L’enseignement des langues locales : institutions, méthodes, idéologies

LINGUE D’EUROPA E DEL MEDITERRANEO www.portal-lem.com Collana coordinata da Giovanni Agresti e Henri Giordan 7 Sezione I Diritti linguistici diretta da Fernand de Varennes A10 503                           9ROXPHSXEEOLFDWRFRQLOFRQWULEXWR GHO&RPXQHGL5RVFLDQRGHOO·$VVRFLD]LRQH/(0,WDOLD GHO'LSDUWLPHQWRGL7HRULHH3ROLWLFKHGHOOR6YLOXSSR6RFLDOH HGHOOD)DFROWjGL6FLHQ]HSROLWLFKHGHOO·8QLYHUVLWjGHJOL6WXGLGL7HUDPR HFRQLOSDWURFLQLR GHO'LSDUWLPHQWRGL6FLHQ]HSROLWLFKHJLXULGLFKHHVWXGLLQWHUQD]LRQDOL GHOO·8QLYHUVLWjGHJOL6WXGLGL3DGRYD L’enseignement des langues locales Institutions, méthodes, idéologies Actes des Quatrièmes Journées des Droits Linguistiques (Teramo, Giulianova, Rosciano, Villa Badessa, 20–23 mai 2010) sous la direction de Giovanni Agresti Michele De Gioia Copyright © MMXII ARACNE editrice S.r.l. www.aracneeditrice.it info@aracneeditrice.it via Raffaele Garofalo, 133/A–B 00173 Roma (06) 93781065 ISBN 978–88–548–5092–7 I diritti di traduzione, di memorizzazione elettronica, di riproduzione e di adattamento anche parziale, con qualsiasi mezzo, sono riservati per tutti i Paesi. 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Giovanni Agresti Université de Teramo Les articles recueillis dans ce volume se confrontent tous, de près ou de loin, à quatre idées à succès, qu’il nous paraît utile de mettre en question. La première, c’est que la langue est un moyen de communication. Ce qui pourrait suggérer qu’il est des langues « utiles » et des langues « inutiles » d’après leur capacité à véhiculer l’information. Nous proposons : l’outil est le stylo, la touche du clavier, les cordes vocales, le téléphone portable etc., la langue étant plutôt – une fois actualisée en dicours – la substance de la communication. Substance qui a, bien sûr, une valeur foncièrement – mais pas exclusivement – fonctionnelle au premier degré. La seconde, c’est que toute langue a son « génie ». Telle langue est « musicale », telle autre est « agressive » ; telle langue est adapte à la « science », telle autre est « poétique » et ainsi de suite. On plaque des représentations, qui ipso facto relèvent de la subjectivité, sur des réalités dès lors cristallisées, hypostatisées. Nous proposons : toute langue naturelle étant une interface entre l’en-dedans et l’au-dehors du sujet, les représentations ou jugements de valeur sur les langues en disent sans doute moins de la nature intrinsèque, voire de la soi-disant « destinée » des langues, que du sujet qui est la source de ces représentations et de la culture au sens large qui l’enveloppe. La troisième, c’est que la langue est l’image fidèle d’une culture, d’une civilisation, bref qu’elle véhicule une weltanschauung. Nous proposons : certains lexiques peuvent en dire long, par exemple quant à la culture matérielle d’une civilisation – encore faudrait-il en connaître l’incidence statistique dans les discours des gens et cerner les contextes d’usages etc. Cela dit, abstraction faite de tout vocabulaire, c’est le discours qui infléchit le sens, c’est le discours qui véhicule idées et idéologies, représentations – entre autres, de la langue et des langues. 