant is used to determine the owner of the application. Application abroad: For statistical purposes, an application iled by a resident of a given state/ jurisdiction with an IP ofice of another state/jurisdiction. For example, an application iled by an applicant domiciled in France with the Japan Patent Ofice (JPO) is considered an ‘application abroad’ from France’s perspective. This differs from a ‘non-resident application’, which describes an application iled by a resident of a foreign state/jurisdiction from the perspective of the ofice receiving the application. Industrial design: applies to a wide variety of industrial products and handicrafts. It refers to the ornamental or aesthetic aspects of a useful article, including compositions of lines or colours or any three-dimensional form that gives a special appearance to a product or handicraft. The holder of a registered industrial design has exclusive rights concerning unauthorised copying or imitation of the design by third parties. Industrial design registrations are valid for a limited period. The term of protection is usually 15 years for most jurisdictions. However, differences in legislation do exist, notably in China (which provides for a 10-year term from the application date) and the USA (which provides for a 14-year term from the date of registration). Intellectual property (IP): refers to creations of the mind: inventions, literary and artistic works, symbols, names, images and designs used in commerce. IP is divided into two categories: industrial property, which includes patents, utility models, trademarks, industrial designs and geographical indications of source; and copyright, which includes literary and artistic works such as novels, poems and plays, ilms, musical works, artistic works such as drawings, paintings, photographs, sculptures and architectural designs. Rights related to copyright include those of performing artists in their performances, producers of phonograms in their recordings and those of broadcasters in their radio and television programmes. Invention: a new solution to a technical problem. To obtain patent rights, the invention must be novel, involve an inventive step and be industrially applicable, as judged by a person skilled in the art. Non-resident: for statistical purposes, a ‘non-resident’ application refers to an application iled with the IP ofice of, or acting for, a state/jurisdiction in which the irst-named applicant in the application is not domiciled. For example, an application iled with the JPO by an applicant residing in France is considered a non-resident application from the perspective of this ofice. Non-resident applications are sometimes referred to as foreign applications. A non-resident grant or registration is an IP right issued on the basis of a non-resident application. 254 Patent: a set of exclusive rights granted by law to applicants for inventions that are new, nonobvious and commercially applicable. It is valid for a limited period of time (generally 20 years), during which patent holders can commercially exploit their inventions on an exclusive basis. In return, applicants are obliged to disclose their inventions to the public in a manner that enables others, skilled in the art, to replicate the invention. The patent system is designed to encourage innovation by providing innovators with time-limited exclusive legal rights, thus enabling innovators to appropriate a return on their innovative activity. Patent Co-operation Treaty (PCT): an international treaty administered by WIPO. The PCT system facilitates the iling of patent applications worldwide and makes it possible to seek patent protection for an invention simultaneously in each of a large number of countries by irst iling a single ‘international’ patent application. The granting of patents, which remains under the control of the national or regional patent ofices, is carried out in what is called the ‘national phase’ or ‘regional phase’. Registration: a set of exclusive rights legally accorded to the applicant when an industrial design or trademark is ‘registered’ or ‘issued’. (See also Industrial design or Trademark.) Registrations are issued to applicants so that they can make use of, and exploit, their industrial design or trademark for a limited period of time; in some cases, registration can be renewed indeinitely, particularly in the case of trademarks. Resident: for statistical purposes, a ‘resident’ application refers to an application iled with the IP ofice of, or acting for, the state/jurisdiction in which the irst-named applicant in the application has residence. For example, an application iled with the JPO by a resident of Japan is considered a resident application from the perspective of the JPO. Resident applications are sometimes referred to as domestic applications. A resident grant/registration is an IP right issued on the basis of a resident application. Trademark: a distinctive sign that identiies certain goods or services as those produced or provided by a speciic person or enterprise. The holder of a registered trademark has the legal right to exclusive use of the mark in relation to the products or services for which it is registered. The owner can prevent unauthorised use of the trademark, or a confusingly similar mark, so as to prevent consumers in particular and the public in general from being misled. Unlike patents, trademarks can be maintained indeinitely by paying renewal fees. The procedures for registering trademarks are governed by the rules and regulations of national and regional IP ofices. Trademark rights are limited to the jurisdiction of the authority that registers the trademark. Trademarks can be registered by iling an application at the relevant national or regional ofice(s), or by iling an international application through the Madrid system. Utility model: a special form of patent right granted by a state/jurisdiction to an inventor or the inventor’s assignee for a ixed period of time. The terms and conditions for granting a utility model differ slightly from those for normal patents (including a shorter term of protection and less stringent patentability requirements). The term ‘utility model’ can also describe what are known in some countries as ‘petty patents’, ‘short-term patents’ or ‘innovation patents’. Source: WIPO (2013) 255 The Global Observatory of Science, Technology and Innovation Policy Instruments (GOSPIN) series of country proiles is designed to expose – through the rigorous application of an assessment lens—usable insights about science, technology, engineering and innovation (SETI) policies and their context. This is meant to encourage choices that can help focus SETI efforts toward shared national goals: to harness research and innovation so as to eradicate poverty and achieve sustainable development. In 2000, following the harrowing disruptions of the war and Genocide (c. 1994), through Rwanda Vision 2020 SETI became a cross cutting pillar to achieve a knowledge economy by 2020. The country has made big strides in becoming very business-friendly. The Human Development Index has progressed increasing its value from 0.23 (1995) to 0.506 (2013). Nevertheless, are policies–particularly those affecting SETI—going to bring about the transformation? The present study shows that while aspects of the base of the economy and the education system are changing with time, there is room for sharpened efforts. In the last two years, several institutional reforms took place to speed up the generation of knowledge and innovation. There is clearly a wide margin of manoeuvre for SETI to add value in productive sectors: value-addition across all sectors remains low, Rwanda is a net exporter of raw materials, and indigenous knowledge—which as yet may have its own contribution—is not yet eficiently managed. In 2014, the Government of Rwanda appealed for UNESCO’s assistance in preparing an evidence-based policy analysis of its unique situation. Mapping Research and Innovation in the Republic of Rwanda is the result. The present proile has been produced within the Global Observatory of Science, Technology and Innovation Policy Instruments (GOSPIN), a UNESCO initiative which stresses the importance of having a wide range of policy instruments to ensure effective policy implementation, although this is not yet the case in Rwanda. GOSPIN is applying a new methodology to mapping research and innovation at country level, in order to inform reform processes and improve monitoring of national innovation systems. Natural Sciences Sector United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 9 789231 001260