Postoperative ileus: mechanisms and future directions for research

Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology (2014) 41, 358–370 doi: 10.1111/1440-1681.12220 SYMPOSIUM Proceedings of the Australian Physiological Society Symposium: Advances in Methods for Intestinal Motility Postoperative ileus: mechanisms and future directions for research Ryash Vather,* Greg O’Grady,* Ian P Bissett* and Phil G Dinning† *Department of Surgery, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand and †Departments of Gastroenterology and Surgery, Flinders Medical Centre, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, Australia SUMMARY Postoperative ileus (POI) is an abnormal pattern of gastrointestinal motility characterized by nausea, vomiting, abdominal distension and/or delayed passage of flatus or stool, which may occur following surgery. Postoperative ileus slows recovery, increases the risk of developing postoperative complications and confers a significant financial load on healthcare institutions. The aim of the present review is to provide a succinct overview of the clinical features and pathophysiological mechanisms of POI, with final comment on selected directions for future research.Terminology used when describing POI is inconsistent, with little differentiation made between the obligatory period of gut dysfunction seen after surgery (‘normal POI’) and the more clinically and pathologically significant entity of a ‘prolonged POI’. Both normal and prolonged POI represent a fundamentally similar pathophysiological phenomenon. The aetiology of POI is postulated to be multifactorial, with principal mediators being inflammatory cell activation, autonomic dysfunction (both primarily and as part of the surgical stress response), agonism at gut opioid receptors, modulation of gastrointestinal hormone activity and electrolyte derangements. A final common pathway for these effectors is impaired contractility and motility and gut wall oedema. There are many potential directions for future research. In particular, there remains scope to accurately characterize the gastrointestinal dysfunction that underscores an ileus, development of an accurate risk stratification tool will facilitate early implementation of preventive measures and clinical appraisal of novel therapeutic strategies that target individual pathways in the pathogenesis of ileus warrant further investigation. Correspondence: Phil Dinning, Departments of Gastroenterology and Surgery, Flinders Medical Centre, Bedford Park, SA 5042, Australia. Email: phil.dinning@flinders.edu.au This paper was presented at the joint AuPS/PSNZ and ASB meeting Advances in Methods for Intestinal Motility, Sydney, December 2012. The papers in these proceedings were peer reviewed under the supervision of the AuPS Editor. The papers are being published with the permission of AuPS and were initially published on the AuPS website http://www.aups.org.au Received 18 September 2013; revision 13 February 2014; accepted 25 February 2014. Key words: definition, high-resolution manometry, novel therapeutic strategies, pathophysiology, postoperative ileus, risk stratification. INTRODUCTION Postoperative ileus (POI) is an abnormal pattern of gastrointestinal motility distinct from mechanical obstruction that frequently occurs after abdominal surgery. The primary features of POI include nausea and vomiting, inability to tolerate an oral diet, abdominal distension and delayed passage of flatus and stool. In addition, POI may follow procedures that do not involve breach of the peritoneum, most notably spinal operations.1 The occurrence of an ileus has consequences for both the patient and hospital. Postoperative ileus has been shown to slow patient recovery, thereby prolonging length of hospital stay,2 and is associated with an increased rate of complications (especially those infectious or thrombotic in nature), although the retrospective nature of previous studies makes it difficult to establish direction of causality.3–7 Prolonged hospital stay may have a negative psychological impact on the patient and create a barrier to postoperative recovery.8 In addition, POI imparts a substantial financial and resource-intensive burden on healthcare institutions, with one study estimating that the cost of its management in the US alone approaches US$1.5 billion annually.2 It has been shown that, following major abdominal surgery, motility typically returns first in the small bowel (< 24 h), then in the stomach (24–48 h) and finally in the large bowel (> 48 h).9 However, recovery of large bowel function occurs much less predictably than in other parts of the gut and the passage of flatus and stool have therefore traditionally been used as end-points indicating complete clinical resolution of postoperative gastrointestinal dysfunction.10 In healthy human controls, colonic transit and defaecation are associated with propagating circular muscle contractions, commonly referred to as propagating sequences or propagating contractions.11–13 Marked increases in propagating sequence activity have been shown to occur in response to consumption of calorie-rich meals, morning waking and electrical stimulation, suggesting that they are neurogenically mediated.14,15 It is postulated that an ileus represents an absence or attenuation of neurogenic motor activity, although this has yet to be proven. 