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/DQJXHRXWLO GH FRPPXQLFDWLRQ XWLOH FRJQLWLYHODQJXHYpKLFXODLUH $YHQLUSURPRWLRQRXYHUWXUH SROLWHVVHSURJUqV 6\QWD[HIL[H /DQJXH©]pQLWKDOHª %LHQ pYLGHPPHQW FHWWH VFKpPDWLVDWLRQ D FRPPH WRXWH VFKpPDWLVDWLRQ G·LPSRUWDQWHV OLPLWHV (OOH HVW QpDQPRLQV HIILFDFH HQ FH TX·HOOH LOOXVWUH ELHQ XQH GLDOHFWLTXH IRQGDPHQWDOH HW RUJDQLVDWULFH QRQ VHXOHPHQW GX FKRL[LQGLYLGXHOHWVRFLDOGHWHOOHRXWHOOHODQJXHRXGHWHORXWHOUHJLVWUH PDLVpJDOHPHQWGHVUDSSRUWVWRSRORJLTXHVHWVRFLDX[TX·HQWUHWLHQQHQWOHV LQWHUORFXWHXUV 0DOJUp OD SUXGHQFH TXL HVW j OD EDVH GH VD FRQFHSWLRQ QRXV QRXV DSHUFHYRQV TXH GDQV FH WDEOHDX OHV TXDWUH LGpHV UHoXHV VXU OD ODQJXH UHOqYHQWWRXWHVHQJURVGXSRLQWGHYXH©SDWHUQHOªF·HVWHQHIIHWGHSXLV OH OLHX GX SqUH KDXW SODFp YRLUH ©]pQLWKDOª  TXH OD ODQJXH HVW XQ REMHW G·DERUG HW VXUWRXW IRQFWLRQQHO GpILQL UpJXOLHU SXEOLF RIILFLHO FRJQLWLI SDUFHTXHGLVFUHWHWF 1RV UpVHUYHV DX VXMHW GHV FHV LGpHV UHoXHV UHYLHQQHQW GRQF j XQ FKDQJHPHQW RX SOXV H[DFWHPHQW j XQ FRPSURPLV HQWUH DQJOHV YLVXHOV GLIIpUHQWVOD©PqUHªUHSUpVHQWHLFLO·XQLWpjVDYRLUOHOLHQGXVXMHWDYHF Postface 327 sa langue dans un cadre topologique concret, charnel. Le lieu de la mère est par là la maison du sujet, marquée au point de vue linguistique par une forte connivence entre les interlocuteurs, une subjectivité encouragée par une reconnaissance « parentale ». Sur le plan linguistique, le lieu de la mère est donc le cadre normal des langues locales (langues de proximité, langues identitaires), le lieu du père étant au contraire le règne par excellence des langues « de grande communication », ou à tout le moins officielles, censées par là être « de promotion sociale ». Lorsque nous nous occupons d’une langue locale, il est fort probable (ce n’est pas une règle générale) que nous ayons affaire à une langue minoritaire même à l’endroit où elle est historiquement parlée par un nombre relativement important d’individus. Ainsi, très souvent le combat pour soutenir l’enseignement institutionnalisé de cette langue revient à rendre porose la frontière entre les lieux du père et de la mère, à confondre les camps, ce qui peut le cas échéant susciter à la fois une réaction amusée et un sentiment d’agression, de bouleversement des valeurs acquises. Dans un cas comme dans l’autre, cette confusion des « lieux » provoque généralement un contrecoup hors mesure, aboutissant à la caricature. Or, les Quatrièmes Journées des Droits Linguistiques voulaient dire et illustrer, éclaircir et soutenir