359 Postoperative ileus: A review List of abbreviations: CNS DAMPs ERAS ENS ICC IPLA IVLA Central nervous system Damage-associated molecular patterns Enhanced recovery after surgery Enteric nervous system Interstitial cells of Cajal Intraperitoneal local anaesthetic Intravenous local anaesthetic It is now well accepted that the pathogenesis of POI is multifactorial, with dysmotility being caused by disturbances in immunological, inflammatory, neurological, electrolyte and receptor-mediated functioning. Studies investigating such pathways at a physiological level have tended to focus on individual segments of the gastrointestinal tract. However, it is of importance to appreciate that ileus can be observed in all parts of the digestive tract, from the stomach to the colon. Although small and large bowel dysmotility feature prominently, they should not be considered as independent entities, but rather an analogous end-point of the gastrointestinal response to surgery. The aim of the present narrative review is to provide an overview of the clinical features, pathophysiological mechanisms and therapeutic implications of POI, with a final comment on selected directions for future research. METHODS A literature search through the Ovid MEDLINE, EMBASE, Google Scholar and Cochrane Collaboration databases was performed from inception to March 2013 using a combination of keywords and MeSH search terms. Boolean AND/OR operators were used to combine search terms as appropriate. Publications were limited to the English language. For Ovid MEDLINE and EMBASE, keyword searches included ‘postoperative ileus.mp’ OR ‘postsurgical ileus.mp’; MeSH terms included ‘Ileus/’ OR ‘Intestinal Pseudo-obstruction/’ AND ‘Postoperative complication/’. Google Scholar was searched using free-text entries and the Cochrane database was searched for the term ‘Ileus’ with a filter to reviews. Identified articles were screened based on title and abstract, with full text being acquired for those articles with content relevant to the present paper. A manual search of the reference lists from these full text papers was conducted to identify any other potentially relevant publications. DEFINITION AND CLINICAL FEATURES Despite the increasing number of clinical trials investigating potential therapeutic interventions for POI over the past two decades, an internationally accepted, standardized clinical definition is still lacking. This has made it difficult to reliably determine incidence (often quoted as lying between 3% and 32% after abdominal surgery3) and identify risk factors. Furthermore, because the outcome measures are not standardized in these trials, comparison of the relative efficacy of competing interventions is difficult. The terminology used when describing POI is inconsistent, with little differentiation being made between the obligatory per- LA NTS PAMPs POI SP VIP Local anaesthetic Nucleus tractus solitaries Pathogen-associated molecular patterns Postoperative ileus Substance P Vasoactive intestinal peptide iod of gastrointestinal dysmotility following surgery (known as ‘normal POI’ or more commonly just ‘POI’ not further specified) and the more clinically and pathologically significant entity of a ‘prolonged’ POI, which may last several days. It is therefore important to make a clear distinction between these states and definitions have recently been proposed based on a systematic review and global survey10 as follows: ‘POI’ is defined as the obligatory period of gut dysfunction occurring immediately after surgery, with resolution being signalled by the passage of flatus or stool and tolerance of an oral diet; ‘prolonged POI’ is defined as two or more of the following occurring on or after Day 4 postoperatively without prior resolution of POI: (i) nausea/vomiting, (ii) inability to tolerate an oral diet over the preceding 24 h period, (iii) the absence of flatus over the preceding 24 h period, (iv) abdominal distension and/or (v) radiological evidence of bowel distension without mechanical obstruction. It is apparent from these definitions that an ileus may be characterized by dysfunction affecting the stomach, small bowel or large bowel, either individually or in combination. However, it is important to note that although these definitions are designed to facilitate standardization of end-point reporting, they provide little indication as to the underlying physiology. Although prolonged POI is the more clinically important entity, from a pathophysiological standpoint it is fundamentally a similar process to a ‘normal’ POI, representing the more severe end in the spectrum of duration. PATHOPHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF AND RISK FACTORS FOR POI Gastrointestinal dysfunction following abdominal surgery has been recognized for over a century.16 However, it is only over the past two decades that we have started to understand some of the mechanisms that underpin it. There is now a general agreement that the aetiology of POI is multifactorial, with inflammatory cell activation, autonomic dysfunction (both primarily and as part of the surgical stress response), agonism at gut opioid receptors by exogenous narcotics, modulation of gastrointestinal hormone activity and electrolyte derangements all being implicated. A final common pathway for these effectors is impaired contractility and motility and gut wall oedema (Fig. 1). Inflammatory response It has been postulated that an early event in the pathogenesis of POI is the release of proinflammatory mediators, initially due to peritoneal breach and later due to bowel handling.17,18 Although 360 R Vather et al. Fig. 1 Pathophysiological basis for the development of a postoperative ileus. DAMPs, damage-associated molecular patterns; PAMPs, pathogen-associated molecular patterns; VIPI, vasoactive intestinal peptide. the composition of the inflammatory environment is relatively well known (histamine, prostanoids, interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-8 feature prominently) the cell types triggering the inflammatory response are less well defined.19 Mast cells have been found in the peritoneum and the muscularis propria of the intestinal wall, and there is a growing body of evidence supporting the role these cells play in the genesis of the inflammatory cascade.20,21 Indeed, a murine model of POI revealed that animals pretreated with mast cell stabilisers experienced reduced manipulation-induced inflammation and improved gastric emptying; mast-cell deficient animals similarly exhibited a diminished inflammatory response to surgery.20 Preliminary work in humans has correlated laparoscopic surgery to reduced mast cell activation and has attributed this finding to a reduced degree of intestinal handling.18 Circulating monocytes and resident macrophages have also been implicated in the inflammatory response,22,23 and activation of these cells within the bowel wall is believed to be caused, in part, by damage-associated molecular patterns and pathogen-associated molecular patterns.24 The former are macromolecules released in response to mechanical or chemical cellular injury (e.g. physical manipulation of the gut); the latter can be found on commensal intestinal flora and are postulated to translocate through the gut wall as a consequence of the increased permeability associated with inflammation.24 The mechanisms by which bowel wall inflammation may cause dysmotility are threefold. First, several molecules involved in the inflammatory cascade are potent smooth muscle relaxants (especially the cyclo-oxygenase-2 dependent prostaglandin E2 and nitric oxide (NO)) and therefore have a direct effect on contractility.19,24,25 Second, bowel wall oedema is believed to add to the existing dysmotility by mechanically impairing the efficacy of myotonic contraction.24,26 Oedema is thought to be mediated primarily by the local inflammatory response, although it has been shown that overzealous perioperative fluid administration may also contribute.27 Finally, there is preliminary evidence to suggest that relative intestinal ischaemia may play a role in an ileus and this occurs either as a by-product of the inflammatory state or via direct reduction in arterial blood flow. A murine study found that a reduction in oxidative stress (effected by carbon monoxide-releasing molecules) was associated with reduced development of POI.28 The role of relative intestinal ischaemia in POI is also supported by clinical studies from two separate groups that have found a potential benefit for hyperbaric oxygen therapy in POI.29–31 Neural derangement Disturbances in neural activity play an integral role in the pathophysiological gut response to surgery and extend to the somatic, autonomic and enteric nervous systems (ENS).24 Changes in neural function are also thought to be closely coupled to the immunological and inflammatory response outlined above, and these factors Postoperative ileus: A review have collectively been termed the ‘surgical stress response’.32 Neural derangements impact on both afferent and efferent pathways. Afferent pathways Two types of wounds are caused by surgery: (i) ‘somatic wounds’ created by incision at the abdominal wall; and (ii) ‘visceral wounds’ created by incision of peritoneum and handling of viscera.33 Somatic wounds The abdominal wall receives sensory innervation from the anterior and lateral branches of the ventral rami of the lower intercostal and upper lumbar nerves.34 Nociceptive stimuli associated with the creation of a somatic wound are carried via sensory neurons (with cell bodies in dorsal root ganglia) to synapse in the posterior column of the spinal cord.24 Release of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate at this site activates spinothalamic projections that invoke the perception and localization of pain and incites a local autonomic response that is mediated by sympathetic efferents with cell bodies in the lateral horn.33,35 Visceral wound The peritoneum is a metabolically active tissue lining the abdomen and enveloping intestinal viscera. Injury to peritoneum leads to the activation of inflammatory and immunological cascades, as described above.36 In contrast, contained within intestinal viscera are a dense interconnected network of enteric neurons that derive information from a variety of mechanoreceptors and chemoreceptors. ‘Silent nociceptors’, which are located within the extrinsic sensory innervation of the gastrointestinal tract and remain quiescent in the absence of intestinal injury or inflammation, may also be activated with gut handling.37 Sensory information from the viscera and peritoneum are conveyed primarily by the vagus nerve, which has been shown histologically at the subdiaphragmatic level to be > 80% afferent.38 In addition to receiving input from nociceptors, paraganglia cells within the parasympathetic ganglia of the vagus nerve express IL-1 receptors, thus making the nerve sensitive to the early humoral changes associated with inflammation.39,40 Vagal afferents travel to the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) of the brain stem, which is considered a major ‘relay centre’ of the neuro-immuno-humoral response to injury.39 The importance of the vagus nerve in transmitting visceral afferents has been demonstrated in animal models that have shown blunting of a supraspinal response to intra-abdominal manipulation following vagotomy, but not after sectioning of the spinal cord.40–42 Efferent pathways Neurogenically mediated gastrointestinal dysmotility following surgery is brought about by an autonomic shift favouring sympathetic over parasympathetic outflow. This is postulated to occur initially as part of a local reflex response and may be perpetuated by activation of supraspinal centres. Specifically, both the hypothalamus and NTS have been implicated in central inhibition of gut motility, with activation occurring via neural afferents and circulating inflammatory metabolites.43–45 Parasympathetic efferents originate in neural circuits connecting the NTS to the vagal motor nucleus and nucleus ambiguous within the brain stem.39 Outflow to the gastrointestinal tract 361 travels via the vagus nerve and pelvic splanchnic nerves, which meet at the splenic flexure.34 Post-ganglionic neurons release acetylcholine, which increases smooth muscle excitability and contractility via M2 and M3 muscarinic receptors.39,46 Thoracolumbar sympathetic efferents originate from the lateral horn of the spinal cord.47 Their activation occurs as part of a reflex adrenergic response to nociception as well as supraspinal excitation.48–50 Release of catecholamines within the gut leads to activation of a2-adrenoceptors, which act at presynaptic parasympathetic cholinergic nerves to inhibit the release of acetylcholine and directly on myocytes to stimulate