cette « rupture » ou porosité. Démontrer qu’elle est non seulement possible, mais juste et nécessaire, voire salutaire. Elle ne va cependant pas sans quelques contradictions. Ainsi, au moment de livrer l’édition de ces Actes, il nous paraît possible non seulement d’argumenter en sa faveur, mais également de proposer des lectures de second degré des différentes contributions : la tentative de court-circuiter les représentations figées des langues locales et des rapports entre langues dominantes et dominées n’est que rarement innocente et à travers son analyse nous pouvons saisir un certain nombre d’éléments ou de réflexes chez les auteurs sélectionnés. En raison de la richesse et de la diversité des contributions ici recueillies, nous nous bornerons à un exemple très parlant. Lorsque Benmayouf affirme que « Tout comme l’arabe algérien moderne dit “dialectal”, le berbère en Algérie souffre de son oralité qui est un réel handicap dans le monde moderne où tout est graphie » (117), nous observons que le mouvement d’« émancipation » de la langue minoritaire (l’amazigh) se  *LRYDQQL$JUHVWL YHXW SDVVHU QRQ SDV SDU XQH UHVWUXFWXUDWLRQ  YDORULVDWLRQ GHV UHSUpVHQWDWLRQV GH OD ODQJXH ©GRPLQpHª PDLV DX FRQWUDLUH SDU XQH DGKpVLRQ GH FHOOHFL DX PRGqOH GRPLQDQW TXL HVW FHOXL G·XQH ODQJXH GH SOXV HQ SOXV ©SDWHUQHOOHª SDUFH TX·pFULWH &H SDVVDJH QRXV SDUDvW WRXW SDUWLFXOLqUHPHQW LQWpUHVVDQW QRQ SDV SDUFH TX·LO SU{QH XQH pYLGHPPHQW QpFHVVDLUH QRUPDOLVDWLRQ GX V\VWqPH GH WUDQVFULSWLRQ GH OD ODQJXH PLQRULWDLUH FRUSXVSODQQLQJ PDLVSDUFHTXHO·RUDOLWpTXLHVWOHUqJQHGHOD WUDQVPLVVLRQGHODODQJXHOLHXGHODPqUHSDUH[FHOOHQFH\HVWHQYLVDJpH FRPPH ©XQ UpHO KDQGLFDSª VRLW XQH GLPLQXWLRQ GHV KDELOLWpV UHODWLRQQHOOHVGXFRUSVPrPHGXORFXWHXU²FHTXLHVWGHWRXWHpYLGHQFH SDUDGR[DO 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son attention et celle de la classe Les créations (textuelles et plastiques) des enfants font l’objet de commentaires partagés, socialisés, et commencent à être « formalisées » Le journal de vie de la classe et l’album Cagaraula de dintrada fait l’objet d’une présentation (publication) lors de la « réunion de rentrée pour les parents d’élèves » L’interaction entre enfants en bas âge, enseignants de langue minoritaire (toujours en quelque sorte militants), parents d’élèves est extrêmement intéressante et féconde, et l’est encore davantage pour peu que l’on dépasse le seuil : non seulement le seuil des « lieux » psychiques et langagiers, mais également celui qui marque l’enceinte de la famille (la maison) ou de l’école (l’établissement scolaire). Rendre public de quelque manière que ce soit le langage intérieur et intime en langue de proximité revient de près ou de loin à occuper l’espace public : les spécialistes d’aménagement linguistique savent bien jusqu’à quel point cette présence dans l’espace public est