the production of NO. These pathways serve to reduce myocyte tonicity and contractility.51–54 In addition, evidence has emerged for a non-adrenergic, non-cholinergic vagally mediated pathway that impairs motility via local release of NO and vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP).55,56 It is important to note the significant visceral sensory and motor contribution of the vagus nerve in this context and to appreciate that it is a direct extension of the central nervous system, with its passage to the abdomen occurring sequentially through the neck, thorax and diaphragm. Therefore, although epidural blockade may attenuate the initial somatically mediated gastrointestinal response to nociceptive stimuli, the blockade does little to obliterate the more prolonged vagally mediated inhibition associated with visceral handling.24 High epidural local anaesthetic blockade nevertheless accelerates gastrointestinal recovery after surgery by interrupting contributing spinal afferent and efferent signals.57–60 Disruption of intestinal continuity A consideration specific to procedures involving the resection of viscera is the impact of anastomoses on enteric neural continuity. Work in animal models has shown that tissue healing and longitudinal nerve trunk regeneration occur at sites of bowel wall anastomosis,61 but there is limited literature investigating electrical or pressure wave propagation across these joins in the immediate postoperative period. It is feasible that the disruption of neural continuity caused by visceral resection directly impairs downstream intestinal motility by creating a physical barrier to electromechanical coupling. Indeed, this theory has been examined in a murine model of small bowel resection, which described acute disruptions to interstitial cell of Cajal (ICC) networks, slow waves and phasic contractions.62 Preliminary observations to a similar effect have also been made in other animals,63 and a human study that investigated distal colonic motility after resection.64 Essential to gut motility are the interrelated functions of the ICC and ENS within the gut wall. The ICC form a continuous cellular network through the gut wall and their function includes generating and propagating slow waves that pattern myocyte depolarization.65 In the small bowel, ICC pattern contractility, but the integrated motility response is also strongly modulated by the ENS. This coregulation is exemplified by the myenteric stretch response that underpins peristalsis.66,67 Conversely, although the colon and rectum possess networks of ICC, their coordinated function appears to depend more on extrinsic regulatory neural stimulation.50,68–70 The comparative independence and resilience of myenteric motility mechanisms of the upper gut may explain, in part, why procedures involving colorectal resection have a longer duration of POI and higher incidence of prolonged POI compared with more proximal surgery.3,10,71 362 R Vather et al. Literature that has endeavoured to qualify the pattern of gastrointestinal (and in particular large bowel) motility following resection is limited. Although it was initially postulated that an ileus was underpinned by reduced intestinal tone or ‘atony’, a study by Huge et al.72 that used barometry showed increasing colonic tone in humans following surgery. It was consequently hypothesized that the colon may assume a state of contraction postoperatively and this would explain, in part, the relative inefficacy of cholinergic agonists, such as neostigmine and bethanechol, in treating POI.73 However, an important limitation of the study of Huge et al.72 was the absence of preoperative barometric recordings and it is therefore unclear whether the observed increasing colonic tone was a rise from or return to baseline tone. Indeed, it was demonstrated in two other human studies that intestinal motility is reduced following surgery but increased in response to early oral feeding.74,75 Understanding of perioperative changes in intestinal tone and motility is imprecise and there remains much room for this to be characterized. Disturbances of gastrointestinal hormones and neuropeptides episode of prolonged POI.88,89 An editorial published in 1971 identified hypokalaemia as a probable contributing cause for prolonged ileus in a small series of postoperative patients, with correction being associated with resumption of gut functioning.90 Recent retrospective reviews have implicated postoperative electrolyte disturbances as a risk factor for developing prolonged POI.3,6 Kronberg et al.3 noted a significant association between ileus and postoperative hypokalaemia and hypocalcaemia; hypermagnesemia was also associated, but not significantly. Our research group has found hyponatraemia to be a significant correlate of prolonged ileus.6 Importantly, the retrospective nature of these studies has made it difficult to determine the direction of causality: although it is plausible that electrolyte disturbances cause myenteric dysfunction, it is also possible that gastrointestinal fluid shifts during POI contribute to electrolyte derangements.18,89 Iatrogenic mechanisms: intravenous fluid, anti-emetics and opioid analgesia Both the surgical insult and the lack of early oral intake after surgery modulate levels of gastrointestinal hormones and neuropeptides. Those of greatest interest are motilin, substance P (SP) and VIP, all of which play a role in normal gut motility.76 Cyclical increases in the hormone motilin are central to the genesis of the migrating motor complex and were found to be absent in a canine model of POI.76 Conversely, antagonism at receptor sites or prevention of release of the enteric neurotransmitters SP and VIP in animal models have been shown to accelerate recovery of postoperative gut function.77–79 These findings are somewhat contradictory when considering SP is a potent tachykinin known to stimulate gastrointestinal motility via direct action on smooth muscle and excitation of neurons within the ENS.80 However, SP is also involved in excitatory neurotransmission of visceral afferents and is believed to play a key role in mediating the neuro-immuno-humoral inflammatory response to tissue injury.80–82 It is therefore feasible that blockade of these mechanisms in the perioperative setting underlie the efficacy of SP antagonists. Vasoactive intestinal peptide is thought to have several different effects on gut motility, although precise mechanisms and overall action have not yet been clearly defined.83 For example, VIP is a smooth muscle relaxant, possibly explaining the efficacy of VIP antagonists in accelerating postoperative gut recovery,77,79 but VIP also acts as a major anti-inflammatory agent83 and there is a growing body of evidence supporting its role as an excitatory secretomotor neurotransmitter within the ENS (most notably in the context of intraluminal enterotoxins).84–87 The role of each of these mechanisms of action of VIP and their degree of involvement in the pathogenesis of an ileus remain unclear. Accurate profiling of serum hormone and neuropeptide levels in humans is needed in the first instance to define this further. Exogenous substances administered within the perioperative period may impact significantly on gastrointestinal function. Although correlations have been observed between intravenous fluid91 and various anti-emetics or prokinetics,73 there is no consistent evidence to support a definite role. Conversely, the negative impact of narcotic analgesia on gastrointestinal motility has now been well defined. This mechanism was initially evaluated in non-surgical populations,92 but has since been examined in the postoperative setting, where opiate administration is now widely considered to be a key contributor to both the development and maintenance of ileus.3,6,93 The surgical insult induces a spike in endogenous opioids, with exogenous opioids administered to reduce postoperative pain.94 The analgesic properties of opioids are caused by direct action on the central nervous system, whereas their gastrointestinal side-effects result from agonism at the peripheral l-opioid receptor.89 Activation of these receptors at the myenteric plexus inhibits release of acetylcholine from nerve endings, thereby increasing smooth muscle tone and impairing gut motility.95 The importance of narcotic-related dysmotility is confirmed by the demonstrated success of the drug alvimopan in accelerating postoperative gastrointestinal recovery.96 Alvimopan is a synthetic peripherally acting l-opioid receptor antagonist with limited systemic bioavailability. It has a polar molecular structure that prevents movement across the blood–brain barrier, thereby preserving the analgesic effect of opioids but mitigating opioid-induced bowel dysfunction.97,98 Several high-quality trials have been performed to investigate its clinical effect and meta-analyses of these data have shown that, compared with placebo, a 12 mg dose of alvimopan accelerates time to tolerance of an oral diet, time to passage of first bowel motion and time to discharge both within and outside Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) programs.96,99 Alvimopan has been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration and is widely used in the US for these purposes.100 Electrolyte derangement Mechanisms of panenteric dysfunction Perioperative electrolyte disturbances may play a central role in the aetiology of an ileus.88 This hypothesis is supported by the well-described effects of electrolyte variations on gut motility69 and the observation that such disturbances often occur during an Although a number of different causes of POI have been detailed above, further discussion is required to understand how these factors combine to result in gastrointestinal dysfunction. Despite the differing recovery times for stomach, small bowel and large bowel,24 all Postoperative ileus: A review Fig. 2 Plain abdominal radiograph showing in situ placement of a highresolution manometry catheter. gastrointestinal segments are affected together and it is therefore important to consider ileus as a generalized gut dysfunction. The panenteric effects of narcotic use or electrolyte imbalance are self-evident. Similarly, it is feasible that local neural afferents initiate reflex arcs in the central nervous system, with efferents acting on other parts of the gastrointestinal tract. Indeed, it has been shown in a murine model that isolated handling of the small bowel generates inhibitory neural efferents that delayed gastric emptying.101 Panenteric inflammation has been postulated as a mechanism for generalized dysmotility and may be the consequence of three major pathways: (i) intraperitoneal dissemination of mast cell mediators upon peritoneal injury;20,21,24 (ii) intramural production and haematogenous circulation of T helper type 1 memory cells;102 or (iii) translocation of intraluminal commensal endotoxins to the muscularis propria, with generation of a local and systemic inflammatory response.103 FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR RESEARCH Given the broad pathophysiological basis of an ileus, there are many directions for future research that may prove useful. We have chosen to limit discussion here to three areas where we believe there is scope for enhancing understanding of POI and improving clinical management. Improving pathophysiological understanding High-resolution manometry It is important to appreciate that our understanding of how pathophysiological disturbances impact actual intestinal contractility is 363 limited. Clinical symptoms such as nausea, vomiting and absence of flatus and stool may be readily explained when presented in the context of radiologically proven gut dilation and fluid accumulation. However, it is unclear whether this dysfunction results from intestinal dysmotility, hypomotility or the complete absence of motility. Better understanding of the changes in gut contractility associated with POI is needed. Techniques currently used to define normal or abnormal gut motility are largely confined to transit studies and manometry. Transit