indispensable pour une émancipation voire un renversement des clichés et des représentations des communautés linguistiques minoritaires. Il y a plus. Ce dépassement peut être porteur d’une plus-value au niveau de l’apprentissage linguistique. Nous citerons encore Lhéritier : « Nous souhaitons […] dépasser le seul apprentissage d’un outil de communication supplémentaire : instituée, plutôt qu’instrumentalisée, la langue occitane trouve de plein droit son statut et la reconnaissance qu’elle mérite, et entre de fait dans la constitution de la personne » (155). La qualité des écoles calandretas nous est témoignée ne serait-ce que par le fait que nombre de parents d’élèves non occitans envoyent leurs enfants dans ces écoles, justement pour la haute qualité pédagogique qui les caractérise. Malheureusement, les choix des parents d’élèves ne sont pas toujours tout à fait libres ni éclairés. C’est ce que dénonce de Varennes, en mettant l’accent sur la faiblesse de l’institutionnalisation de plusieurs 332 Giovanni Agresti langues locales, marginalisées dans les faits au quotidien et donc exclues du lieu du père même en présence de lois en principe favorables : « les choix et préférences linguistiques des parents ne sont pas véritablement libres. Ils sont le résultat de pratiques et décisions émanant des gouvernements […] qui font en sorte que l’accès à l’enseignement supérieur ou aux emplois publics ne peut se faire que par le biais de la langue officielle, et les langues locales n’ont aucune valeur à ces niveaux. Qui plus est, choisir un enseignement en langue locale signifie dans bien des cas choisir une école moins bien nantie que celle enseignant dans la langue de la majorité, ou encore le choix de la langue locale ne peut se faire dans certains pays qu’en sacrifiant l’apprentissage d’une langue internationale, souvent l’anglais. Face à de telles situations, bon nombre de parents n’ont pas de choix et abandonnent souvent à contrecœur l’apprentissage de leur propre langue que leurs enfants apprendront de façon “artisanale” à la maison » (44). L’enseignement bilingue inclusif (c’est-à-dire n’allant pas à l’encontre de l’apprentisage d’une langue étrangère véhiculaire) semblerait alors pouvoir seul concilier les deux instances : apprentissage de la langue officielle et de la langue locale, si possible avec un productif va-et-vient entre elles pour que les deux lieux fondateurs du sujet ne sombrent pas l’un sous l’hégémonie de l’autre. En effet, l’un des sujets les plus stimulants, au point de vue aussi bien de la recherche scientifique en didactique des langues que des politiques d’aménagement linguistique, c’est l’essor et la mise en système du bilinguisme précoce. Si six articles, portant sur des sujets très divers, abordent de manière explicite ce thème (Lespoux, Gherardi, Tamburelli, Cavagnoli, Lucietto, Caron), la