studies involve radiological, fluoroscopic or scintigraphic tracking of radio-opaque markers as they move through the gastrointestinal tract,104 and have more recently used the ‘SmartPill’ (SmartPill Corporation, Buffalo, NY, USA). This ingestable capsule includes an inbuilt pH sensor, and changes in pH readings allow investigators to determine segmental transit times through the stomach, small bowel or colon.105 However, although these transit techniques allow information to be collated on gross movement between anatomical segments of the gut, they do not qualify spatiotemporal pressure characteristics within these segments and are therefore of little use in defining local intraluminal motility changes occurring in ileus. Manometric devices are able to quantify, in real time, intraluminal pressures generated by contractions of the gut wall across multiple isolated points. Data from adjacent sensors allow investigators to determine when and where propagating contractions occur, therefore making it a potentially valuable tool for characterizing POI. Past work in this area has been critically limited by the lack of suitable and accurate clinical manometry technology, but recent developments in fibre-optic manometry have seen the emergence of catheters capable of recording pressure at up to 120 locations (spaced at 1 cm intervals) along any section of the gut (Fig. 2).14,106 Information gained from these ‘high-resolution’ devices far surpass that retrieved from traditional low-resolution manometry catheters, with the latter being shown to miss up to 90% of propagating activity (Fig. 3).107 It is proposed that perioperative in vivo high-resolution manometry may serve as a practical and valuable method for establishing the basic pattern of gut dysmotility that occurs in an ileus. The colorectum is an appropriate target site for such investigations, given its accessibility to endoscopic placement and the potential to correlate manometric activity to clinical markers heralding resolution of ileus (such as passage of flatus or stool). Influence of visceral anastomoses Postoperative ileus is a significant problem following abdominal procedures involving gut resection.3,4 It has been shown that creation of an end-to-end anastomosis significantly impairs downstream intestinal motility in the postoperative period compared with non-anastomotic surgery of similar severity.64 Although it is postulated that this effect is related to disruption of neuromuscular continuity, return of gut function even in the presence of an anastomosis generally occurs within 3–4 days postoperatively.71 Gut recovery at this point is therefore less likely to be due to neural regeneration and more likely due to establishment of a propagating sequence distal to the anastomosis after delivery of intestinal contents and intraluminal bolus distension. This hypothesis could perhaps be best investigated in an animal model, with simultaneous recording of serosal electrical activity and intraluminal manometry across new joins, thereby providing baseline information on the degree and 364 R Vather et al. Fig. 3 Manometric recordings illustrating the difference between low-resolution (upper traces) and high-resolution (lower traces) devices in the same patient over the same time period. importance of neuromechanical coupling in ileus following gut resection. This may also be further qualified at differing sites of anastomosis (i.e. small bowel vs right-sided colectomy vs left-sided colectomy). A useful step in the further investigation of clinical predictors of prolonged ileus would be through the design and population of a prospective database. Novel therapeutic strategies Prospective risk factor assessment with creation of a risk stratification tool Clinical elements that predict prolonged ileus are poorly defined. Perioperative and patient factors that appear to be emerging as consistent associations of prolonged POI following abdominal surgery include increasing age, male gender, pre-existing airway disease, increasing perioperative opiate consumption, intra-operative blood loss and formation of ileostomy (Table 1).3–7 However, the retrospective design of current studies, small sample sizes of most and differing definitions of POI have limited our ability to confidently qualify and quantify the significance of potential risk factors. The substantial clinical and economic burden conferred by ileus appears to have been acknowledged by the surgical community, with the recent emergence of many clinical trials examining therapeutic strategies. However, most of these have yielded disappointing or conflicting results. A recent Cochrane review investigated 15 prokinetic agents across 39 trials and found only one (alvimopan, a selective l-opioid receptor antagonist) showed a reproducible therapeutic benefit. The remaining drugs were not recommended due to lack of evidence or absence of effect.73 Moreover, it is important to note that the clinical outcome evaluated in almost all these studies was time to return of gastrointestinal function postsurgery (i.e. a shortened duration of ‘normal’ Postoperative ileus: A review Table 1 Incidence of and independent predictors for the occurrence of prolonged postoperative ileus following colorectal surgery in five recent retrospective reviews Reference Year Incidence of prolonged POI Artinyan et al.5 2008 22/88 (25%) Kronberg et al.3 2011 42/413 (10.2%) Millan et al.4 2011 123/773 (15.9%) Chapuis et al.7 2013 Vather et al.6 2013 336/2400 (14%) 50/255 (19.6%) Independent predictors for prolonged POI Estimated blood loss across surgery Postoperative opiate dose Increasing patient age Chronic preoperative opiate use Previous abdominal surgery Male gender Procedures requiring formation of stoma Pre-existing airways disease Male gender Procedures requiring formation of stoma Pre-existing airways disease Pre-existing peripheral vascular disease Acute procedures Increasing procedure duration Need for transfusion during surgery Increasing patient age Increasing haemoglobin drop across surgery POI, postoperative ileus. POI), with no reference to the incidence or shortened duration of prolonged ileus. It is valuable to draw attention to the recent success of ERAS protocols in optimizing perioperative patient outcomes and shortening length of hospital stay. The ERAS programs have been shown to consistently accelerate time to the occurrence of clinical markers that indicate gastrointestinal recovery following surgery.108–110 However, given the multimodal nature of these programs, it is difficult to transparently attribute improved gut recovery to any discreet intervention. Epidural analgesia, fluid restriction, early oral feeding and careful electrolyte monitoring are all facets of contemporary ERAS protocols and each have a sound pathophysiological basis to explain their benefit.110,111 In addition, ERAS protocols may have a role in the prevention of prolonged POI. Although a recent consensus review listed this as a ‘key objective’,110 few data are available to support the efficacy of ERAS for this purpose and is ostensibly related to an imprecise appreciation of the true incidence of prolonged POI.3 The following discussion considers selected novel treatment strategies that may prove useful in the management of an ileus. It is only recently that concise evidence-based recommendations for the management of a prolonged ileus have been formulated,112 and it is recommended that the strategies outlined below are considered in the context of similar best-practice guidelines. Neural blockade with local anaesthetic or antagonists The perioperative local anaesthetics are mostly administered in the form of epidural anaesthesia and lessen the effects of postop- 365 erative gut dysfunction via three principal mechanisms: (i) reduced need for narcotic analgesia; (ii) blockade of somatosensory afferents; and (iii) transient chemical sympathectomy.113 The former two mechanisms may be sufficiently achieved by epidural placement at either thoracic or lumbar locations, but it is important to note that sympathetic blockade is only achieved by placement at the mid–high thoracic level. Epidural analgesia sited here diminishes sympathetic thoracic outflow to the gut while having no effect on parasympathetic vagal efferents, thereby allowing a shift in autonomic balance conducive to gut motility.114,115 Alternative therapeutic strategies using local anaesthetic involve systemic intravenous local anaesthetic (IVLA) administration or local intraperitoneal local anaesthetic (IPLA) administration. Perioperative IVLA has been shown to have analgesic116 and anti-inflammatory properties,117 and it is postulated that these mechanisms account for the accelerated return of normal gastrointestinal function.118,119 Precedent studies have demonstrated considerable heterogeneity in the type of surgery investigated and outcomes assessed, and although further research is needed to validate findings, it appears IVLA may eventually provide a valuable clinical tool in the management of an ileus.120 Similarly, IPLA has been investigated as a therapeutic measure following abdominal surgery, and it has been hypothesized that the local administration of local anaesthetic may blunt the autonomically mediated visceral nociceptive response to gut handling.33 Indeed, a recent systematic review found that IPLA appeared to expedite return of gut function following surgery, but recommended further research given the difficulty collating data from acute versus elective, laparoscopic versus open and upper gastrointestinal versus lower gastrointestinal versus gynaecological procedures.121 Transient sympathectomy in the postoperative period may also be achieved by adrenoceptor blocking agents. Propranolol is a non-selective beta-blocker that, to date, has been investigated in four clinical trials (two examining propranolol alone122,123 and two examining propranolol in conjunction with the parasympathomimetic neostigmine124,125). All studies exhibited methodological or reporting deficiencies, with a Cochrane review concluding inconsistent and insufficient evidence to support a role in enhancing gut recovery following surgery.73 As described previously, the effect of sympathetic outflow to the gut is mediated primarily by activation of a2-adrenoceptors and a potential explanation for the lack of effect of propranolol relates to its exclusive antagonism of b1- and b2-adrenoceptors. This hypothesis was recently validated by a rodent model of POI that showed that both the non-selective adrenoceptor antagonist guanethidine and the a2-adrenoceptor antagonist yohimbine improved colonic transit after surgery, whereas propranolol had no discernible effect compared with placebo.126 Therefore, the clinical value of selective adrenoceptor antagonism in mitigating gut dysfunction following surgery merits investigation. Suppression of the inflammatory cascade Inflammation is thought to be an important component in the genesis of POI, and reducing inflammation may therefore prove therapeutically valuable. This may be achieved by a ‘blanket’ approach, with immunosuppresion being effected by systemic administration of corticosteroids, or by a focused approach 366 R Vather et al. whereby specific pathways in the response to the surgical insult may be targeted. There is limited literature investigating the effect of shortcourse corticosteroids on postoperative gut dysfunction. Indeed, although a recent review found a single preoperative dose of glucocorticoid reduced complications in major abdominal surgery via blunting of the post-surgical inflammatory response, no specific comment was made on return of bowel function.127 Moreover, although delivery of steroid in the preoperative setting is likely to prevent initiation of an inflammatory cascade,17 its selective use following surgery in confirmed cases of prolonged POI theoretically stands to deliver a therapeutic benefit and warrants prospective clinical appraisal. It has also been proposed that treatment could target specific components of the inflammatory response. As outlined above, mast cells play a central