réflexion sur le bilinguisme est en fait centrale et partout sous-jacente en ce que le débat sur l’utilité ou pas du bilinguisme même résume et reflète bien la dialectique des deux points de vue fondamentaux sur la/les langue/s jusqu’ici illustrée. En effet, le discours contraire à la pleine institutionnalisation du bilinguisme précoce, là où s’affrontent une langue véhiculaire et une langue de proximité, repose sur des arguments tendancieux découlant d’une idéologie réductrice de linguistique. Ces arguments vont de la nécessité de favoriser la pleine maîtrise de la langue nationale officielle en évitant toute confusion avec des langues concurrentes dans le même 3RVWIDFH  WHUULWRLUHjO·RSSRUWXQLWpGHPLVHUSOXW{WVXUO·DSSUHQWLVVDJHG·XQHODQJXH pWUDQJqUH GH JUDQGH FRPPXQLFDWLRQ GH OD QpFHVVLWp GH PHWWUH WRXV OHV pOqYHVQRQVHXOHPHQWGHODPrPHFODVVHRXpFROHPDLVDXVVLHWVXUWRXWGX PrPHeWDWVXUXQSODQG·pJDOLWpOLQJXLVWLTXHMXVTX·jODPLVHDXEDQWRXW FRXUW GH WRXW HQVHLJQHPHQW GH HW HQ ODQJXH ORFDOH HWF 'DQV WRXV FHV DUJXPHQWV XQH IRLV GH SOXV OD QDWXUH SURIRQGH GX VXMHW HVW HVFDPRWpH 0rPHOjRLOHVWELHQTXHVWLRQG·DSSURIRQGLUOHVHQMHX[SV\FKRDIIHFWLIV FRJQLWLIV TX·XQH pGXFDWLRQ ELOLQJXH LPPHUVLYH SUpFRFH VHUDLW FHQVpH VXVFLWHUFKH]OHVMHXQHVpOqYHV 0DOJUp XQH ULFKH ELEOLRJUDSKLH DUJXPHQWDQW TXDVLPHQW VDQV UpVHUYHV HQ IDYHXU GX ELOLQJXLVPH HW QRWDPPHQW GX ELOLQJXLVPH SUpFRFH GDQV OD UpDOLWpFHWWHVWUDWpJLHDGHPDQLqUHGLIIXVHGXPDOjVHPHWWUHHQSODFHGH PDQLqUHFRKpUHQWH/HSUD[qPHPrPH©ELOLQJXLVPHªSURGXLWojHWOjXQ VHQVELHQGLIIpUHQWSDUUDSSRUWjFHTXHQRXVYHQRQVG·HQYLVDJHUHWDILQL SDUGpVLJQHUFRPPHGDQVOHV\VWqPHVFRODLUHLWDOLHQWRXWVLPSOHPHQWGHV FODVVHVRO·RQDSSUHQG HWHQFRUH GHX[ODQJXHVpWUDQJqUHVSDUUDSSRUWj ODODQJXHQDWLRQDOH2QHVWELHQORLQGXELOLQJXLVPHSUpFRFHLPPHUVLI  &HVGHUQLHUVFRQVWDWVQRXVDPqQHQWjWHQWHUXQHFRQFOXVLRQHQFRUHTXH SURYLVRLUH HW RXYHUWH pYLGHPPHQW DX GpEDW '·DSUqV QRWUH JULOOH G·DQDO\VH OHV DUJXPHQWV FRQWUDLUHV j OD SOHLQH LQVWLWXWLRQQDOLVDWLRQ G·XQ HQVHLJQHPHQW ELOLQJXH pYHQWXHOOHPHQW SUpFRFH HW LPPHUVLI VHUDLHQW LQWHUSUpWDEOHVFRPPHXQUHIXV LPSRVp GHODSULVHGHFRQWDFWLQWLPHGX VXMHW DYHF VD ODQJXH PDWHUQHOOH HW OD ODQJXH GH O·$XWUH TXH OH VXMHW HVW FHQVpLQFRUSRUHU/DSURJUHVVLYHpYDFXDWLRQGqVOHSULPDLUHGHO·XQLFLWp HW LUUpGXFWLELOLWp GX FRUSV GX VXMHW GDQV OH SURFHVVXV G·DSSUHQWLVVDJH OLQJXLVWLTXHHQYLVDJpHFRPPHLQpOXFWDEOHHWQpFHVVDLUHSRXUDFFpGHUjOD ©ODQJXHSDWHUQHOOHª²QDWLRQDOHRXpWUDQJqUH²VHGRXEOHG·XQHODWHQWHRX PDQLIHVWHGpOpJLWLPDWLRQGXVWDWXWGHODODQJXHPDWHUQHOOHORFDOH,OHVWGqV ORUV pYLGHQW TXH FH SURFHVVXV GH VXEVWLWXWLRQ UHYLHQW j XQH VWUDWpJLH SROLWLTXH HW VRFLDOH R OH OLHX GX SqUH UHPSODFH OH OLHX GH OD PqUH HQ DVVXMHWWLVVDQW OH VXMHW WLUp GH VRQ ©JLURQª PDWHUQHO GRPHVWLTXH DX[ QRUPHVGHO·HVSDFHSXEOLFpWDWLTXH &HSHQGDQW OHV DUJXPHQWV QH PDQTXHQW SDV HQ IDYHXU G·XQH OHFWXUH GDYDQWDJH GLDOHFWLTXH GHV FKRVHV ODQJXH SDWHUQHOOH YpKLFXODLUH HW ODQJXH PDWHUQHOOH ORFDOH SRXYDQW WUqV ELHQ IRQFWLRQQHU HQ V\QHUJLH DX VHLQ GX  *LRYDQQL$JUHVWL VXMHW GRQW O·LGHQWLWp HVW HQ JUDQGH SDUWLH FRQVWUXLWH j SDUWLU GHV ODQJXHV TX·LOKDELWHHWTXLO·KDELWHQW'XUHVWHXQHSOXVODUJHSDOHWWHOLQJXLVWLTXH SHUPHWWUD j O·HQIDQW DXVVL ELHQ G·DYRLU FRQVFLHQFH GH VHV UDFLQHV GH OD PpPRLUHGHVJpQpUDWLRQVGLVSDUXHVTXHGHPDQLHUXQRXWLOWUqVSUDWLTXH GHPLVHHQFRPPXQLFDWLRQDYHFO·$XWUH $LQVL HQ GHUQLHU UHVVRUW O·HQVHLJQHPHQW GHV ODQJXHV ORFDOHV GRLW rWUH HQFRXUDJpHWVRXWHQXQRQVHXOHPHQWSRXU©VDXYHUªWHOOHRXWHOOHODQJXH PDLVVXUWRXWSRXUVDXYHJDUGHUHWGpYHORSSHUOHSRWHQWLHOKXPDLQGXVXMHW GpVLUDQW HW UHODWLRQQHO DXTXHO WRXWH GpPRFUDWLH RXYHUWH DX SURJUqV HW j O·LQQRYDWLRQQHVDXUDLWUHQRQFHU   0DQLIHVWLLGHDWLHUHDOL]]DWLGD‹$GULDQD&LYLWDUHVH LINGUE D’EUROPA E DEL MEDITERRANEO 1. Dorothea LÉVY-HILLERICH, Silvia SERENA (Hg.) Studienbegleitender Deutschunterricht in Europa. Rückblick und Ausblick: Versuch einer Standortbestimmung ISBN 978-88-548-2608-3, formato 17 × 24 cm, 512 pag., 30,00 euro. 2009 2. Michele DE GIOIA (éd.) Actes du « 27e Colloque international sur le lexique et la grammaire » (L’Aquila, 10–13 septembre 2008). Seconde partie Sezione VII: Grammatica comparata ISBN 978-88-548-3166-7, formato 17 × 24 cm, 180 pag., 11,00 euro. 2010 3. Giovanni AGRESTI, Frédéric BIENKOWSKI (textes réunis par) Les droits linguistiques : droit à la reconnaissance, droit à la formation. Actes des Deuxièmes Journées des Droits Linguistiques (Teramo, 20–21 mai 2008) Sezione I: Diritti linguistici ISBN 978-88-548-3239-8, formato 17 × 24 cm, 364 pag., 22,00 euro. 2010 4. Giovanni AGRESTI, Mariapia D’ANGELO (a cura di) Rovesciare Babele. Economia ed ecologia delle lingue regionali e minoritarie. Atti delle Terze Giornate dei Diritti Linguistici (Teramo–Faeto, 20–23 maggio 2009) Sezione I: Diritti linguistici ISBN 978-88-548-3901-4, formato 17 × 24 cm, 576 pag., 30,00 euro. 2010 5. Charles BARONE Une histoire de la communication. Pour le perfectionnement du français langue étrangère Sezione VIII: Didattica delle lingue moderne ISBN 978-88-548-4236-6, formato 17 × 24 cm, 540 pag., 30,00 euro. 2011 6. Alessandra MOLINO A Corpus–Based Study of Stance Adverbials in Learner Writing Sezione V: Analisi del discorso ISBN 978-88-548-4359-2, formato 17 × 24 cm, 160 pag., 10,00 euro. 2011 7. Giovanni AGRESTI, Michele DE GIOIA (sous la direction de) L’enseignement des langues locales. Institutions, méthodes, idéologies Actes des Quatrièmes Journées des Droits Linguistiques (Teramo, Giulianova, Rosciano Villa Badessa, 20–23 mai 2010) Sezione I: Diritti linguistici ISBN 978-88-548-5092-7, formato 17 × 24 cm, 340 pag., 24,00 euro. 2012 Finito di stampare nel mese di settembre del 2012 dalla «ERMES. Servizi Editoriali Integrati S.r.l.» 00040 Ariccia (RM) – via Quarto Negroni, 15 per conto della «Aracne editrice S.r.l.» di Roma