role in this process, with prevention of degranulation significantly improving POI in a murine model.101,128 This subsequently led to a pilot study in human patients investigating the therapeutic value of the mast cell stabiliser ketotifen. Although there was a shortened duration to scintigraphically assessed gastric emptying, no similar findings were observed in colonic transit.129 Similarly, resident macrophages play a key role in the innate immunological response and depletion of these cells in a rodent model by chlodronate liposomes has yielded promising results.130 Furthermore, electrical stimulation of the vagus nerve in a murine model reduced inflammation by impairing macrophage activation.131 These outcomes have yet to be translated to humans, but a recent review has suggested all stages of the activation process, from chemoattraction to inducible hypoxic enzymes to intracellular signalling, may be viable therapeutic targets.24 Mechanical reduction of oedema The above discussion largely addresses strategies in attenuating the initial stages of an ileus. However, it is of far greater clinical significance to consider therapies that may be useful in established cases of prolonged POI. Dysmotility at this point is likely to be due, in part, to bowel wall oedema, and administration of agents able to counteract this oedema in a site-specific manner merit investigation. Oral water-soluble hyperosmotic contrast media, such as gastrografin, have been shown to be of therapeutic benefit in adhesive bowel obstruction132 and are believed to exert their effect by drawing fluid out of the bowel wall into the gut lumen, thereby reducing dysfunction and promoting peristalsis.133 However, the clinical value of gastrografin in POI is less clear, with previous studies being limited to small patient numbers, heterogeneous inclusion criteria and outcome measures and conflicting results.134–136 Appropriately powered, randomised and blinded prospective appraisal is required to adequately assess the efficacy of this potential intervention in ileus. Manipulation of gastrointestinal neuropeptides Octreotide is a somatostatin analogue believed to inhibit the release of many gastrointestinal hormones via direct action on neurons in the ENS.137–139 Octreotide has been shown, in a canine model, to accelerate postoperative gastrointestinal transit at low doses, although at higher doses it paradoxically inhibited gastric emptying.137 A subsequent study investigating administration of octreotide in healthy human volunteers found accelerated gastric emptying but delayed mouth-to-caecum transit time.138 It has been postulated that suppression of post-prandial hormones (notably cholecystokinin) may be partly responsible.138,140 An important initial step when considering the therapeutic potential of octreotide in ileus would involve a detailed assessment of its effects on individual gut hormones. Four trials have investigated the effect of the cholecystokinin-like drugs cerulean and ceruletide, with a systematic review concluding that there is inconsistent evidence for a reduction in postoperative gut recovery times.73 Vasoactive intestinal peptide and SP receptor antagonists have been shown to improve postoperative intestinal transit in a rat model,77,79 but they have not been tested in humans. A blinded trial of intravenously infused motilin versus normal saline in patients following open cholecystectomy revealed no improvement in gut function.141 Erythromycin is a motilin agonist and its prokinetic side-effects when administered as an antibiotic are well known.142 However, four trials investigating its use in the postoperative period were consistent in their findings of having no treatment effect.143–146 A more generalized approach to the manipulation of gastrointestinal neuropeptides in the postoperative period may be achievable by gum chewing. It was initially postulated that this ‘sham feeding’ would stimulate the cephalic phase of digestion and produce a neurohormonal milieu conducive to gut recovery.147 Several randomized trials have since endeavoured to evaluate the effect of gum chewing immediately after surgery, with a recent meta-analysis concluding that although this intervention accelerates time to first flatus and first bowel motion, the clinical benefit is unclear, with only a non-significant trend towards a reduction in the length of hospital stay.148 More recently, considerable attention has been given to ghrelin, an endogenous ligand at the growth hormone secretagogue receptor, released from gastric and pancreatic epithelium with structural similarity to motilin.149 The ghrelin agonist TZP-101 has been shown in recent Phase II trials to safely and effectively reduce upper and lower gastrointestinal dysfunction in patients following partial colectomy.150,151 It has been hypothesized that these findings are primarily attributable to the potent prokinetic effect of TZP-101,152 although the relative significance and transferability of the ability of ghrelin to downregulate proinflammatory cytokines in a sepsis model is unclear.153,154 Results of Phase III testing are awaited. CONCLUSION Postoperative ileus is a clinically and economically important consequence of major abdominal surgery. There is considerable heterogeneity with respect to its definition and there remains a need for uniformity in end-point reporting. The pathophysiological basis of an ileus is multifactorial and key contributing factors include generation of an inflammatory response, administration of opioids, autonomic dysfunction, disturbances in gastrointestinal hormone activity and electrolyte fluctuations. Future research directions offer hope for progress. In particular, there remains much scope to more clearly characterize the gastrointestinal Postoperative ileus: A review dysfunction that underscores ileus, especially in the context of visceral anastomosis, and an accurate risk stratification tool to facilitate early institution of preventive measures warrants investigation. 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